Fall of Baghdad. The Battle of Ain Jalut - a turning point in the fight against the Mongols
This is the story of how the all-powerful power of the Mongol military campaigns, which lasted for a whole century, was exhausted among the sandy hills of Ain-Jalut in the Sinai desert. The heroic end of Kit Buka became the last song of Mongol greatness. So let this song today be a call that will awaken the courage that has faded in us, inspire our mind, restore bewildered faith and awaken dormant strength in us.
For this historical essay, the journalist and writer Baasangin Nominchimid was awarded the Baldorzh Prize in 2010, awarded in Mongolia for the best journalistic works. For the first time in Russian - translated by S. Erdembileg especially for ARD.
In the sands of distant Palestine, the wind of victory subsides,
There, a brave army dies under clouds of arrows.
Cuman grooms stabbed their daggers in the back of their owners,
The knights, blinded by gold, exchanged friends for enemies.
The army fought valiantly, without losing courage -
Alas, the perfidy that stole the victory happened there.
Let's honor their memory
About 750 years ago, on September 3, 1260, in the southwest of the city of Nazareth of today's State of Israel, near the border with Palestine, the Mongol army was utterly defeated by the combined forces of the Islamic army. Approximately 10 thousand Mongol warriors, and among them the glorious commander of the Mongol Empire - Kit Buka, found eternal rest in that land.
For a whole century, the victoriously developing banner of the Mongol army bowed there for the first time, and the Mongol warriors who hitherto did not know defeat tasted the bitterness of the pogrom there for the first time.
Many historians evaluate the battle of Ain Jalut as historical event, where the Mongol conquests were rebuffed for the first time, the battle that brought salvation to the Arab-Muslim world from complete defeat. And we can agree with this.
* The Mongol army was commanded by Shikhihutag, he had three tumens at his disposal, one tumen numbered 10,000 soldiers.
But still, for the first time, the Mongol army suffered a major defeat during the campaign of Genghis Khan against Khorezm. This happened in the battle of the Mongol troops * with the army of Jalal-ad-Din at Paravan, in 1221 on the territory of modern Afghanistan. Then the defeat was tangible, but it did not have an impact on the outcome of the Khorezm campaign, the purpose of which was to conquer Khorezm and Iran. This defeat did not weaken the offensive impulse of the Mongols. Their army, led by Genghis Khan himself, pursued the army of Jalal-ad-Din to the banks of the Indus, where it was inflicted final defeat in 1221
As for Ain Jalut, the defeat of the Mongol forces undoubtedly saved the Arab world and Misir (modern Egypt) from final conquest. We can assume that from that moment the wheel of history began to turn in reverse side. After this battle, there could no longer be any talk of the Mongols conquering Egypt. The final conquest of Syria, Phenicia, Palestine was not only not completed, but they were completely lost. The army was forced to move back to the eastern bank of the Euphrates.
In various historical sources, the number of troops from both sides participating in the battle of Ain Jalut is rather contradictory. Most historians agree that the Kitbuk army numbered from 10 to 15 thousand soldiers. The Mamluk troops numbered much more soldiers, maybe 2-3 times.
Emir Baibars, contemporary image.
Thus, for 6,000 kilometers away from their native steppes, approximately one tumen of Mongol warriors under the banner of the batyr Kit Buk, together with their small allies, met in a deadly slaughter with significantly superior enemy forces. near the Mongols, it was not the Arabs who resisted, but the warriors of Turkic blood under the command of Kutuz and Baibars - one might say, close relatives by origin, no less brave and skillful warriors, determined to die or win.
Storm clouds over the Islamic world
On February 13, 1258, the completely exhausted Baghdad knelt before the soldiers of Hulagu Khan. The Caliph of Baghdad, without food and water, was imprisoned in the repository of his treasures - Hulagu Khan advised him to eat gold, drinking silver. In the Muslim world, the fall of Baghdad for 500 years of unconquerable was like a bolt from the blue.
And it seemed to Christians that the sun was rising in the east, favoring their world. Europe rejoiced - finally, their dream of many centuries will come true, Hulagu Khan comes to liberate the Holy Land ...
The Armenians also rejoiced. Their historian Kirakos wrote: “This city, like an insatiable, gluttonous spider, devastated the whole world for hundreds of years. For the immeasurably shed blood, for extreme cruelty and despotism, for the grave sins of his sky punished this city, and he fell.
Hulagu Khan, before the capture of Baghdad, also put an end to the formidable force of the Islamic world - the Ismailis, led by their leader, the so-called Mountain Elder. Ismailis were a guild assassins that have terrified the Muslim world for centuries. Not only to fight with them - anyone who dared to contradict their will was doomed to certain death. But the Mongols dealt with them without much difficulty, mocked his heir, leading him around the city, and then executed him.
Fall of Baghdad. From the miniatures of Mongolian Iran, early. 14th c. Illustrations for Jami at-tawarikh Rashid-ad-din. Photo culturelandshaft.wordpress.com
Hulagu Khan, not staying long in the fallen Baghdad, moved to the other side of the Euphrates. By the beginning of 1260, Aleppo was taken, then the nearby cities and fortresses fell one by one. However, Hulagu Khan was forced to return.
There were good reasons for this.
The great Khan Mongke died, the dispute over the succession to the throne between the brothers Hulagu, Khubilai and Arigbuha reached the brink of civil war.
Berke, Khan of the Golden Horde, who converted to Islam, was dissatisfied with the oppression of Muslims and the destruction of Baghdad - the patrimony of the Islamic world.
In the Caucasus, mutual strife created a real threat on the northern borders of possessions.
Leaving Syria, Hulagu appointed his commander Kit Buka as the ruler of this country, instructing him not only to complete its conquest, but also to conquer Misir, for which he left an army of one tumen under his command. Is it possible to conquer Syria, Palestine, the entire Arabian Peninsula and Misir with such forces? After all, the warriors of these lands have gained considerable experience and hardened in numerous difficult battles with the crusaders for more than a century. But to the Mongols, who at that time were at the height of their power, who were invariably accompanied by a fair wind of victories and successes, nothing seemed impossible.
Without losing much time, Kit Buka moved south, Homs, Baalbek, other cities and fortresses were taken, it was the turn of Damascus. The famous swords made of Damascus steel did not help, the city submitted.
The Sultan of Aleppo, an-Nasir Yusuf, who had taken refuge in Damascus, again went on the run. The warriors of Kit Buka pursued the Sultan, caught up with him and captured him in the territory of the modern Gaza Strip. Not only Syria, but Palestine as a whole was conquered. The cities of Sidon, Tours, Acre, located on a narrow coastal strip of the sea, and the adjacent area of Trythol remained under the control of the crusaders.
Thus, by the middle of 1260, the entire Islamic world was on the verge of collapse. Their last hope was the Mamluk Turks in Misir. It is at that decisive moment that the Battle of Ain Jalut takes place.
The betrayal of the cynical barons who turned the wheel of history back
Kit Buka Noyon is located in the city of Baalbek, in the east of today's Israel. The princes professing Christianity, the barons - the Templars of the Middle East and Asia Minor - whether they wanted it or not, became allies of the Mongols. After all, their common enemy was the Islamic world. Prior to this, all of Europe had undertaken four crusades to liberate the Holy Land, all to no avail. Hulagu Khan's offensive awakened hope in them. At last the Holy Land will be free. Now the Arabs will not be able to dislodge the crusaders from the lands they have conquered.
The image of Kit Buk noyon rises before us in a halo military prowess. It is seen how he triumphantly enters the main gates of Damascus, accompanied by the honorary escort of the Armenian king Hethum, a descendant of the ancient aristocratic nobility and Behomed VI, king of Antioch.
Here he sits majestically, comfortably seated in a spacious, cool tent set up for him as a sign of respect by the local crusader barons. And in front of him stands, kneeling, Sultan an-Nasir-Yusuf, the grandson of the famous Saladin, the winner of the Crusaders, captured in Gaza.
Persian medieval miniature. Battle of two warriors. Early 15th century Persian-Mongolian school of painting. Image by Burstein Collection/CORBIS
But Kit Buka was only one of the many noyons - temniks of Hulagu Khan. And Hulagu Khan himself was only the ruler of one of the wings of the Great Mongol Empire. At that time, this empire was comparable only to the boundless ocean, the boundless sky. It was the moment of her highest power, she was at the zenith of her glory. At the same time, the last round of this power was coming. The inevitable sunset was approaching.
There are many cases in the deeds of history when seemingly insignificant events turn its course in the other direction. In this case, it is associated with a knight from the Franks, nicknamed Long-legged Julien, ruler of the city of Sidon.
During the time of the Crusades, the barons who came from Europe were famous for their cunning, greed and unscrupulousness. Long-legged Julien was no different from them. The Mongols, wherever they went, established their own rules, the strictest discipline, inexorably suppressing any violation. The arbitrariness of the barons was put to an end. Therefore, the barons hid - they seemed to have reconciled, because the Mongols are stronger and go to war against the Muslims, their sworn enemies. However, greed let down the barons. And, as it turned out later, not only them, but the entire Christian world.
It happened that one day Kit Buka received a report which at first he could not believe. It would seem that the barons loyal to him stole all the reserve herds of horses, slaughtering the soldiers guarding them - simply speaking, they committed a robbery attack. This has never happened before, to encroach on the horses of their actual allies, while a common enemy is at the doorstep. Impossible to believe. This is more than a violation of allied relations, it is not even non-observance of neutrality. This is a traitorous act.
Louis IX with troops on the Crusade. Photo - Wikipedia.
The perfidy was committed against Kit Buk, a Nestorian professing Christian, in favor of a common Islamic enemy. It's like turning your face away from your religion, at that very, perhaps, the only real historical moment, when Jerusalem was at arm's length, the place where the Holy of Holies, the Holy Sepulcher, was kept. One joint campaign, and Jerusalem would be returned to the Christian world. It can't be so stupid!
Again, to betray the Mongols at the height of their power - perhaps to put your head in a noose yourself. You can turn away from the Mongols, you can turn to the Mamluks, but will they be accepted by those...
Kit Buka Noyon did not want to believe in treason and therefore sent his grandson, accompanied by a small detachment of 200 people, to Sidon to meet with Julien in order to eliminate the misunderstanding and return the herds of horses.
But a thief steals to steal, a robber robs to rob. It would be hard to expect Julien to say: “Excuse me, did these horses belong to the Mongols? And I didn't know." The thieves' soul remained thieves'. Worse: as the Mongols say, “a shamed person can even go as far as murder” - Long-legged Julien slaughtered the grandson of Kit Buk (in some sources they write - a son) along with the soldiers accompanying him, and ordered the horses to be driven to the seashore in Acre. He drove closer to the Mamluks, agreed on this with the barons of Acre and Tire. What kind of barons are there - noble blood - “murderers and thieves of noble blood”.
Enraged by an act unthinkable for the Mongols, Kit Buka led his army to Sidon and laid siege to it. Although Long-legged Julien was cunning and unscrupulous, he could not be denied chivalrous courage. Desperately, he defended his city, but, in the end, he was forced to board a ship with his entourage and flee to the island of Cyprus. The Mongols did not have ships to chase him.
In retaliation, Sidon was destroyed and burned to the ground. It turned out that Julien traded his city for herds of horses. The price for the herds turned out to be expensive. But their value did not stop there.
The crusaders, who showed themselves to be insignificant horse thieves, not only received the burnt Sidon, but subsequently lost all the lands that belonged to them in Syria. And they themselves, one by one, were destroyed precisely by those to whom they sold the horses. Ultimately, the presence of the crusaders in the Middle East was completely lost. This will be discussed here later.
Scattered throughout Syria, the ashes of Sidon, until recently the main pillar of Christianity in the Middle East, aroused the anger of the barons of Acre and Tours.
Continuation - on ARD.
Fall of the capital of the Caliphate - Baghdad and Sham
Before proceeding to the description of the battle of Ain Jalut, we consider it appropriate to briefly consider the socio-political situation in the Middle East at that time. In particular, after the fall of the capital of the Islamic Caliphate - Baghdad.
In 1250, Munke was elected the fourth Great Khan of the Mongols. He set himself two main goals: to destroy the Ismailis in Iran and to extend his power to the rest of the Islamic world up to the most remote points of Egypt.
Möncke entrusted the execution of this task to his brother Hulagu, to whom he donated the region of Persia and the western vilayets. After they coped with the first task, in February 1258, the Mongol armies besieged the capital of the Caliphate - Baghdad, then stormed and destroyed it. The caliph left the city and unconditionally surrendered himself to the Mongol leader after Hulagu guaranteed his safety. These tragic events ended with the assassination of Caliph al-Mustasim. Then the cities of Hilla, Kufa, Wasit and Mosul capitulated. With the fall of Baghdad and the assassination of Caliph al-Mustasim, the period of existence of the state of the Abbasid Caliphate ended, which lasted more than five centuries.
The fall of Baghdad dealt a severe blow to Muslim civilization and culture. It was a center of sciences, literature and arts, rich in its scholars, theologians, writers, philosophers and poets. Thousands of scholars, theologians, writers and poets were killed in Baghdad, and those who managed to escape fled to Sham and Egypt. Libraries were burned, madrasahs and institutions were destroyed, Islamic historical and other monuments were destroyed. The unity of the Islamic world suffered a severe blow, and the rallying of Muslims became impossible after the subjugation of many Muslim rulers to the Mongols.
Christians in various corners of the earth rejoiced and greeted Hulagu and his wife Tukuz Khatun, who professed Nestorian Christianity.
Naturally, the conquest of Iraq was to be followed by an attack on Sham. Sham at that time was dominated by three forces: Muslims represented by Ayyubid rulers and emirs, crusaders and Armenians in Cilicia.
The Muslims ruled the cities of Mayafarikin, Karak, Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Damascus, and the Kaifa fortress. However, they felt the need to unite their forces, because each emir acted independently, which weakened their strength in the face of the Mongols.
As for the western crusaders, they took the position of hesitating towards the Mongols and leaning towards the Muslims. Bohemond VI, prince of Antioch, joined the Mongol movement, supported it and took part in it. So did Hethum, the king of Lesser Armenia in Cilicia. However, Bohemond VI decided to take this step only as the husband of Hethum's daughter and his ally.
The Armenians in Cilicia allied with the Mongols and pushed them to destroy the Abbasid Caliphate and the Ayyubids in Sham. They took part with the Mongols in the war against the Muslims. Hethum believed that the opportunity had come for the deliverance of Sham, and in particular Jerusalem, from the Muslims.
At that time an-Nasir Yusuf, the ruler of Damascus and Aleppo, was the most powerful Ayyubid emir. He was afraid of the Mongol offensive and assumed that sooner or later Hulagu and his army would capture Sham and that this country would not find someone who would protect it from the Mongols and Mamluks of Egypt. An-Nasyr was at enmity with the latter, believing that the power in Egypt and Sham, as the descendants of Salahuddin al-Ayubi, belonged to the Ayubids. Therefore, an-Nasir Yusuf refused to help al-Ashraf, the son of al-Malik al-Ghazi, the Mayafarikin ruler, who asked for help in resisting the Mongols. He also sent his son al-Aziz Muhammad to Hulagu with gifts for him, expressing his obedience and friendliness to him and asking him to provide military assistance for the return of Egypt from the hands of the Mamluks.
It is likely that Hulagu doubted the sincerity of an-Nasyr, because the latter did not come to him himself to demonstrate his friendship and obedience to him and then ask for his alliance against the Mamluks in Egypt. Therefore, Hulagu sent a letter in which he ordered him to come to him and express his obedience without any conditions and reservations. An-Nasir was not ready to forge close ties with the Mongols at that time, for he was strongly censured by the Muslim emirs because of his rapprochement with the Mongols. Therefore, he showed enmity to Hulagu and went from Damascus to Karak and Shubak.
In 1259, Hulagu led his troops to capture the northwestern part of Sham. Under his onslaught, the cities of Mayafarikin, Nusaybin, Harran, Edessa, al-Bira and Harim fell. Then he headed towards Aleppo and surrounded him from all sides. The garrison of the city under the leadership of al-Malik Turanshah ibn Salahuddin refused to surrender to the Mongol troops, and therefore in January 1260 it was decided to storm it. As a result, Aleppo came under the rule of the Mongols.
As a result of these quick and decisive victories of the Mongols, the killings, expulsions and destruction that accompanied these successes, fear gripped all of Sham. Then an-Nasir Yusuf realized that he alone could not resist the forces of the Mongols, and decided to ask for help from the Mamluks of Egypt.
The danger of the situation forced the ruler of Egypt, al-Malik al-Muzaffar Sayfuddin Qutuz (1259-1260), to forget the malice and hatred emanating from the rooted enmity between him and al-Malik an-Nasir, and to accept his request for military assistance to him as soon as possible.
Kutuz was alarmed by the rapid advance of the Mongol troops. Therefore, he wanted to create an alliance through which he would strengthen the Islamic front, however, it is likely that he also wanted to deceive an-Nasyr Yusuf in order to seize his possessions. This is supported by the fact that he did not hasten to help him and tried to win his adherents to his side when they went to Egypt. The cunning of Qutuz is also revealed in the content of his letter, which he sent to an-Nasir Yusuf. In a letter, Qutuz informs him of the acceptance of his proposal, and even considers an-Nasir, as a descendant of Salahuddin, the ruler of all the possessions that were previously subordinate to the Ayyubids, including Egypt. He also added that there was only one leader for him, and promised to transfer power over Egypt to an-Nasyr, if he wished to come to Cairo. He even offered to send an army to Damascus to save him the trouble of arriving in Cairo himself, if he doubted the sincerity of his intentions.
When the Mongols approached Damascus, the defenders of the city had already abandoned it. Also, an-Nasir Yusuf did not try to defend the city, he left it and went to Gaza along with his Mamluks from among the Nasirs and Azizites and a number of Mamluks-Bakhrits, among whom was the famous commander Baibars al-Bundukdari. An-Nasyr wanted to be closer to the help that Qutuz had promised him. He left Damascus under the leadership of his vizier Zainuddin al-Khafizi.
The noble people of Damascus, taking into account the destruction and destruction of the population that happened in the cities that resisted the Mongols, decided to surrender the city of Hulagu. And in fact, the Mongol army entered the city in February 1260 without the shedding of blood. However, the citadel resisted them. Then the Mongols stormed it by force and destroyed it. It happened in May 1260 from the birth of Christ.
Thus, Hulagu prepared for the further conquest of the Islamic world, including Egypt.
To be continued.
Participation in wars:
Mongol conquests. Subjugation of the Ismailis. Wars in Palestine.
Participation in battles:
Capture of Baghdad. At Ain Jalut.
(Kitbuqa) Baurchi, Mongol warlord
kitbook known as one of the main military leaders in the Middle East campaign.
By origin, he was a Naiman, professed Christianity and enjoyed great respect in the army. For his numerous merits, he was appointed baurchi (steward).
In the autumn of 1253, Hulagu set out with troops from Mongolia and at the beginning of 1256 crossed the Amu Darya. However, kitbook already in August 1252 he was sent with an advanced detachment of 12 thousand people against the Iranian Ismailis-Nizaris. He crossed the river in March 1253 and proceeded to conquer the region of Kuhistan. With five thousand foot and cavalry soldiers, Kitbuk approached the Ismaili fortress of Girdekuh. By May 1253, the Mongols surrounded the fortress with a rampart and a moat so that no one could escape from it (they did the same behind their troops). Kitbuka left the commander of Buri near Girdekuh, and he himself went to the Mikhrin fortress and laid siege to it, placing stone throwers. In August, Kitbuka approached Shahdiz, "killed many", but could not take the fortress. Meanwhile, the defenders of Girdekuh bravely defended themselves and made sorties, destroying the enemy troops. kitbook made a new raid on Girdekuh, but did not succeed; the fortress held out for several more decades and was captured only during the reign of Ilkhan Abagi (1265-1282). Kitbuk managed to occupy Turshiz, Tun, Diz-i Mikhrin, Diz-i Qemali and, after a three-day battle, Diz-i Shal.
Upon arrival in Persia, Hulagu began to prepare for a large-scale offensive against the Ismailis, since their imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah he was in no hurry to surrender his main fortresses Alamut, Meimundiz and Lumbeser. The troops of Kitbuki and Neguder-ogul were to form the left wing of the army, moving from Semnan and Khar. When the troops approached Meimundiz in November 1256, Hulagu gathered a military council, which decided whether to besiege the fortress or, in connection with the onset of winter, retreat until next year. kitbook together with some military leaders spoke out in favor of the siege. Khurshah, realizing that he was unable to resist, surrendered the fortress without a fight on November 20.
In the winter of 1258, Kitbuka, under the leadership of Hulagu, participated in the capture of Baghdad.
But soon the great khan died mongke, and Hulagu was forced to withdraw from Syria to Persia, leaving Kitbuka in command of ten thousand troops. While the Mongols were showing friendliness to the Christians, Julien Grenier, lord of Sidon, from his castle of Beaufort, attacked Marge Ayun and captured rich booty. Kitbuki's nephew, unable to endure the robbery in the lands controlled by the Mongols, rushed after the robbers with his insignificant detachment, but was destroyed. In response, Kitbuk besieged Sidon. Julien fought in front of the city to enable the population to escape, and then took refuge in the sea citadel. The Mongols devastated the lower city, demolished the fortress walls, but did not besiege the castle.
Having received reinforcements from the allied Georgians and Armenians, Kitbuka, contrary to the orders of Hulagu to remain in place, continued to move from Syria to the south (to Palestine). Without taking precautions, he went far into enemy territory (10 days south of Jerusalem). Moved towards him powerful army Egyptian Mamluks under the command of the Sultan Kutuza and his militant colleague
Road to Baghdad. Part 1
One of important events not only in the history of Islam, but also in world history is the fall of Baghdad and the end of the Abbasid dynasty. All this was a consequence of the appearance on the political map of a new force that claims to dominate the whole world. The appearance of this formidable force had terrible consequences for the whole world, in particular for Islamic countries. This power, which appeared in the seventh century AH, was the state of the Mongols. During the existence of this state, great changes took place on Earth, which were accompanied by terrible bloody massacres.
Despite the fact that the Mongols led their conquest wars across the board, one of their main targets was the Abbasid Caliphate and its capital, Baghdad. The Mongols made strategic plans and made thorough preparations for a war against the Caliphate. In the future, all these plans were put into practice by the Mongols and ended with the capture of Baghdad, which was accompanied by terrible destruction and huge casualties. Until then, history has never known such cruelty and lawlessness.
Road to Baghdad
In 1253, the Mongol ruler Mönke decided to conquer the Abbasid Caliphate and create vassal states in neighboring regions. Five whole years have passed since the day the Mongols began preparations for a large campaign against Baghdad. Over the years, the capacity of all roads from China to Baghdad was increased to such a level that numerous Mongolian troops could move freely along them. Heavy-duty carts were also made for the transport of heavy weapons. All pastures in the territories adjacent to the roads along the route of the Mongol army were liberated from the animals of the local population for the horses of the Mongol army going to Baghdad. All strategic points along the route of the army - from China to Iraq - were taken under special control by the Mongols in order to ensure the safe movement of their main troops.
For Hulago, detailed information was provided from all over Iraq and Baghdad in particular. Accordingly, the Mongols had complete data on the fortifications, the number of troops, the level of training of the army and the general economic situation of Baghdad and the entire Caliphate. Also, lists of people were compiled who, one way or another, had the opportunity to influence the events that took place on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate. All this intelligence was obtained thanks to an extensive network of numerous spies who were active in almost all the cities of the Islamic world. Some of them had close ties with high-ranking civil servants of the caliphate and even with the rulers of some regions and cities of the Muslim state.
In addition, in the course of preparing the campaign against Baghdad, the Mongols concluded allied agreements on the provision of military and information assistance in the upcoming war with Christian Armenia, the French of Antioch (Antakia) and other forces that could influence the events of this region.
Agreements were also reached with the majority of Islamic rulers on their recognition of the full patronage of the Mongols over themselves and the provision of passive support to Khulago. And this happens when the Mongols begin full-scale military operations against the Abbasid Caliphate. Unfortunately, most of these rulers were descendants of the great Salahuddin Al-Ayubi.
Having studied all these intelligence data, Hulago became convinced of the weakness of the Abbasid army and quite reasonably assumed that it was not capable of defending Baghdad, and even more so, other territories of the Caliphate, because he was provided with complete information about Caliph al-Mustasim, about his capabilities - what he really capable and where he has weak points.
So, in 654 AH, all the preparatory work was completed, all favorable conditions were created for the attack on the Abbasid Caliphate. A huge army was assembled, the equal of which the Mongols had not had since the day Genghis Khan created the Mongol state. Only for the siege of Baghdad were prepared troops numbering more than two hundred thousand people. In addition, numerous Mongolian detachments were stationed in the north of Iraq, not counting those troops who were entrusted with the supply and security of the main forces of the Mongolian army on their way to Iraq. In addition to this, reserve units, surveillance and reconnaissance detachments were formed.
The battle formations of the Mongolian army were composed as follows:
- the main forces of the Mongol army, which were located in Persia and Azerbaijan in eastern Iraq ;
- a group of Mongolian troops that were stationed in Russia in the Volga River basin under the command of the famous Mongol commander, the conqueror of Russia, Batu ;
Hulago recalled these units from Russia in order to use them in his campaign. However, Batu himself did not arrive at the location of Khulago, but sent three of his nephews at the head of the army. At that time, Batu created an independent state in the controlled territories in the Volga River basin " Golden Horde". But, despite a certain independence in the management and conduct of state affairs, the ruler of the "Golden Horde" was directly subordinate to the Supreme Khan Munk.
- parts of the Mongol army sent to Europe, which were located in Anatolia in northern Turkey ;
Hulago also requested that this group of the Mongolian army be attached to the troops going to Baghdad. These troops, crossing the entire territory of Turkey and Iraq from Anatolia to Baghdad, led by commander Baijo, joined the main forces in Iraq and did not meet any resistance along the way. Unfortunately, the Muslim rulers of these territories provided a free corridor for the movement of the Mongol troops through their lands, so the Mughals freely crossed the territories of Anatolia, Mosul, Aleppo and Homs.
- Armenian troops led by the Armenian king Hethum ;
Hulago asked his friend - the Armenian king - to send some forces to help him, but Hethum himself arrived at the head of a rather large group of troops.
Hulago also had at his disposal about a thousand Chinese archers who had extensive experience in archery with fire arrows.
To be continued…
Middle East campaign Mongolian studiesunder the command of Hulagu (1256-1260) - one of the largest conquest campaigns of the Mongol army, directed against the Iranian Ismailis-Nizaris, the Abbasid Caliphate, the Syrian Ayyubids and the Mamluks of Egypt; since the Central Asian Nestorian Christians played a large role in the actions against the Middle Eastern Muslims, and the participants of the Seventh crusade, some historians (R. Grousset, G. V. Vernadsky, L. N. Gumilyov) named yellow crusade.
- 1 Preparing for the hike
- 1.1 Troop strength
- 1.2 Christian involvement
- 2 Departure of troops
- 3 Defeat of the Nizaris
- 4 Conquest of Baghdad
- 5 Syrian campaign
- 6 Actions of the Kitbook Corps
- 7 Notes
- 8 Bibliography
- 8.1 Sources
- 8.2 Literature
- 9 Links
Preparing for a hike
Mongke, proclaimed kagan of the Mongol state in 1251, decided to continue the wars against the Song Empire and the unsubdued states of the Middle East. One of the reasons for the Middle East campaign was a complaint filed by the inhabitants of Qazvin and the mountainous regions of Persia to Mongke about the harm caused to them by the Nizari Ismailis (known in the West as Assassins, and in the East as Mulchids, that is, heretics). According to Rashid ad-Din, “since many of the heretics who sought justice for injustice handed themselves over to the noblest discretion, Mengu-kaan sent his brother Hulagu-khan to the regions of the Tajiks against the heretics in the year of the bull.” The Mongol commander Baiju, who was based in northern Iran, also complained to the Khan about the Ismailis and the Baghdad Caliph. Möngke ordered Hulagu to destroy the mountain fortresses of the Ismailis, subjugate the Lurs and Kurds, and conquer the possessions of the caliph if he did not show obedience.
Troop strength
Hulagu and his army. Miniature from Jami at-tawarikh Rashid ad-Din. 15th century manuscript, HeratJuvaini, followed by Rashid ad-Din, reported that each ulus had to put two people out of every ten soldiers into the Hulagu army. But this can only be a figure of speech, meaning "a very large army," since the same expression is found in Juvaini under 1246, when Guyuk sent Iljidai to war against the Ismailis.
The anonymous author of the work Shajarat al-atrak (XV century) writes that Mongke gave Hulagu one-fifth of all the Mongols fit for service, and this amounted to 120 thousand people. Mu'in ad-Din Natanzi reports that Hulagu set out from Mongolia, accompanied by 70,000 men. And according to the testimony of the monk Magakia (Grigor Aknertsi), an Armenian historian of the XIII century, the number of Hulagu’s troops reached 70 thousand: “they came from the east ... seven khan’s sons, each with a fog of horsemen, and the fog means 10,000.”
Modern researchers are trying to calculate the size of the Hulagu army, based on the number of military leaders mentioned in the sources - 15-17 people. If every commander is a temnik, then the Mongol army should have had 150-170 thousand people. However, the tumen only theoretically included 10,000 warriors; the actual number could be less.
Chinese engineers were assigned to the army to service stone, arrow and flamethrower machines; The number of Chinese is estimated differently, from a thousand to four. In addition to the Baiju troops, the troops of Dair Bahadur stationed in Kashmir passed under the supreme command of Hulagu. On the route of the army, careful preparation was carried out: bridges were built across the rivers, roads were fixed; the tribes that roamed the territory through which the army was supposed to move were driven from their places; huge warehouses of food and fodder were prepared.
Christian Participation
See also: Franco-Mongolian alliancesHulagu sympathized with the Buddhists, but generally used adherents of different religions for his own political purposes. However, his eldest wife, the influential Dokuz Khatun, was a Christian and patron of Christians. Naiman Kitbuka was a Nestorian. Finally, the king of Cilician Armenia, Hethum I, entered into an alliance with the Mongols, who in 1248 sent his elder brother Smbat Sparapet (Smbat Gundstable) to the Mongolian capital of Karakorum, and later, at the invitation of the great Khan Munke, set off on his own. After spending fifteen days visiting the khan, having received exemption from taxes and guarantees of military assistance, the Armenian king returned to Cilicia. He was also able to attract the Antioch prince Bohemond to an alliance with the Mongols by marrying his daughter to him. The Mongol army was also joined by Christians from the Middle East, Assyrians and Greeks, who saw the Mongols as liberators.
The speech of the troops
Hulagu left Mongolia in October 1253, but moved extremely slowly. In 1254, he was in Almalyk and Ulug-Iva with the ruler of the Chagatai ulus Ergene-khatun, and in September 1255 he was received near Samarkand by the Mongol governor of Maverannahr Mas "ud-bek, the son of Mahmud Yalavach. Such a leisurely movement was due to the opposition of the head of the Ulus Jochi Batu, who did not want to let the imperial army go beyond the Amu Darya, the territory behind which he considered as a sphere of influence of the Jochids.An important role was played by the position of Berke, Batu's brother, who stated: "We built Mengukan, and what does he reward us for this? By the fact that repays us with evil against our friends, violates our treaties... and covets the possessions of the caliph, my ally... this is something heinous". Möngke did not want to quarrel with Batu, so no decisive offensive was undertaken until the death of the latter (1255/1256). Nevertheless, back in August 1252, an avant-garde under the command of Kit-Buga-noyon, numbering 12 thousand, set out from Mongolia, which from March 1253 acted against the Ismailis in Kuhistan, besieging repost Girdekuh.
Defeat of the Nizari
Siege of Alamut. Miniature from Tarikh-i-jehangush Juvaini. 15th century manuscript, ShirazIn January 1256, Hulagu, having replenished his army with Jochid units provided by Sartak, crossed the Amu Darya and laid siege to the Nizari fortresses in Kuhistan (Elburs). Not relying only on military force, Hulagu launched a diplomatic offensive, demanding that the imam of the Nizari Rukn-ad Din Khurshah surrender. Among the Ismailis, there was a pro-Mongolian party, to which belonged the famous Persian scholar Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi and the doctor Muwaffik ad-Doule, grandfather of Rashid ad-Din, the famous minister of the Hulaguid state. Under the influence of this party, Khurshah agreed to surrender the fortresses in exchange for the preservation of life and possessions. However, as soon as Hulagu felt that Khurshah was trying to buy time and dragging out the negotiations, he launched an assault on the Meimundiz fortress, where the imam was. As a result, Khurshah was forced to surrender. Hulagu sent him to Mongolia, to Mongke, who was supposed to decide the fate of Khurshah. On the way to Central Asia, March 9, 1257 Rukn ad-din Khurshah, apparently on the secret orders of Möngke, was killed. At the same time, Nasir ad-din al-Tusi became the adviser and personal astrologer of Hulagu.
Most of the Ismaili fortresses in Kuhistan surrendered without a fight within a year and were destroyed. Only a few, including the famous Alamut, who capitulated on December 15, 1256, put up little resistance. The Mongols had the hardest time during the siege of Girdekuh, which lasted for years.
The historian Juvaini, who served Hulagu, got acquainted with the rich book depository of Alamut. The manuscript “Serguzasht-i seyidna”, dedicated to the life of Hasan ibn Sabbah, kept there, was used by Juvaini in his composition. He managed to keep the library from being plundered, but he personally burned that part of the records where Ismaili dogma was given.
Conquest of Baghdad
Fall of Baghdad. Illustration for Jami at-tawarikh Rashid ad-Din Main article: Battle of Baghdad (1258)Having done away with the Nizari, Hulagu demanded obedience from the Baghdad caliph al-Mustasim. The caliph, presumptuously rejecting the ultimatum of the Mongol commander, did not, however, have the strength to resist him. Among the dignitaries surrounding the caliph, there was no unity regarding the measures to be taken to defend the country. In addition, al-Mustasim refused to pay salaries to the mercenary army, and it was disbanded.
The Abbasid field army under the command of Fath ad-din ibn Kerr was defeated on the banks of the Tigris by Baiju's troops. In early 1258, Hulagu, Baiju and Kit-Buga completed the encirclement of Baghdad. First, the siege weapons came into action, and then the assault began. By mid-February, the city was in the hands of the Mongols. In the beginning of the beating of the inhabitants, Christians were spared (at the request of the Nestorian Dokuz-Khatun, the eldest wife of Hulagu) and Jews, whom the Mongols considered as their allies, since they were oppressed under the caliphs. Al-Mustasim, who surrendered, on the orders of Hulagu, was forced to show the secret treasuries of the Abbasid rulers, and then, on February 20, he was executed.
In the same period, the noyon of Uruktu was sent to capture the city of Irbil. Its ruler Taj ad-Din ibn Salaya submitted to the Mongols, but the Kurds defending the fortress refused to surrender. The long siege did not bring success. Only the summer heat forced the Kurds to leave Irbil, and it was occupied by the Mongol ally Badr ad-Din Lulu, atabeg of Mosul.
Syrian campaign
Mongol offensive in the Levant (1260)After the conquest of Baghdad, Hulagu settled down in the vicinity of Maraga in East Azerbaijan. In August 1258, he received here Muslim rulers who arrived to express their obedience, in particular, Badr ad-Din Lu'lu, atabek Sa'd from Fars, brothers Izz ad-Din Kay-Kavus II and Rukn ad-Din Kilich-Arslan IV from Konya Sultanate. Badr al-Din Lu'lu sent his son Salih to serve Hulagu.
On September 12, 1259, Hulagu's army marched west. the vanguard was the forces of Kitbuki, on the right wing - Baiju and Shiktur, on the left - Sunjak, the center was commanded by Hulagu himself. The Mongols occupied Ahlat, defeated the Kurds in the surrounding mountains. Salih was sent to conquer Amid (now Diyarbakir), and Hulagu captured Edessa. Then Nisibin and Harran were taken.
The Mongols crossed the Euphrates and called on the governor of Al-Muazzam Turan Shah to surrender the city. the answer to the refusal On January 18, 1260, they laid siege to Aleppo. the troops of Hulagu's Christian allies, Hethum of Armenia and Bohemond of Antioch, also took part in the siege. The city was occupied for a week, but the citadel held out until 14 (according to other sources, 26) February. After its capture, the Mongols staged a massacre, which was stopped six days later on the orders of Hulagu. Of the defenders of the citadel, only one Armenian goldsmith was left alive. Hethum burned down the Mosque of Aleppo, saving the Jacobite church. Hulagu returned to the Armenian king some areas and castles taken from him by the Khaleb rulers. Bohemond was given the Aleppo lands, which had been in the hands of the Muslims since the time of Salah ad-Din.
On January 31, the Ayyubid sultan an-Nasir Yusuf, having learned about the fall of Aleppo, retreated with an army from Damascus to Gaza. Damascus surrendered to the Mongols without a fight, and on February 14 (according to other sources - March 1) Kitbuka entered the city, appointing a Mongol manager there.
Actions of the Kitbook Corps
Main article: Battle of Ain JalutAfter receiving news of the death of the Great Khan Mongke, Hulagu with the main part of the army retreated to Transcaucasia (June 1260). Relatively small forces were left in Kitbuk (10-20 thousand or even 10-12 thousand including reinforcements from the allied Armenians and Georgians). Hulagu left his commander with such a small army, apparently having misjudged the strength of his opponents in Egypt; perhaps he was misled by information received from prisoners captured in Syria. On the other hand, Hulagu was forced to take the lion's share of the troops, probably realizing that soon after the death of Möngke, a conflict with the Jochids over disputed territories in Transcaucasia would inevitably break out. Kitbuk was instructed to preserve what had already been conquered (Baybars al-Mansuri's information). According to Ibn al-Amid, he also had to keep a close eye on the Franks of the coastal crusader states. Hulagu himself, in his letter to Louis of France (1262), reports that Kitbuka was ordered to conquer the Ismaili fortresses in northern Syria.
Kitbuka continued his conquests from Syria to the south - to Palestine, capturing Baalbek, al-Subeiba and Ajlun, the Mongols entered Samaria and brutally cracked down on the Ayyubid garrison of Nablus. Further, the Mongol detachments occupied Gaza without hindrance, the Ayyubid Sultan an-Nasir Yusuf was captured and sent to Hulagu, the Mongol garrisons of 1000 people were stationed in Gaza and Nablus. An army of Egyptian Mamluks under the command of Kutuz and Baybars moved towards Kitbuk. On September 3, 1260, the Mongol army was defeated at the battle of Ain Jalut. Kitbuga was captured and executed.
Notes
- Approximately corresponds to 1253 AD. e.
- Rashid al-Din. Collection of annals. - 1960. - T. 2. - S. 144.
- Rashid al-Din. Collection of annals. - 1946. - T. 3. - S. 22.
- 1 2 Amitai-Preiss R. Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. - P. 15.
- History of the Mongols monk Magakia, XIII century / Per. K. P. Patkanova. - M., 1871. - S. 24.
- 1 2 Rashid al-Din. Collection of annals. - 1946. - T. 3. - S. 23.
- History of Iran from ancient times to late XVIII century. - L., 1958. - S. 185.
- Vernadsky G. V. Chapter II. Mongol Empire // Mongols and Russia. - Tver, M., 1997.
- Gumilyov LN The search for a fictional kingdom. S. 224.
- From the writings of Ibnfadlallah Elomari // Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde / Per. Tizengauzen V. G. - St. Petersburg, 1884. - T. 1. - S. 246.
- The Cambridge history of Iran. - 1968. - V. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. - P. 351.
- Amitai-Preiss R. Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. - P. 40.
- Amitai-Preiss, p. 32.
- Jean Richard, p.428
- Amin Maalouf, p.264
- Tyerman, p.806
- Amin Maalouf, p.262
Bibliography
Sources
- From the writings of Ibnfadlallah Elomari // Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde / Per. V. G. Tizenhausen. - St. Petersburg, 1884. - T. 1. - S. 245-246.
- History of the Mongols monk Magakia, XIII century / Per. K. P. Patkanova. - M., 1871.
- Kirakos Gandzaketsi. History of Armenia / Translation from ancient Armenian, foreword and commentary by L. A. Khanlaryan. - M.: Nauka, 1976.
- Rashid al-Din. Collection of Chronicles / Translated from Persian by Yu. P. Verkhovsky, edited by Professor I. P. Petrushevsky. - M., L.: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960. - T. 2.
- Rashid al-Din. Collection of annals / Translation by A. K. Arends. - M., L.: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1946. - T. 3.
Literature
- Vernadsky G. V. Chapter II. Mongol Empire // Mongols and Russia = The Mongols and Russia / Per from English. E. P. Berenstein, B. L. Gubman, O. V. Stroganova. - Tver, M.: LEAN, AGRAF, 1997. - 480 p. - 7000 copies. - ISBN 5-85929-004-6.
- Gumilyov L. N. The search for a fictitious kingdom (The legend of the "state of Prester John"). - M.: Iris-press, 2002. - S. 432. - ISBN 5-8112-0021-8.
- History of Iran from ancient times to the end of the 18th century. - L.: Leningrad University Press, 1958. - 390 p.
- Kostyukov V.P. The Iranian campaign of Hulagu: prehistory // Golden Horde civilization: Collection of articles. - Kazan: Feng Publishing House, 2009. - Issue. 2. - S. 69-89. - ISBN 978-5-9690-0101-5.
- Petrushevsky I.P. Iran and Azerbaijan under the rule of the Hulaguids (1256–1353) // Tatar-Mongols in Asia and Europe: Collection of articles. - M.: Nauka, 1977. - S. 228-259.
- Stroeva L. V. The Ismaili state in Iran in the 11th–13th centuries. - M.: Publishing house "Nauka", GRVL, 1978. - 2400 copies.
- Amitai-Preiss R. Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. - 272 p. - ISBN 0-521-46226-6.
- Grousset R. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia = L'Empire des steppes, Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan. - Rutgers University Press, 1970. - 687 p. - ISBN 0813513049.
- The Cambridge history of Iran. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. - V. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. - P. 340-352. - 762p. - ISBN 521 06936X.
Links
- Amitai R. Hulagu khan. Encyclopædia Iranica (December 15, 2004). Retrieved April 19, 2010. Archived from the original on February 15, 2012.
- Venegoni L. Hülägü "s Campaign in the West (1256-1260) (English). Transoxiana. Journal Libre de Estudios Orientales. Retrieved April 19, 2010. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012.
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