Others do not play a significant role. Development of communication with peers in preschool age
It does not play a significant role in the total volume of freight and passenger traffic, although it is out of competition in terms of speed of delivery over long distances. The first regular flights to former USSR were started in 1920 Moscow - Kharkov.
Elements air way:
Rolling stock (transport aircraft),
airports,
airfields,
Parking lots for maintenance and repair of rolling stock,
Ground air navigation equipment.
The advantages of air transport are manifested from a distance of 200 km.
The airport occupies 25-50 km2, Dallas - 70 km2. Due to flight safety and noise, about 120 km2 is uninhabitable.
Interaction environment associated with flights of all types of aircraft and helicopters, and such with the construction and operation of airports, maintenance and repair enterprises, which, as a rule, are located near large industrial centers.
In aviation, 2 types of fuel are used: kerosene and gasoline, which differ somewhat in the composition of combustion products. Leaded gasoline (C 4 - C 12) is used in aircraft with piston engines, gives Pb in the exhaust gases, i.e. emissions are similar to motor vehicle emissions. The role of aircraft with piston engines is insignificant and is constantly decreasing (now about 5% of piston aircraft - Yak-12, LA, AN-2, LI-2).
The majority of aircraft use gas turbine (jet) engines, running on kerosene - heat engines in which the air-fuel mixture is first compressed and heated (in the combustion chamber), and then the energy of the compressed and heated mixture is converted into mechanical work. The efficiency of gas turbine engines (GTE) reaches 50%.
Fuel consumption for different stages of the flight depends on the length of the flight: with a flight range of 550-570 km, 50% is used for takeoff and climb, 25% for cruising, and 25% for descent and landing. With a 2-fold increase in range, 45% of the fuel goes to takeoff and climb, and 15% of the fuel goes to descent and landing. With a 3-fold increase in range, fuel consumption for cruising flight increases to 63%. At altitudes above 21-15 km, the specific fuel consumption increases due to the deterioration of the combustion efficiency.
The combustion products of fuel (kerosene) in gas turbine engines contain non-toxic CO 2, steam H 2 O, N 2, as well as CO, NOx, hydrocarbons (methane, acetylene, ethane, ethylene, propane, benzene, toluene), aldehydes (formaldehyde, acrolein CH 2=CH-CHO, acetaldehyde), solid soot particles forming a smoky plume behind the nozzle. In addition, aircraft also throw out the original fuel not only in emergency situations, but also when purging and emptying tanks, after an unsuccessful engine start or after it is turned off after a flight.
Studies of the combustion products of the engines of the Boeing-747 aircraft have shown that the content of toxicants in the combustion products significantly depends on the mode of operation of the engines. About 42% of the total fuel consumption and high concentrations of CO and hydrocarbons are typical when the engine is operating at reduced modes (idling, taxiing to and from the runway, approaching the airport, landing approach), and the NOx content increases significantly under operating modes close to nominal ( takeoff, climb, flight mode). From start to takeoff, the aircraft burns about 2000 liters of fuel. The total emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere by aircraft with gas turbine engines is constantly growing, which is associated with an increase in fuel consumption up to 20-30 tons / hour and an increase in the number of aircraft in operation.
Although formally the draw of the numbers of the lists for elections to the Seimas has great importance, the order of the ballots probably does not significantly affect the results. The fact that a certain number can bring good luck, or, on the contrary, "drown" some party, is ruled out by all specialists interviewed by LTV journalists.
“The fact that these lists have this or that figure - I don’t think it matters,” admitted Arnis Cimdars, head of the Central Election Commission.
Sociologist Arnis Kaktiņš pointed out that numbers have no meaning that could affect the outcome of the election.
First of all, the personality is important for voters, and the party or party program that these people represent is most often secondary.
“We know that many voters who come to the polls do not have one choice in their mind. A lot of people make their choice at the polling station. But, as we know, in most cases they already have a fairly short list in their heads. They know that they could vote for party A, for party B or C. And then these three are chosen from a pile of ballots, and they look at these three - what kind of people are there, ”added Kaktiņš.
“We have enlarged the font, and if it used to be gray, now we have made it black – for those people who have poor eyesight, so that they can take the ballot and make their choice without the help of outsiders,” Cimdars told LTV7 journalists.
The volume of work of the Central Electoral Commission will increase due to the increase in the lists and the number of candidates for deputies - in comparison with the elections to the 10th, 11th and 12th Saeima. This means that many more ballots will have to be printed. According to the head of the CEC, this is an extra truckload of paper.
As already Rus.lsm.lv, on Friday, August 10, in the Red Hall of the Seimas, a meeting of the Central Electoral Commission (CEC) was held, at which the numbers of candidate lists of parties in the parliamentary elections were drawn. They will take place on October 6th.
old name Nayas (Najas microdon).
The naiad family is Najadaceae.
Widely distributed throughout the Americas.
One of the most resistant and unpretentious plants. Forms dense openwork thickets in the water column. Widely used by aquarists as a substrate for fish spawning. Placed in the background, nyas makes a great backdrop for large-leaved plants. Grows evenly throughout the year.
The temperature of the water, at which the naia feels satisfactorily, can fluctuate over a fairly wide range - from 18 to 30 ° C. It can be kept in tropical and moderately warm aquariums. Water hardness does not play a significant role, but in very soft water the plant develops somewhat more slowly. The active reaction of water can be anything. Water changes 3-4 times a month are desirable, as naia grows better in fresh water. The plant is relatively undemanding to lighting conditions, it withstands long-term shading, but beautiful thickets of juicy green color are formed only in strong light.
Both natural and artificial light are suitable for lighting the aquarium where najas grows. When using fluorescent lamps of the LB type, the optimal power of the illuminators should be approximately 0.4 W per 1 liter of volume. You can use LD type fluorescent lamps, but in combination with low power incandescent lamps. The length of daylight hours can vary over a very wide range and depends on the illumination of the aquarium.
The nature of the soil does not play a significant role for this plant. Nyas can be grown floating in the water column.
When planted in the ground, it forms an underdeveloped root system, which serves mainly to attach the plant. Nayas absorbs nutrients with its entire surface. In this regard, neither the degree of silt nor the nature of the substrate have a significant effect on its growth.
Nayas does not need mineral supplements, the plant has enough of those substances that enter the aquarium with fish food.
Nyas is very easy to propagate from cuttings. It is enough to take one of the many shoots and create more or less suitable conditions for it to get a new dense thicket.
The plant can be recommended to beginner aquarists not only because it is easy to maintain, but also because it can actively influence the metabolism in the aquarium, provide fish with oxygen and prepare water for many demanding plants.
During preschool age, children's communication with each other changes significantly. Three qualitatively unique stages (or forms of communication) between preschoolers and their peers can be distinguished in these changes.
Emotionally-practical form of communication (second - fourth years of life)
In junior preschool age the child expects from a peer complicity in his amusements and craves self-expression. It is necessary and sufficient for him that a peer joins his pranks and, acting together or alternately with him, supports and enhances the general fun. Each participant in such communication is primarily concerned with drawing attention to himself and getting an emotional response from his partner. Emotional-practical communication is extremely situational - both in its content and in the means of implementation. It entirely depends on the specific environment in which the interaction takes place, and on the practical actions of the partner. It is characteristic that introducing an attractive object into a situation can disrupt children's interaction: they switch attention from their peers to the subject or fight over it. On the this stage communication of children is not yet connected with objects or actions and is separated from them.
For younger preschoolers the most characteristic is an indifferent-benevolent attitude towards another child. Three-year-old children, as a rule, are indifferent to the success of their peers and to their assessment by an adult. At the same time, they tend to easily solve problem situations“in favor” of others: they give way to the game, give away their items (although their gifts are more often addressed to adults - parents or educators than to peers). All this may indicate that the peer does not yet play a significant role in the life of the child. The kid, as it were, does not notice the actions and states of a peer. At the same time, its presence increases the overall emotionality and activity of the child. This is evidenced by the desire of children for emotional and practical interaction, imitation of the movements of their peers. The ease with which three-year-olds become infected with common emotional states, may indicate a special commonality with him, which is expressed in the discovery of the same properties, things or actions. The child, “looking at a peer”, as it were, highlights specific properties in himself. But this generality has a purely external, procedural and situational character.
Situational-business form of communication
It develops around the age of four and remains most typical until the age of six. After the age of four, children (especially those who attend Kindergarten) a peer in their attractiveness begins to overtake an adult and take an increasing place in their lives. This age is the heyday role play. At this time, the role-playing game becomes collective - children prefer to play together, and not alone. Business cooperation becomes the main content of children's communication in the middle of preschool age. Cooperation should be distinguished from complicity. During emotional and practical communication, the children acted side by side, but not together; the attention and complicity of their peers was important to them. In situational business communication, preschoolers are busy with a common cause, they must coordinate their actions and take into account the activity of their partner in order to achieve a common result. This kind of interaction was called cooperation. The need for peer cooperation becomes central to children's communication.
In the middle of preschool age, a decisive change occurs in relation to peers. The picture of interaction between children is changing significantly.
“At the senior preschool age, the emotional well-being of a child in a peer group depends either on the ability to organize joint play activities, or on the success productive activity. Popular children have high success in joint cognitive, labor and play activities. They are proactive, result-oriented, and expect positive feedback. Children with an unfavorable position in the group have low success in activities that cause them negative emotions, refusal to work. Along with the need for cooperation at this stage, the need for peer recognition and respect is clearly highlighted. The child seeks to attract the attention of others. Sensitively catches in their views and facial expressions signs of attitude towards himself, demonstrates resentment in response to inattention or reproaches of partners. The “invisibility” of a peer turns into keen interest in everything he does. At the age of four or five, children often ask adults about the successes of their comrades, demonstrate their advantages, and try to hide their mistakes and failures from their peers. In children's communication at this age, a competitive, competitive beginning appears. The successes and failures of others take on special significance. In the process of playing or other activities, children closely and jealously observe the actions of their peers and evaluate them. Children's reactions to an adult's assessment also become more acute and emotional.
The successes of peers can cause grief for children, and his failures cause undisguised joy. At this age, the number of children's conflicts increases significantly, such phenomena as envy, jealousy, and resentment towards a peer arise.
All this allows us to talk about a deep qualitative restructuring of the child's relationship to peers. The other child becomes the subject of constant comparison with himself. This comparison is not aimed at revealing commonality (as with three-year-olds), but at opposing oneself and the other, which primarily reflects changes in the child's self-awareness. Through comparison with a peer, the child evaluates and asserts himself as the owner of certain virtues that are important not in themselves, but "in the eyes of another." This other for a four-five-year-old child becomes a peer. All this gives rise to numerous conflicts of children and such phenomena as boasting, demonstrativeness, competitiveness, etc. However, these phenomena can be considered as age-related features of five-year-olds. By the older preschool age, the attitude towards peers again changes significantly.
By the age of six or seven, friendliness towards peers and the ability to help each other significantly increase. Of course, the competitive, competitive beginning is preserved in the communication of children. However, along with this, in the communication of older preschoolers there appears the ability to see in a partner not only his situational manifestations, but also some psychological aspects of his existence - his desires, preferences, moods. Preschoolers not only talk about themselves, but also turn to their peers with questions: what he wants to do, what he likes, where he was, what he saw, etc. Their communication becomes out-of-situation.
Extra-situational form of communication
The development of out-of-situation in the communication of children occurs in two directions. On the one hand, the number of off-site contacts is increasing: children tell each other about where they have been and what they have seen, share their plans or preferences, and evaluate the qualities and actions of others. On the other hand, the very image of a peer becomes more stable, independent of the specific circumstances of the interaction. By the end of preschool age, stable selective attachments arise between children, the first shoots of friendship appear. Preschoolers "gather" in small groups (two or three people each) and show a clear preference for their friends. The child begins to isolate and feel the inner essence of the other, which, although not represented in the situational manifestations of a peer (in his specific actions, statements, toys), but becomes more and more significant for the child.
By the age of six, emotional involvement in the activities and experiences of a peer increases significantly. In most cases, older preschoolers carefully observe the actions of their peers and are emotionally involved in them. Sometimes, even contrary to the rules of the game, they seek to help him, suggest the right move. If four-five-year-old children willingly, following an adult, condemn the actions of their peers, then six-year-olds, on the contrary, can unite with a friend in their “opposition” to an adult. All this may indicate that the actions of older preschoolers are aimed not at a positive assessment of an adult and not at observing moral standards, but directly at another child.
By the age of six, many children have an immediate and unselfish desire to help a peer, give him something or give in. Malevolence, envy, competitiveness appear less frequently and not as sharply as at the age of five. Many children are already able to empathize with both the successes and failures of their peers. All this may indicate that a peer becomes for the child not only a means of self-affirmation and an object of comparison with himself, not only a preferred partner, but also a self-worthy personality, important and interesting, regardless of his achievements and subjects.
This is, in general terms, the age logic of the development of communication and attitudes towards peers in preschool age. However, it is not always realized in the development of specific children. It is widely known that there are significant individual differences in relation to the child's peers, which largely determine his well-being, position among others and, ultimately, the features of the formation of personality. Of particular concern are problematic forms of interpersonal relationships.
Among the most typical variants of conflict relations for preschoolers are increased aggressiveness, resentment, shyness and demonstrativeness of preschoolers. Let's dwell on them in more detail.
Problematic forms of relationships with peers
Comparing different types of "problem" children, one can see that they differ significantly in the nature of their behavior and in the degree of difficulties they create for others. Some of them constantly fight, and you have to call them to order all the time, others do their best to attract attention and look “good”, others hide from prying eyes and avoid any contact. Cm.
Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at the University of Maryland, author of Laughter: Scientific research”, about the role of consciousness:
Until proven otherwise, why not assume that consciousness plays no significant role in human behavior? At first, this idea may seem quite radical, but it is actually quite conservative and involves the fewest hypotheses. It is the perfect cure for the philosopher's disease - an inadequate preference for rational, conscious control over irrational and unconscious processes. The issue is not that we are not conscious enough, but that we overestimate the conscious control of behavior.
I believe that this statement is true, but it is quite difficult to prove it, because it is difficult to think about consciousness. We are misled by the inner voice, which creates reasonable, but often false versions and explanations of our actions. The ray of consciousness illuminates our actions from time to time, and this only complicates the task. We are not aware of our own unconscious states, and therefore greatly overestimate those periods of time when, for one reason or another, we are aware of our actions.
My views on unconscious control were formed during the course of my field research on the primitive vocalization of laughter. I asked the subjects to explain why they laughed in a particular situation, and they came up with plausible explanations for the reasons for their behavior ("She did something funny", "She said something funny", "I wanted her to relax") . At the same time, observations of the social context showed that such explanations did not correspond to reality. In a clinical context, such explanations are called "confabulations" - honest but misguided attempts to explain one's actions.
The subjects also incorrectly assumed that they had made a conscious decision to laugh, as if laughter was under conscious control. Therefore, the subjects so confidently, although incorrectly, explained their behavior. But to laugh is not to say "ha-ha-ha", it is not a word that can be chosen arbitrarily. If we are asked to laugh on command, we are unlikely to be able to do it. In a certain, usually informal, social context, we just spontaneously start laughing. But this lack of volitional control does not preclude the possibility of orderly, predictable behavior. Laughter arises in those places where punctuation marks should have been in a written record of a conversation; it rarely breaks the structure of a phrase. We can say, "I have to go, haha," but hardly "I have to, haha, go." This punctuation effect is very reliable and requires the coordination of laughter with the linguistic structure of speech. In this case, laughter occurs in addition to the conscious control of the speaker. Other airway processes, such as breathing and coughing, also interrupt speech and also occur unconsciously.
The discovery of structured but not consciously controlled laughter - when people could not adequately explain why they were laughing - led me to the idea of extending this situation to other behaviors. Perhaps all our lives we listen to the inner voice that whispers to us certain confabulations of the reasons for our actions. Is it true that critical details of the neurological process that governs human behavior are not accessible to introspection? Maybe we need to turn the question of animal consciousness upside down? Is it worth guessing whether other animals have consciousness, how much more or less human consciousness is, how different it is from ours? Can we consciously control our behavior better than animals? The complex social structure of bees, ants, and termites shows that intelligent behavior is possible in the absence of conscious control in the form we used to think of it. Is it possible and desirable to create a mechanical mind? Is intelligent behavior a sign of conscious control? What tasks require consciousness? To answer these questions, a paradoxical approach to the functions, evolution and development of consciousness can be useful.