Analysis in methodology. Research methods in scientific work
In or among other factors, it is necessary to list research methods. Choosing the right methods, applying them in the process of writing the work and correctly describing it in the introduction is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the fact that in each area of research: psychology, medicine, finance, pedagogy, and others, their own, narrowly focused methods are used. Below we will reveal their essence and name their general and special types.
What are research methods?
This is the first question to be dealt with. So, research methods are the steps that we take on the way to our work. These are the ways that help us to solve the set tasks.
Because of them huge amount there are different classification of research methods, subdivisions into types, associations into groups. First of all, they are usually divided into two categories: universal and private. The first category is applicable to all branches of knowledge, while the second is more narrowly focused and covers those methods that are applied strictly in a particular field of science.
We will consider the following classification in more detail and distinguish their types: empirical, theoretical, quantitative and qualitative. Next, we consider the methods applicable in specific areas of knowledge: pedagogy, psychology, sociology, and others.
Empirical Research Methods
This type is based on empirical, that is, sensory perception, as well as on measurement with instruments. It is an important component of scientific research in all fields of knowledge from biology to physics, from psychology to pedagogy. It helps to determine the objective laws according to which the phenomena under study occur.
The following empirical research methods in term papers and other student works can be called basic or universal, because they are relevant for absolutely all areas of knowledge.
- Study of various sources of information. This is nothing more than an elementary collection of information, that is, the stage of preparation for or term paper. The information that you will rely on can be taken from books, the press, regulations and, finally, from the Internet. When searching for information, it should be remembered that not all finds are reliable (especially on the Internet), so when selecting information, you should be critical of them and pay attention to the confirmation and similarity of materials from different sources.
- Analysis of the received information. This is the stage that follows the collection of information. It is not enough just to find the right material, you also need to carefully analyze it, check for consistency, reliability, and.
- observation. This method is a purposeful and attentive perception of the phenomenon under study, followed by the collection of information. In order for the observation to bring the desired results, it is necessary to prepare for it in advance: draw up a plan, outline the factors that require special attention, clearly define the timing and objects of observation, prepare a table that you will fill in during the work.
- Experiment. If observation is rather a passive method of research, then the experiment is characterized by your active activity. To conduct an experiment or a series of experiments, you create certain conditions in which you place the subject of research. Then you observe the reaction of the subject and record the results of the experiments in the form of a table, graph or diagram.
- Interview. This method helps to look deeper into the problem under study by asking specific questions to the people involved in it. The survey is used in three variations: an interview, a conversation and a questionnaire. The first two types are oral, and the last one is written. After completing the survey, you need to clearly formulate its results in the form of text, diagrams, tables or graphs.
Theoretical research methods
Research methods of this type are abstract and generalized. They help to systematize the collected material for its successful study.
- Analysis. To better understand the material, it must be decomposed into its constituent units and studied in detail. This is what analysis does.
- Synthesis. The opposition to analysis, necessary to combine disparate elements into a single whole. We use this method to get general idea about the phenomenon under study.
- Modeling. To study in detail the subject of research, sometimes you need to place it in a specially created model.
- Classification. This method is similar to analysis, only it distributes information based on comparison and divides it into groups based on common features.
- Deduction. AT best traditions Sherlock Holmes, this method helps to move from the general to the particular. This transition is useful for a deeper insight into the essence of the phenomenon under study.
- Induction. This method is the opposite of deduction, it helps to move from a single case to the study of a whole phenomenon.
- Analogy. The principle of its operation is that we find certain similarities between several phenomena, and then we build logical conclusions that other features of these phenomena may coincide.
- Abstraction. If we ignore the striking properties of the phenomenon under study, we can identify those of its characteristics that we have not paid attention to before.
Quantitative research methods
This group of methods helps to analyze phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators.
- Statistical methods are aimed at the initial collection of quantitative data and their further measurement for the study of large-scale phenomena. The obtained quantitative characteristics help to identify general patterns and eliminate random minor deviations.
- Bibliometric methods make it possible to study the structure, interconnection and dynamics of the development of phenomena in the documentation and information areas. This includes counting the number of publications made, and content analysis, and citation index, i.e. determination of the volume of citation of various sources. On their basis, it is possible to track the negotiability of the studied documents, the degree of their use in various fields of knowledge. Content analysis deserves special mention, as it plays important role when studying a large volume of various documents. Its essence boils down to counting the semantic units that certain authors, works, release dates of books can become. The result of the study using this method is information about the informational interest of the population and the general level of their information culture.
Qualitative Research Methods
The methods combined in this group are aimed at identifying the qualitative characteristics of the phenomena being studied, so that on their basis we can reveal the underlying mechanisms of various processes in society, including the influence of the media on consciousness individual person or certain features of the perception of information by different segments of the population. The main area of application of qualitative methods is marketing and sociological research.
Consider the most important methods of this group.
- Deep interview. Unlike an ordinary interview, which belongs to an empirical type, here we are talking about such a conversation where a short answer “yes” or “no” is not enough, but detailed, reasoned answers are required. Often, an in-depth interview is conducted in the form of a free conversation in an informal setting according to a pre-planned plan, and its purpose is to explore the beliefs, values and motivations of the respondents.
- Expert interview. This conversation differs from the deep counterpart in that the respondent is an expert competent in the area of interest. Possessing knowledge of the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study, he expresses a valuable opinion and significantly contributes to scientific research. Often, representatives of the authorities, employees of universities, heads and employees of organizations participate in conversations of this kind.
- Focus group discussions. Here the conversation does not take place one-on-one, but with a focus group consisting of 10-15 respondents who are directly related to the phenomenon under study. During the discussion, its participants share their personal opinions, experiences and perceptions of the proposed topic, and based on their statements, a “portrait” is compiled. social group to which the composition of the focus group belongs.
Methods of pedagogical research
In pedagogy, research is carried out using both universal and particular methods necessary to study specific pedagogical phenomena, as well as to search for their relationship and patterns. Theoretical methods help to identify problems and evaluate the collected materials for research, including monographs on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, methodological manuals and other documents related to pedagogy. By studying the literature on the chosen topic, we find which problems have already been solved, and which ones are still insufficiently covered.
In addition to theoretical ones, pedagogical research also welcomes empirical methods, supplementing them with its own specifics. Thus, observation here becomes a purposeful and attentive perception of pedagogical phenomena (most often these are ordinary or open lessons school). Questioning and testing are often applied both to students and to the teaching staff to understand the essence of educational processes.
Among private methods that are purely related to pedagogical research, one should name the study of the results of students' activities (control, independent, creative and graphic works) and the analysis of pedagogical documentation (student progress journals, their personal files and medical records).
Methods of sociological research
Sociological research is based on theoretical and empirical methods, supplemented by the specification of topics. Let us consider how they are transformed in sociology.
- Analysis of various sources to obtain the most accurate information. Books, manuscripts, video, audio, and statistical data are studied here. One of the types of this method is content analysis, which transforms the qualitative factors of the studied sources into their quantitative characteristics.
- sociological observation. With the help of this method, sociological data are collected by directly studying the phenomenon in its normal, natural conditions. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be controlled or uncontrolled, laboratory or field, included or not included.
- Questioning, which in this area turns into a sociological survey. Respondents are invited to fill out a questionnaire, on the basis of which the researcher receives an array social information.
- Interview, that is, an oral sociological survey. In the course of a direct conversation between the researcher and the respondent, personal psychological relationships are established that contribute not only to obtaining answers to the questions posed, but also to the study emotional reaction respondents to them.
- A social experiment is the study of one or another social process in artificial conditions. It is carried out to test the proposed hypothesis and to test ways to control related processes.
Methods of psychological research
Research methods in psychology- these are general scientific empirical and theoretical, as well as private, narrowly focused. Most of the research here is based on modified observation and experiment.
Observation in psychology is the study mental activity by registering interesting physiological processes and acts of behavior. This oldest method is most effective in the first steps to studying the problem, since it helps to pre-determine the important factors of the processes being studied. The subject of observation in psychology can be the features of people's behavior, including verbal (content, duration, frequency of speech acts) and non-verbal (expression of the face and body, gestures).
Observation is distinguished by a certain passivity of the researcher, and this is not always convenient. Therefore, for a more intensive and in-depth study of the mental processes of interest, an experiment is used, which in a psychological context is a joint activity of the researcher and the subject (or several subjects). The experimenter artificially creates the necessary conditions against which, in his opinion, the phenomena under study will manifest themselves as clearly as possible. If observation is a passive method of research, then experiment is active, because the researcher actively intervenes in the course of the study, changes the conditions for its conduct.
So, we looked at various research methods worthy not only of being mentioned in or, but also of active application in practice.
Scientific research can be defined as purposeful knowledge. To conduct research means to study, to learn patterns, systematizing facts.
Scientific research has a number of distinguishing features: the presence of a clear formulated goal; desire to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; substantiation and verification of the obtained conclusions and generalizations.
It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and ordinary knowledge. Scientific knowledge, unlike everyday knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, there is a need for a constant search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.
What are research methods
Research methods are ways to achieve a goal in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called "Methodology".
Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and actor(subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.
Translated from Greek, "method" means "method of knowledge." A correctly chosen method contributes to a faster and more accurate achievement of the goal, serves as a special compass that helps the researcher to avoid most mistakes, paving his way.
The difference between a method and a technique and methodology
Very often there is confusion in the concepts of method and methodology. The methodology is a system of ways of knowing. For example, when conducting sociological research can be a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. The totality of these methods will be a research methodology.
The concept of methodology is close in meaning to the research procedure, its sequence, algorithm. Without a quality technique, even the right method will not give a good result.
If methodology is a way of implementing a method, then methodology is the study of methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is
Classification of scientific research methods
All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.
Philosophical Methods
The most famous among them are the oldest methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutical, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistical and others.
General scientific methods
An analysis of the process of cognition allows us to identify the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human knowledge is built. These include theoretical level methods:
- Analysis - the division of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
- Synthesis - connection separate parts into a whole.
- Abstraction is the mental selection of any essential properties of the subject under consideration while simultaneously abstracting from a number of other features inherent in it.
- Generalization - the establishment of a unifying property of objects.
- Induction is a way of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.
Examples of research methods
For example, by studying the properties of certain liquids, it is revealed that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, they conclude that all liquids have the property of elasticity.
Deduction- a way of constructing a private conclusion, based on a general judgment.
For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper - metal. It can be concluded that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.
Analogy- such a method of cognition, in which knowledge of a number of common features for objects allows us to draw a conclusion about their similarity in other ways.
For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously established that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. Based on this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).
Modeling- creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its study.
In addition to methods of the theoretical level, there are methods of the empirical level.
Classification of general scientific methods
Empirical level methods
Method | Definition | Example |
Observation | Research based on the senses; perception of phenomena | In order to study one of the stages in the development of children, J. Piaget observed the manipulative games of children with certain toys. On the basis of observation, he concluded that the child's ability to put objects into each other occurs later than the motor skills necessary for this. |
Description | Fixing information | The anthropologist writes down all the facts about the life of the tribe, without exerting any influence on it. |
Measurement | Comparison by common features | Determining body temperature with a thermometer; determination of weight by balancing weights on a balance scale; radar distance determination |
Experiment | Research based on observation in conditions created specifically for this | On a busy city street, groups of people in various numbers (2,3,4,5,6, etc. people) stopped and looked up. Passers-by stopped nearby and also began to look up. It turned out that the percentage of those who joined increased significantly when the experimental group reached 5 people. |
Comparison | Research based on the study of the similarities and differences of subjects; comparison of one thing with another | Comparison of economic indicators of the base year with the past, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about economic trends |
Theoretical Level Methods
Method | Definition | Example |
Formalization | Disclosure of the essence of processes by displaying them in a sign-symbolic form | Flight simulation based on knowledge of the main characteristics of the aircraft |
Axiomatization | Application of axioms to construct theories | Geometry of Euclid |
Hypothetical-deductive | Creating a system of hypotheses and deriving conclusions from this | The discovery of the planet Neptune was based on several hypotheses. As a result of their analysis, it was concluded that Uranus is not the last planet. solar system. The theoretical justification for finding a new planet in a certain place was then confirmed empirically |
Specific scientific (special) methods
In any scientific discipline, a set of certain methods is applied, related to different "levels" of methodology. It is quite difficult to tie any method to a particular discipline. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Let's take a look at some of them.
Biology:
- genealogical - the study of heredity, the compilation of pedigrees;
- historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that have taken place over a long period of time (billions of years);
- biochemical - the study of the chemical processes of the body, etc.
Jurisprudence:
- historical and legal - obtaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods time;
- comparative legal - search and study of similarities and differences between the state-legal institutions of countries;
- right sociological method - the study of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, polls, etc.
In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:
- laboratory diagnostics - the study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
- functional diagnostics - the study of organs by their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
- structural diagnostics - the identification of changes in the structure of the body.
Economy:
- economic analysis - study constituent parts the whole being studied;
- statistical and economic method - analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
- sociological method - questioning, survey, interviewing, etc.
- design and construction, economic modeling, etc.
Psychology:
- experimental method - the creation of such circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
- method of observation - through the organized perception of the phenomenon, a mental phenomenon is explained;
- biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.
Empirical study data analysis
Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience, practice.
The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:
- Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
- Comparison. Similarities and differences between the two samples are identified.
- Exploring dependencies. Establishment of interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
- Volume reduction. The study of all variables in the presence of a large number of them, identifying the most informative.
- Grouping.
The results of any study conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research work wide enough: tests, abstracts, reports, term papers, theses, theses, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and evaluation of the findings, the results of the research are used in practice.
Instead of a conclusion
A. M. Novikov and D. A. Novikova in the book “ ” in the methods of theoretical and empirical research also distinguishes methods-operations (a way to achieve a goal) and methods-actions (solution of a specific problem). This specification is not accidental. A more rigid systematization of scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.
Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru
The calculation methodology is built in accordance with the hierarchical top - down analysis scheme . The basis of the vertical factor analysis is the consolidated report on the financial results of the enterprise (the output form of the operating budget - see Table 46), detailed (disaggregated) by. The analysis has a multilevel character, that is, it is carried out in several stages.
An analysis of the methodology used in countries with a developed market infrastructure allows us to conclude that the basis of the enterprise management system as a market economy entity is the strategy of directing capital investments to achieve competitive advantages.
Adamov V.E. Factor index analysis (methodology and problems). - M.
The organization shall review the design and/or development outputs and the process to meet the needs and expectations of interested parties. It must be ensured that these data are in accordance with the project specifications, validated and meet customer requirements. Sufficient data should be obtained through validation and validation activities to allow analysis of the methodologies and decision-making process of the project and/or development. The analysis of the methodologies should include the possibility of process and product improvement, failure investigation activities, and future needs that may arise during the design and/or development process.
An analysis of the methodology of foreign experience in labor rationing allows us to draw the following conclusions
For the convenience of analysis, methodology for developing management efficiency, it is proposed to classify innovative projects according to various features(fig.7.1).
An analysis of K. Marx's methodology would be incomplete without characterizing the factors of production. Marxism and Western thought have little to no disagreement about the composition of the factors of production. The essential difference lies in the interpretation of the role of factors in the production process. K. Marx proceeded from the special role of hired labor. Only the labor of the hired worker was declared productive, and it was he who served as the only source of
Microeconomics studies the economic reality based on the methodology of knowledge and specific research methods. Methodology is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. The specific methodology depends on the specifics of the object of study, as well as on the ideological positions of the study. Methodology should always precede individual or group research techniques, i.e. research methods. The logical approach should not be confused with the tools of analysis. Methodology and methods form successive stages of economic
How He Got It A close look at the methodology that Bill Gates uses to run his company reveals ten secret factors to his success. For those who would like to follow in his footsteps, we present them here.
Due to the fact that curriculum this specialty provides a number of economic and economic-management courses on the basics of accounting and finance, technical and economic analysis of production and economic "] activities, scientific organization and labor rationing, production management theory, automated control systems in the chemical industry and other, some issues (for example, organization and labor rationing, financial planning) are not included in the textbook at all in order to avoid duplication.Some questions are touched upon only to the extent necessary to characterize their connection with the problems set forth in other courses (theory and methodology for determining the economic efficiency of new technology and capital investments, the theory of production management, etc.) or get acquainted with them only in general terms (the application of the theory of reliability to production management, etc.).
It seems to us that the wonders and paradoxes of Japanese governance are the product of the paradoxes of Go research methodology. Let us point out two of the most striking such paradoxes. The first is that Japanese governance is viewed in the same way as Western governance, without assuming or deeply analyzing the essential differences in these phenomena. In fact, Japanese management has a number of essential differences from Western management, which allow us to conclude that this is a special type of management. And since this is a special type of management, then it is necessary to study it based on its essential characteristics as a whole, and not by analyzing its individual elements. For example, lifelong employment, no matter how you study it in isolation from the management system as a whole, will always require references to either miracles or paradoxes. The second is that they try to describe Japanese management in the same terms as Western management (accordingly, Japanese management is reduced to the same elements as Western). But the content of the manifestations of Japanese government hidden behind these concepts is different from that of the West.
This course includes two types of lessons - lectures and practical lessons. Lectures form the necessary theoretical basis, introduce the methodology for the formation and analysis of the assortment.
An equally important factor in making the right decisions on prices is the availability of reliable information and a comprehensive analysis of the price situation on the market. Solving these problems requires knowledge of the methodology for collecting, processing and analyzing data characterizing prices, the processes of their formation and changes. Unskilledly collected and processed price information devalues any marketing decision. Therefore, familiarizing students with the analytical component of price marketing is also an important objective of the course.
Analysis of the existing methodology for standardization of materials and equipment and directions for its improvement
The basis for the development of a methodology for constructing a rationing system for MTR in the gas industry is K. Marx's formula, which characterizes the formation of a production product .... The process fades away in the product, and the consequences of its in-depth analysis. At the heart of any process - action is the use of a useful energy effect (Fig. 7).
The basis of economic methodology is a broad systematic approach to the analysis and planning of the enterprise. This means that the enterprise is considered as a part ("element") of some system of a higher level (joint stock company, regional market for products and resources, fuel and energy complex of the country, regional natural environment, etc.). It is possible to correctly understand and evaluate the effective directions of development and the chances of an enterprise only through a thorough analysis of its links with this "external environment" and its other elements.
In accordance with the methodology adopted in our country for controlling overhead costs for each of these items, an estimate of expenses is made. These estimates do not provide for a distinction between variable and fixed costs, which makes their analysis and planning difficult.
An analysis of the methodology for designing, fine-tuning and manufacturing aircraft engines made it possible to propose methods for improving its efficiency based on a systematic approach and automation, as well as to obtain IDEF models that are used as the basis for a system automation project.
To the fullest extent, such a methodology for a comprehensive system analysis of the problems of a territory with a high anthropogenic load was implemented in Sverdlovsk region and the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Industrial Ecology) during the implementation of "
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Introduction
2. Methods used in scientific research
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
An important role in the study of economics is played by general scientific methods. Among them is the historical method, which allows you to find out how economic systems arise and develop. This approach helps to concretely and visually present all the features of each system at different stages of its development. historical development, including distinctive features modern economy.
Consideration of the qualitative features of economic systems is supplemented by the study of the quantitative side of economic processes using the methods of mathematics and statistics. AT economic theory special sections of these sciences are widely used: economic and mathematical methods and economic statistics.
The whole set scientific methods allows you to perform an important task - to identify elements and features common to all systems under study, patterns of development, and also to show the differences between them. On this basis, economic studies give comparative analysis the main economic systems that exist in the modern world.
1. The content of the concepts of "sensory" and "rational" knowledge
scientific knowledge it is a system of cognitive actions aimed at the production and theoretical systematization of knowledge about natural, social and spiritual reality.
Cognitive actions of a person (both non-scientific and scientific) are carried out in various forms. In their totality, several key forms of sensory and rational cognition are distinguished, common not only to scientific and non-scientific cognition, but also inherent in representatives of higher biological species. Moreover, according to some authors, it is preferable to qualify these forms as human cognitive abilities. Nevertheless, the former idea dominates so far, according to which the most general structuring of the entire set of cognitive actions is carried out by highlighting the forms of sensory and rational cognition according to such criteria as the general orientation, the nature of the cognitive means used and the specificity of the result of cognition.
Sense cognition is a cognitive process that is carried out through the human senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Often in philosophical literature sensory knowledge is called "living contemplation". In the usual sense, living "contemplation" is a visual perception of things and phenomena. In philosophical reflection, i.e. in the theory of knowledge, it is synonymous with sensory knowledge and includes four forms: sensation, perception, representation and imagination.
Feeling- this is a direct reflection of the individual properties of objects that affect the senses. This is an elementary, further indecomposable mental cognitive process. Sensation is also called the result of this process, the reproduction by a person of a configuration, relative position objects, their color, the degree of surface roughness, the sounds they make, smells, etc. Each sensation reflects one of the properties of the reflected object and exists only in the presence of direct contact.
Perception- this is a holistic image that reflects objects that directly affect the sense organs, their properties and relationships. Perception thus retains one of the main characteristics of sensation - the presence of direct contact with the perceived object, but transforms another - in it the reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object is subordinated to the construction of its integral image. In perception, the leading role is played by those components that ensure the constancy (constancy) of the image of the perceived object, living being or any situation when the conditions of perception change.
Submission - uh it is the highest form of sensory reflection in the form of a holistic image of objects that are not directly perceived. Representation retains such an important characteristic of perception as the integrity of the image of a cognized object, but its reproduction is carried out not through direct contact, but "from memory". Representation raises the cognitive capabilities of a person at the sensory level to a new, more high step, freeing him from energy-intensive and time-consuming direct contacts with cognizable objects.
Imagination- this is a form of sensory cognition, the result of which is the creation of ideas about objects and mental situations that have never been generally perceived by a person in reality. Imagination differs from representation in that part of its content, which is introduced by fantasy, fiction, "anticipatory reflection" of a person.
Imagination provides such important concepts in scientific knowledge as an ideal gas, an ideal steam engine, etc., in technical creativity, the idea of a road that appears where the wheels of a car touch it, in economic science, ideas about the exchange of goods strictly according to their value, etc. d.
rational cognition it is a cognitive process that is carried out through forms of mental activity. Forms of rational cognition have several common characteristics: firstly, their inherent focus on reflection common properties cognizable objects, processes, phenomena; secondly, the associated abstraction from their individual properties; thirdly, an indirect relationship to the cognizable reality (through the forms of sensory cognition and the cognitive means observation, experimentation, information processing); fourthly, a direct connection with the language (language is the material shell of thought).
The main forms of rational knowledge traditionally include three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment and inference.
concept is a form of thought that reflects the subject of thought in its general and essential features.
Judgmentnande - it is a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied about the subject of thought.
Inference - it is a form of thought by means of which, from one or more propositions, a proposition is necessarily deduced containing new knowledge.
The selected logical forms of thinking are among the main ones, since through them the content of the whole multitude of other forms of rational cognition is expressed. Among them search forms of knowledge (question, problem, idea, hypothesis), forms system expression subject knowledge (scientific fact, law, principle, theory, scientific picture of the world), as well as forms regulatory knowledge (way, method, technique, algorithm, program, ideals and norms of cognition, style of scientific thinking, cognitive tradition).
The interrelationship of sensory and rational forms of cognition is not limited to the mediating function of sensory forms noted above in relation, on the one hand, to perceived objects and to forms of rational cognition, on the other. This relationship is more complex and dynamic: sensory data is constantly being “processed” by the mental content of concepts, laws, principles, the general picture of the world, and rational knowledge is structured under the influence of information coming from the senses (the importance of creative imagination is especially great). The most striking manifestation of the dynamic unity of the sensual and the rational in cognition is intuition.
Until a certain time, such phenomena were considered mysterious, not subject to logical analysis and study by scientific means. However, their subsequent study made it possible, firstly, to identify the main types of intuition; secondly, to present it as a specifically cognitive process and a special form of cognition. The main types of intuition are sensual intuition (quick identification, the ability to form analogies, creative imagination, etc.) and intellectual intuition , including accelerated inference, the ability to synthesize and evaluate.
In this way, intuition - it is a complex process , including both rational and sensual elements , what served as the basis for attributing it to special forms of cognition .
2. Methods used in scientific research
The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.
Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.
Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.
Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.
To methods empirical levels include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.
To methods theoretical levels include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc. scientific knowledge method inference
Methods metatheoretical levels are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.
depending on the scope and degree of generality distinguished methods:
1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;
2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;
3) private - for related sciences;
4) special - for a particular science, area of scientific knowledge.
From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.
Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions.
Among general methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems.
All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.
General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.
Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its constituent parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.
Synthesis- this is a combination of separate parties, parts of the object of study into a single whole.
Induction- this is the movement of thought (knowledge) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea.
Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from some general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.
Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others; reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features.
To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.
Axiomatic method - method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without evidence and then according to certain logical rules other knowledge is derived from them.
Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.
Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in a symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as polysemy, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.
When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition.
abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.
Generalization- establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition general concept, which reflects the essential, main features of objects or phenomena of this class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.
historical method consists in revealing historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction historical process, which reveals the logic of its movement. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.
Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.
System Method consists in the study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects. Methods of the empirical level include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.
Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.
Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is: 1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object; 2) indirect, when the researcher notes the features of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).
Measurement- this is the definition of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; the speed of movement of vehicles, a person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes; temperature, size, weight, etc.
Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.
Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested. Experiments can be classified on various grounds: by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.; according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).
Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - analogue, model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object. Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.
In the study of complex, interconnected problems, it is used system analysis widely used in various fields of scientific human activity.
System analysis is based on the concept of a system, which is understood as a set of objects that have predetermined properties with fixed relationships between them.
System analysis is used to study such complex systems as the economy separate industry, industrial enterprise.
System analysis consists of the main 4 stages: the first is to set the task - they determine the object, the goals and objectives of the study, as well as the criteria for studying the object. During the second stage, the boundaries are outlined and its structure is determined: objects and processes related to the goal are divided into the actual studied and external environment. Then, separate components of the system - its elements are isolated, their interaction with the external environment is established. The third, most important, stage of system analysis is the compilation of a mathematical model of the system under study.
Analytical Methods are used to describe only small systems due to their bulkiness or the impossibility of compiling and solving a complex system of equations.
A complex approach allows you to explore the market situation as an object that has various manifestations. For example, the problem of the market of a particular product may be associated with the deviation of demand, product supply or price, that is, with such aspects of the object under study, with the help of which it is possible to determine and adopt a strategic or tactical decisions about changing the situation as a whole.
At the same time, system analysis and an integrated approach are closely interrelated and cannot be implemented one without the other.
Program-targeted planning widely used in the development and implementation of strategy and tactics in business research.
Linear programming how mathematical method choosing the optimal solution (with minimal costs, maximum profit, etc.) is used in business, for example, when developing the optimal assortment in conditions of limited resources, determining the optimal amount of inventory, planning the movement of sales agents.
When solving problems of customer service order, scheduling the supply of goods, and other similar tasks, methods are used queuing theory, which provide an opportunity, firstly, to study the patterns associated with the presence of a flow of service requests, and, secondly, to maintain the necessary order of their execution.
Methods of probability theory are used in making decisions that come down to determining the likelihood of specific events and choosing the most optimal from a number of possible actions (for example, to produce or not to produce product A or B, reorganize or expand production, etc.).
The system of existing or possible connections between events, actions, or processes can be described using modeling methods.
The most effective are econometric (economic-mathematical) models. A special place in the methodological assortment is occupied by methods of expert assessments ("Delphi", "Devil's Advocate", etc.), which allow you to quickly get an answer about possible processes development of this or that event in the market, to discover the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise, to evaluate the effectiveness of certain marketing decisions.
Conclusion
The characteristic of the main forms of cognition gives mainly an idea of what is common to scientific and non-scientific cognition. Both in the first and in the second, both the sensory cognitive abilities of a person and his ability to abstract thinking. In all areas human activity where cognitive processes are carried out, people think through logical forms (concepts, judgments, conclusions).
Along with the general focus of cognitive actions on the production of knowledge, scientific knowledge is characterized by a number of features:
1) scientific knowledge is based on a clear distinction of its subject as an integral set of interrelated characteristics of the object;
2) it involves the use of specialized tools, in particular, special material means;
3) scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of special methods and other types of normative knowledge;
4) the results of scientific knowledge are recorded in special forms knowledge and must meet a number of requirements;
5) a significant difference between scientific knowledge and other forms cognitive processes is the presence of a specialized language.
The specifics of science as a sociocultural phenomenon are largely determined by the features of scientific knowledge.
List of used literature
1. Shklyar M.F. Fundamentals of scientific research, textbook, M., 1989.
2. Fundamentals of scientific research: a textbook for universities Krutov V.I., Grushko I.M., Popova V.V., M., 1989.
3. Sabitov R.I. Fundamentals of scientific research. Tutorial. Chelyabinsk, 2002.
4. Makogon Yu.V., Pilipenko V.V. Methods of scientific research of foreign economic relations. Donetsk. 2012.
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Methodology and methodology of scientific research
Methods of the empirical level of research
Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research
Special (private scientific) research methods in the field of library, information and documentation activities
Literature
1. The concept of the method, methodology and methodology of scientific research
The organization and conduct of scientific research is impossible without relying on scientific methodology, without the use of appropriate methods. When building a methodological base for scientific research, it is necessary to clarify the basic concepts (method, technique, methodology, etc.).
) The method is understood as a specific method of research, construction and substantiation of a system of knowledge about the subject, which includes various research methods.
Another definition can be given: a research method is a method of study based on a certain conceptual apparatus and rules that correspond to the characteristics of the subject of research, the purpose and nature of the tasks being solved.
Already studied phenomena, processes, patterns serve as samples, models for the subsequent study of other phenomena and processes. Therefore, in scientific research, not only the result is important, but also the path to it, the method of cognition, the chain of inferences leading to the conclusion.
) Methodology - a fixed set of methods of practical activity leading to a predetermined result; concretization of the method, bringing it to the instruction, algorithm, a clear description of the mode of existence.
) Methodology is a system of basic principles, methods, techniques, methods and means of scientific research. The methodology of scientific research involves the ability to properly organize scientific activity using effective methods work, rules and logical conclusions.
) Methodological approach - a group of methods that have a common basis.
) The methodological principle is the fundamental rule, position, normative coordinate of the methodological paradigm.
) The methodological paradigm is a set of fundamental scientific principles, principles and main methodological approaches adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in certain period time. Ensures the continuity of the development of science and scientific creativity.
There are many types of methods of scientific knowledge. What methods to use for research is determined by the scientist, based on his own experience and the experience of his predecessors and colleagues. But the decisive criterion for determining the necessary methods is the subject of research.
Types of methods are distinguished by:
· degrees of generality (general scientific and special or particular scientific);
· level of abstraction (empirical and theoretical);
· the nature of the functions performed (quantitative and qualitative).
Let us characterize the main groups of scientific research methods.
General scientific research methods
General scientific research methods are based on such general principles scientific thinking as induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, concretization, analogy, comparison, identification, generalization, extrapolation, etc.
Induction is a mental operation based on the logic of generalizing private facts; conclusion, reasoning from "private to general"; inference from facts to some general hypothesis.
Deduction is a mental operation that involves the development of reasoning from general patterns to particular facts (“from the general to the particular”).
Analysis is theoretical method research, which involves such a mental operation in which the process or phenomenon under study is divided into components for their special and in-depth self-study.
Synthesis is a mental operation, during which a complete picture is restored from the identified elements and facts.
Abstraction is a mental distraction from a number of non-essential features (properties, relationships) of an object while highlighting other features that are of interest to the researcher when solving a specific problem.
Idealization is one of the types of abstraction. The concepts formed as a result of idealization do not exist in reality in a specific form, but are only thought with approximate analogues (images).
Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, it involves finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral object.
Analogy - similarity, similarity of various objects, phenomena or concepts in any properties, features or relationships.
Comparison is a method that involves comparing objects in order to identify their similarities and differences, common and special.
Identification - the identification of the object under study with some sample, model, archetype.
Generalization is one of the important mental operations, as a result of which relatively stable properties of objects and their relations are singled out and fixed.
Extrapolation is the spread of trends and patterns found in one area to another area.
3. Methods of the empirical level of the study
The methods of the empirical level of research include: observation, description, survey, questioning, interviewing, conversation, experiment, monitoring, method of expert assessments, etc.
Observation is the most informative research method that allows you to see from the outside the processes and phenomena under study that are available for perception. Its essence lies in the fact that the object under study should be in normal, natural conditions and should not be affected by the observer.
Description - a method based on fixing information obtained as a result of observation.
A survey is a research method used to collect primary verbal information containing mass judgments of the studied individuals, their subjective assessments, opinions, and motives for activity. This is the main way to identify public opinion. There are two main types of surveys - questionnaires and interviews.
Questioning is a remote survey in which all respondents in an identical printed form are offered a system of questions with possible options answers (or no).
Interviewing is a face-to-face oral survey based on a developed list of questions.
Conversation is an empirical method that involves personal contact with the respondent.
Experiment is a general empirical method of research, which is based on strict control over the objects under study under controlled conditions. The experiment involves intervention in the natural conditions of the existence of objects and phenomena or the reproduction of certain aspects of them in specially created conditions.
Monitoring is a constant supervision, regular tracking of research results.
The method of expert assessments is a method of obtaining information about an object with the help of specialists - experts in a particular field. The opinion of a specialist (or a team of specialists) should be based on professional, scientific and practical experience. There are individual and collective expert assessments.
Methods of the theoretical level of research
The group of methods of the theoretical level of research includes: modeling, systematization, classification, formalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic, historical, dialectical, activity, systemic, structural-functional and other methods.
Modeling is a theoretical research method involving the construction of a model (substitute) of real objects. A model is a mental or materially realized system that replaces another system with which it is in a state of similarity. The modeling method makes it possible to obtain information about various properties of the studied phenomena on the basis of experiments with models.
Systematization - mental activity, during which the studied objects are organized into a certain system based on the chosen principle. The most important view systematization - classification.
Classification is a theoretical method based on the ordering of the studied objects, facts, phenomena and their distribution into groups based on the establishment of similarities and differences between them (for example, the classification of animals, plants, chemical elements).
Formalization is a description of the content characteristics of an object and the processes occurring in it based on the creation of a generalized sign model (for example, using mathematical or logical symbols).
The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is a universal form of the movement of scientific knowledge, the law of reflecting reality in thinking. A method according to which the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stages. At the first stage, there is a transition from sensory-concrete cognition of the object to its abstract definitions. A single object is divided, described with the help of many concepts and judgments, turning into a set of abstractions fixed by thinking. The second stage of the process of cognition is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the movement of thought from the abstract definitions of the object to the concrete in cognition. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, it is reproduced in thinking in all its concreteness and versatility.
Axiomatic method - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which some statements (axioms) are accepted without proof and then used to obtain the rest of the knowledge according to certain logical rules.
In studies related to the study of the history of the development of the object under study, are widely used historical methods: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological.
Historical-genetic method - a method that allows you to reveal the sequence of the historical development of the object under study (from its origins to the current state), to show cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of its historical movement.
Historical-comparative (or comparative-historical) method - a method in which a comparative analysis of historical phenomena is carried out, their similarities and differences, general and special, are revealed. (See Comparison method).
The historical-typological method is a method aimed at dividing (ordering) a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) based on their common essential features.
The dialectical method (dialectical methodology) is a method (methodology) of cognition of reality, the main principles of which are the recognition of development in all its infinite diversity and the universal connection of everything with everything. The main dialectical laws: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa; unity and struggle of opposites; denial of denial.
The activity method (activity methodology) is a widely used method (methodology), in which the object is comprehensively studied as a specific area of social (human) activity. At the same time, this type of activity is differentiated into parts, components (subject, object, processes, means, result, etc.) and types, varieties, distinguished according to various criteria.
System method (system methodology) - a method (methodology) that allows you to explore an object not as a set of disparate and isolated objects and phenomena, but as a systemic, holistic formation, that is, a complex of interrelated and interacting elements. The entry of these elements into the system gives them new, integrative qualities that are not inherent in them in their original, separate existence.
The structural-functional method consists in dividing the object under study into its constituent structural parts and identifying the internal connection, conditionality, the relationship between them, as well as determining their functions.
5. Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research
Quantitative methods are methods for analyzing phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators. The most commonly used are quantitative methods like statistical, bibliometric, content analysis, scientometric.
Statistical - a set of interrelated methods aimed at collecting, measuring and analyzing massive quantitative data. By using statistical methods mass objects and phenomena are studied in order to obtain quantitative characteristics and identify general patterns by eliminating random features of individual single observations.
Bibliometric - a group of quantitative methods that study the structure, dynamics and relationships of various phenomena in the field of library, information and documentation activities. The composition of bibliometric methods includes the method of counting the number of publications, the method of analyzing literature citation (“citation index”), thesaurus, content analysis, etc. With the help of bibliometric methods, the dynamics of the development of documentary flows (by their types, types, topics, author composition) is studied. etc.); dynamics of indicators of use and negotiability of documents; the processes of citation of publications are studied; productive types of publications and the most developed thematic areas are identified; the degree of provision of certain areas of scientific research with fundamental works; the core of specialized publications is determined, according to which the acquisition of library collections is carried out in the future.
Content analysis is one of the bibliometric methods, which also has independent significance. It is used to study significant arrays of documents: printed works, normative-official, reporting and other documentation. The essence of the method lies in the fact that in the texts of documents certain semantic units (“observation units”) are distinguished, which can be the authors and titles of works, type of publication, release date, etc. A careful calculation of the identified units and the frequency of their use, with the obligatory consideration of the assessments that are given to them in the texts, makes it possible to identify development trends of various phenomena: the informational interest of various user groups in certain types, types, genres of documents, the level of information culture, the effectiveness of methods of working with consumers of documentary information, etc.
Scientometric methods are closely related to bibliometric methods and are used for the same purposes. However, the specificity of scientometrics lies in quantitative studies of the structure and dynamics of arrays and flows, not of all types of documentary information, but only of scientific information.
Qualitative research methods are methods aimed at obtaining such “qualitative data” that allow revealing the significance of certain social phenomena through an analysis of the structure and dynamics of public opinion. Qualitative methods, in particular, make it possible to explore the underlying mechanisms of the process of the influence of mass communication on individual consciousness and to see the patterns of perception of social information. Qualitative methods are most often used in sociological and marketing research.
The main methods of qualitative research include: in-depth interviews, expert interviews, focus group discussions (interviews), observation, experiment. Let's consider the main ones.
The most well-known and frequently used qualitative method is conducting an in-depth interview. In its process, questions are used, the answer to which is not supposed to be an unambiguous “yes” or “no”, but a detailed answer. An in-depth interview is an informal, free conversation conducted by the interviewer according to a predetermined plan and based on the use of techniques that encourage respondents to lengthy and detailed discussions on a range of issues of interest to the researcher. During the interview, the personal opinion of the respondent, his beliefs, motivations and values are examined.
An expert interview is one of the varieties of an in-depth interview, its main feature is the status and competence of the respondent, who is an experienced participant in the problem under study. Experts are specialists who know the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study. In expert interviews, it is not so much the respondent himself that is important, but his expert knowledge in a particular area. In most cases, expert interviews are conducted with representatives of the executive and legislative authorities, scientists, employees of universities and research organizations, employees of non-governmental, private expert or consulting structures, members of expert councils, company executives, etc.
Focus group discussions (interviews) are one of the qualitative research methods. A focus group is a group of respondents (no more than 10-15 people) united to study a wide range of reactions, opinions and assessments regarding the phenomenon under study. The essence of the method lies in the fact that the attention of the participants is focused on the topic or object under study (government programs, socio-political problems, socio-economic situations, communication processes, goods, services, advertising). Focus group discussion or interviews are aimed at determining the attitude of participants to a particular problem, obtaining information about their personal experience, priorities, perception of the object of study, drawing up a "portrait" of a particular social group. Focus group interviews are conducted in a free form according to a previously developed scenario. The participants are not familiar with the content of the script, it is known only to the moderator (leader), under whose leadership the discussion is taking place. The organization of the discussion in a relaxed atmosphere contributes to the activation of associative links in the minds of the participants. During focus group discussions, respondents communicate not only with the moderator, but also with each other, which is a source of information that often cannot be obtained in an individual interview.
The main difference between qualitative and quantitative methods is that in the first case, data are collected from a relatively small group of respondents and are not analyzed using statistics, while when using quantitative methods, a large group of people is studied, and the data is further analyzed using statistical methods. . However, quantitative and qualitative methods are not competitors, but rather two tools that complement each other. Qualitative methods make it possible to understand the essence of the problem, to formulate tasks and a conceptual apparatus for subsequent quantitative research.
6. Special (private scientific) methods of scientific research in the field of library, information and documentation activities
In addition to the above groups of methods, there are also special methods individual sciences (private scientific) - mathematical, political science, economic, sociological, psychological, pedagogical, cultural, linguistic, semiotic, etc.
The following special (private-scientific) library methods are widely used in library research: analysis of reader forms, bibliographic inquiry journals, reader surveys, sociological and quantitative methods for studying collections and readers, methods of library statistics, and others. Common research methods are also the source study method (the method of studying historical documentary sources of library subjects: archival materials, unpublished manuscripts, library reports for different periods of time, memoirs and diaries of librarians) and the bibliographic method (the method of bibliographic “folding” of information: bibliographic analysis, descriptions, classification of documents, etc.).
In scientific research on document management, special (private scientific) methods are also widely used: source study, archaeographic, analytical and synthetic processing of documents, etc. These methods are actively used by students in their graduation studies.
An indispensable method of research is the source study method - a method of studying historical documentary sources: archival and unpublished materials, reports of institutions, official regulatory and regulatory documentation, etc. Using this method, the following is carried out: determining the authenticity of the source (external or textual criticism), elucidating the reliability information contained in it (internal criticism), establishing the time, place of creation of the source, analysis of its content, formal and qualitative characteristics, etc.
The archaeographic method is very close to the source study method. It is used in studies that require in-depth work with handwritten, written sources: identifying and collecting historical documentary monuments, developing methods for their publication, developing rules for the scientific-critical publication of sources, etc.
Methods of analytical and synthetic processing of documents - a group of methods by which information analysis, description, summarizing, systematization, classification, codification of documents, etc. are carried out.
Ultimately, the choice of method is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are: the correspondence of the method's capabilities to solving research problems, heuristics (the quality that provides the most optimal result), simplicity and accessibility for the researcher. For the purpose of a comprehensive study of the subject in scientific (including diploma) research, as a rule, a complex is used. various methods.
library empirical private scientific documentation
Literature
1. Dzhurinsky A.N. History of Education and Pedagogical Thought: Proc. allowance for students of pedagogical universities / A.N. Dzhurinsky. - M.: Humanit. publishing center VLADOS, 2008.
2. Goneev A.D. Fundamentals of correctional pedagogy / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. - M.: Academy, 2007.
History of Pedagogy and Education. From the origin of education in primitive society to the end of the twentieth century: / Ed. acad. RAO A.I. Piskunov. - M.: TC "Sphere", 2008.
Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of pedagogy: a new stage: Proc. allowance for students of higher education. textbook institutions / V.V. Kraevsky, E.V. Berezhnova. - M.: Academy, 2009.
Mizherikov V.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity/V.A. Mizherikov, T.A. Yuzefavicius. - M.: Rospedagency, 2009.
Mudrik A.V. Social Pedagogy: Proc. for students ped. universities / A.V. Mudrik / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Orlov A.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity: Practicum: Textbook.-method. settlement / A.A. Orlov, A.S. Agafonov. Ed. A.A. Orlov. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. P.I. piddly. - M.: Ped. Society of Russia, 2009.
Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. B.M. Bim-Bad. - M., 2007.
Pedagogical technologies: Textbook for students of pedagogical specialties / Under general ed. V.S. Kukushina. - M.: ICC "Mart"; Rostov n / a: ICC "Mart", 2008.
Pityukov V.Yu. Basics pedagogical technology. Teaching aid. - M .: Publishing house "Gnome and D", 2007.
Robotova A.S. Introduction to pedagogical activity / Robotova A.S., Leontieva T.V., Shaposhnikova I.G. etc. - M.: Academy, 2009. - 208 p.
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