Scipio the gladiator. Hannibal and Scipio
1. THE OLDEST MATERIALS FOR WRITING
As already noted, the concept of a document is based on the dual unity of information and a material carrier. Material carriers have a great influence on the processes of creation, translation, storage and use of documented information. In particular, for the transmission of information in time, durable carriers are needed, while for its transmission in space, such characteristics are not essential.
It must be borne in mind that the information carrier and the carrier of documented information are different concepts. This is also reflected in the standardized definitions. So, in accordance with GOST R 50922-96 “Information protection. Basic terms and definitions", "information carrier - an individual or a material object, including a physical field, in which information is displayed in the form of a symbol, images, signals, technical solutions and processes". And according to GOST R 51141-98. Record keeping and archiving. Terms and definitions” a documented information carrier is “a material object used to fix and store speech, sound or visual information on it, including in a transformed form”.
The material carrier of information, as a rule, consists of two components - materials of the basis of the record and the substance of the record. The exceptions are material media used for mechanical recording (carving, burning, extrusion, carving, perforation, mechanical sound recording and some others), where there is no recording substance, and signs are applied directly to the material base, changing its physical, physico-chemical structure.
Information carriers are closely connected not only with the ways and means of documenting, but also with the development of technical thought. Hence - the continuous evolution of types and types of material carriers.
The advent of writing stimulated the search and invention of special materials for writing. However, at first, man used for this purpose the most available materials, which could be easily found in the natural environment: palm leaves, shells, tree bark, tortoise shells, bones, stone, bamboo, etc. For example, the philosophical instructions of Confucius (mid-1st millennium BC) were originally written on bamboo tablets. AT Ancient Greece and Rome, along with wooden planks covered with a layer of wax, metal (bronze or lead) tables were also used, in India - copper plates, in Ancient China- bronze vases, silk.
Within the territory of Ancient Russia they wrote on birch bark - birch bark (Fig. 2). To date, more than 1,000 birch bark letters of that time have been found, the oldest of which dates back to the first half of the 11th century. Archaeologists have even found a miniature birch bark book of 12 pages, 5 x 5 cm in size, in which double sheets are sewn along the fold. Preparing the birch bark for the recording process was not difficult. Previously, it was boiled, then the inner layer of the bark was scraped off and cut off at the edges. The result was the base material of the document in the form of a ribbon or rectangle. The letters were rolled up into a scroll. In this case, the text was on the outside.
They wrote on birch bark not only in Ancient Russia, but also in Central and Northern Europe. Birch-bark writings in Latin were found. There is a known case when in 1594 30 pounds of birch bark for writing was sold by our country to Persia.
The main material for writing among the peoples of Western Asia was originally clay, from which slightly convex tiles were made. After applying the necessary information (in the form of wedge-shaped signs), the raw clay tiles were dried or fired, and then placed in special wooden or clay boxes or in original clay envelopes. At present, at least 500,000 such clay tablets, discovered by archaeologists during excavations of the ancient cities of Assyria, Babylon, and Sumer, are stored in museums around the world and private collections. The last of the found clay tablets belong to the year 75.
Historically, the first material specially made for the purpose of writing was papyrus. Its invention, around the middle of the third millennium BC, became one of the most important achievements of Egyptian culture. The main advantages of papyrus were compactness and lightness. Papyrus was made from the loose core of Nile reed stems in the form of thin yellowish sheets, which were then glued into strips up to 10 m long on average (but sometimes their dimensions reached 40 m or more) and up to 30 cm wide. Depending on the quality, it varied up to 9 varieties of papyrus. Due to its high hygroscopicity and brittleness, it was usually written on one side and stored as a scroll.
As a material carrier of information, papyrus was used not only in Ancient Egypt, but also in other countries of the Mediterranean, and in Western Europe - up to the XI century. And the last historical document written on papyrus was the message of the Pope at the beginning of the 20th century.
Another material of plant origin, used mainly in the equatorial zone (in Central America since the 8th century, on the Hawaiian Islands) was tapa. It was made from bast, bast, in particular, paper mulberry tree. The bast was washed, cleaned of irregularities, then beaten with a hammer, smoothed and dried. The most famous material of animal origin, specially made for the purpose of writing and widely used in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages, was parchment (Fig. 3). Unlike papyrus, which was produced only in Egypt, parchment could be obtained in almost any country, since it was made from animal skins (lamb, goat, pig, calf) by cleaning, washing, drying, stretching, followed by processing with chalk and pumice. The ancient craftsmen managed to make parchment so thin that a whole scroll could fit in a nut shell. In our country, parchment began to be made only in the 15th century, and before that it was brought from abroad.
The parchment could be written on both sides. It was much stronger and more durable than papyrus. However, parchment was a very expensive material. This significant drawback of parchment was overcome only as a result of the appearance of paper.
"Leafing through the yellowed pages..." (Based on the materials of the newspaper "Znamya Ilyicha")
In the grandfather's archive there were clippings from the local newspaper Znamya Ilyicha, renamed on September 10, 1991 into Selskie Vesti. The uniqueness of these newspaper pages lies in the fact that the memoirs of still living front-line soldiers - our fellow countrymen - were printed there ...
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The oldest material used for writing was stone. It was on the stone that the most ancient drawings were created, petroglyphs were carved. In the depths of millennia, the custom of writing on clay tablets. On such tablets, while they were soft and wet, any signs or drawings could be squeezed out. The tablets were then fired in a kiln or dried in the sun. If the text occupied several tablets, they were placed in the right order in a wooden box - this is a kind of clay book. On ch. tablets were written in the southern Mesopotamia in 3 - 2 thousand BC. In ancient Egypt, and then throughout the ancient world, the most common writing material was papyrus. Papyrus was most often used in the form of scrolls, later - in the form of pages fastened together along one edge, like a modern book. The production of papyrus continued until 1000 AD. Papyrus was not the only writing material of plant origin. In some regions, they wrote on dried palm leaves. In China, they used to write bamboo planks. In Russia they used to write used birch bark- birch bark. AT Ancient Rome the practice of writing in wax tablets. These are wooden or bone rectangular boxes with low sides, inside of which thin wax was poured in a thin layer. The texts on such tablets were short-lived, tk. Wax afraid high temperatures. But some examples of Roman writing on wax have survived to this day. These tablets existed until the Middle Ages. parchment- the most popular and most versatile writing material of late antiquity and the Middle Ages. The name comes from the city of Pergamena, where parchment production technology was brought to perfection. For its manufacture, the skins of sheep, pigs, calves and goats were used. Parchment was used both in the form of scrolls and in the form of sheets sewn from one edge. In Russia, instead of the term "parchment", the names "skin" or "haratya" were used. Parchment was a durable writing material, it was not afraid of temperature and humidity changes, it held ink and paint well on both sides of the sheet. The parchment could be used multiple times; for this purpose, the text was scraped off from it and the surface was polished again. Such manuscripts are called palimpsests.
Paper was invented in China in the 2nd century AD. Its inventor is the master Tsai Lun. He made his first paper in 105 by mixing a finely ground mass of silk cocoons, foam, rags and wood ash with water. After mixing, the mass was placed on a sieve and dried in the sun. The resulting sheets were very durable and elastic, well-kept ink and ink. Papermaking technology began to develop rapidly. In VIv. paper began to be produced in China and Japan, in the 11th century. she got to the Arabs. The European way of making paper was different from the Chinese. In 1150, paper came to Spain. Here it was produced on paper mills from linen rags with all kinds of additives. The finely ground fibers were boiled and thrown onto a net. Pressed, glued, dried and leveled. In terms of its properties, paper was inferior to parchment for a long time. It was loose, gray, the ink on it blurred. Only to the XVI century. The quality of European paper has increased significantly, its price has become acceptable, and it has become widespread. Until the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. paper production was manual. In 1799, the Frenchman L. N. Robert invented the first semi-automatic paper machine. Paper became known in Russia in the 14th century. She was most likely of foreign origin. The first own paper-making production appeared in the second half of the 16th century. in the village of Vanteeva and belonged to the landowner Savin. In the XVII century. there were already several paper industries. One of them was founded in 1655 by Patriarch Nikon. High Quality paper appeared under Peter I, when in the village of Krasnoe-Kaporskoe in 1716 a paper manufactory was opened with equipment brought from abroad.
Writing tools:
· Brush - used when drawing rock paintings;
· A chisel and a hammer for drawing a letter on a stone;
· Brushes for papyrus;
Stylus, stylo - bone, wooden or metal sticks for writing on wax tablets;
· Goose feather. The beginning from the early Middle Ages is the main instrument of writing. Only a few feathers from the wings of a goose were suitable for writing. The pen was sharpened and split in a special way. Feathers wear out quickly and require replacement. For a long time, Russia was the main supplier of goose feathers. The whole world thin. The literature is written with a quill pen. Swan and peacock feathers were also used, but very rarely.
· The metal pen was invented in the 18th century and became widespread in the 19th century. By the beginning of the 20th century, the iron quill replaced the goose quill.
· The ink piston pen was invented in the 20th century. It seemed then a miracle of technology.
· Ball pen appeared after WWII.
Paints and inks. The colors were of natural origin. Ink - a decoction of alder or oak bark with the addition of soot. They had a brownish tint. Modern ink is completely chemical.
1) What natural conditions of Ancient Egypt were favorable for agriculture? How? 2) Why is it impossible in Egypt without the construction of canals and earth embankmentswas to get a good harvest? 3) What is the similarity in the position of ordinary Egyptians and noble nobles in relation to the pharaoh? 4) What did the Egyptians believe that the deceased swore at the trial of Osiris? Who was considered in ancient Egypt a good man? 5) What buildings and statues of Ancient Egypt can you name? 6) What features did the letter created in Egypt have? What did the ancient Egyptians write on? 7) What knowledge did the Egyptian priests have? PLEASE HELP, THANKS IN ADVANCE!
1. surname of the inventor of printing. 2. record from year to year. 3. another name for the primer. 4. a word written on a clay shard found in one ofbarrows near Smolensk. 5. paint yellow color. 6. letter typographical set. 7. sign of ancient Egyptian writing.8. so in Russia they called the capital of Byzantium. 9. a set of letters arranged in order.
1) In what ancient countries did these rivers flow?Euphrates and Tigris _______________.
Nile____________.
Jordan____________.
Indus and Ganges ___________.
Huanghe ____________.
2) In which ancient countries did these lords rule?
Cheops _____________.
Hammurabi __________.
Thutmose __________.
David and Solomon ___________.
Ashurbanipal ___________.
Cyrus__________.
Ashoka___________.
Qin Shi Huang __________.
3) In which ancient countries was each of the following inventions made?
Letter___________.
Alphabet__________.
Arabic numerals_____________.
Coin___________.
Paper_____________.
Chess_____________.
Compass__________________.
4) Answer the questions.
In many languages, the words for paper sound similar. For example, in English paper is "paper", in French - "papier", in German - "papier". Apparently, this similarity is not accidental: all these words have the same root and come from the same word. What is this word? What country is the birthplace of the first writing material? How was it made?
5) Calculate:
Approximately how many years ago was the pyramid of Cheops built?
Approximately how many years ago did the construction of the Great Wall of China begin?
6) Answer the questions.
Scientists consider the invention of glass to be the most important in the history of mankind. Are the scientists right? Imagine that all glass objects suddenly disappear. How will this affect our lives?
7) Answer the question.
Everyone knows that books burn and die in the fire. Fires caused enormous and irreparable damage to many libraries in the world. All this is true, but one student read fantastic stories and history books interspersed. Somewhere he read that some kind of palace library was engulfed in the flames of a grandiose fire. The ceilings between the floors collapsed, everything around burned to the ground, and the books, as if bewitched, survived. Is there really such a library, or is it invented by science fiction writers?
8) What great inventions of the Chinese influenced the life of mankind? Argue your answer.
9) Find out if there are castes in modern India. Think about whether the division of people into castes hindered or helped the development of progress in India. Write down your thoughts in the form of a plan.
First writing materials
Stone. Probably, the first of the materials on which people began to carve first ideographic images, and later conventional symbols, syllabic signs and letters, was stone. So, already the ancient Egyptian masters knocked out hieroglyphs on stone obelisks with sharpened chisels.
Brick. The inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia squeezed out signs and letters on raw blanks of clay bricks and tablets of various sizes. They did this with a bone rod with a wedge-shaped tip, and after applying the symbols, the clay was fired. The burnt tablets served as messages and were as widely circulated as letters and bills today. The origin of cuneiform writing in Mesopotamia is attributed to 3500 BC.
Metals and their alloys. Copper, lead, brass and bronze also served as writing materials in the ancient world. On sheets of lead and other metals, contracts, laws and unions were recorded. From the 15th c. BC. ancient Chinese inscriptions on fortune-telling stones and ritual bronze vessels have come down to us.
The Bible mentions (Job, 19:24) the failed dream of using "an iron chisel with tin." The ancient Romans wrote chronicles on bronze, and legionnaires before battle expressed their last will on metal buckles or sword scabbards.
Tin and bronze in history
Wood. Books in the form of a set of wooden tables (mainly from cuts of boxwood or lemon tree) existed long before the time of Homer (9th century BC). The surface of such tables was usually covered with a thin layer of wax, chalk or plaster, and the letters were scratched with a metal or bone rod called a "style".
With this method of writing, texts could be corrected by applying a new layer of coating in the right places. Separate boards were fastened together with thin leather straps - a book was published, which received the Latin name of the code (codex).
Among such books, there were probably quite weighty ones: in one of the works of the Roman comedian Plautus (254–184 BC), a case is described when a seven-year-old boy managed to break the head of a teacher with his “tablets”. It seems that book-tables did not go out of use for a long time even after the advent of paper: in Europe there is written evidence of their existence as early as the beginning of the 14th century AD, and, according to Chaucer (1344-1400), in England they were also used in late 14th century
Tree leaves. Palm and other leaves have served as writing material since time immemorial. Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD), a Roman scholar, in his encyclopedia of knowledge of antiquity (Natural History) narrated, in particular, the technique of writing on palm leaves. Diodorus Siculus, Greek historian of the 1st c. AD, the Historical Library reported that the judges of Syracuse wrote the names of those sentenced to exile on olive leaves.
In some parts of India and Ceylon, until recently, they continued to write on palm leaves. The Ceylonese used the leaves of the Talipot fan palm (Corypha umbraculifera), which were long and broad. In Assam, they wrote on the leaves of the arboreal aloe (Aquilaria agallocha), and in other parts of India, on the leaves of the palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer).
The huge leaves of the Palmyra palm were cut into strips of almost any desired length and about 5 cm wide. On the surface of the sheet, grooves of characters were squeezed out with a metal rod, and then these depressions were filled with black dye, which made the writings clearly distinguishable. Having made a couple of holes along the edge of the inscribed sheets and passing cords through them, the sheets were fastened together - a book was obtained. The memory of this use of palm leaves has survived to this day - in the name "leaves" modern book.
Tree bark. The bark served everywhere as a suitable writing material. The ancient Latins used for this the inner part of the bark, which was called the word liber (bast). Over time, the word came to mean the book itself.
No less interesting is the history of the transformation of the Russian word "lub" into "lubok". On birch bark - the bark of a white birch (Betula alba) - Novgorodians, Swedes, Tatars of the Golden Horde composed their messages with metal pointed “writing” in the Middle Ages.
American Indians, using wooden sticks and liquid pigment, applied the symbols of their pictorial writing to the white surface of the bark of the Betula papyrifera birch. Indigenous inhabitants of Mexico, Central and South America once made a kind of paper from the bast of mulberry trees.
Parchment and vellum. Parchment (parchment), which also preceded paper as a writing material, is named after ancient city Pergamon in the western part of Asia Minor. Although it has been in use probably since 1500 BC, its appearance is associated with Eumenes II, king of Pergamon (197–159 BC).
They made parchment from stratified sheepskin. The outer layer - on the side of the hairline - was tanned and turned into a chevret for leather crafts, and parchment was produced from the inner layer (on the meat side).
Velen was made from whole skins of calves, goats and lambs, in contrast to sheepskin, which was intended for parchment. Therefore, vellum can be distinguished from parchment due to its inherent characteristics the structure of the epidermis and the remains of the hair follicles of the removed fur, due to which the treated surface does not seem smooth.
Modern technology the manufacture of parchment and vellum is almost no different from the ancient one. The sequence of operations is as follows: the skin is washed, rubbed with lime, cleaned of wool and skin with a special scraper and washed again. This partially peeled skin is then stretched with fastening straps onto a rectangular wooden frame and dried. Then they are again cleaned and leveled, removing all irregularities.
Finally, it is rubbed with chalk (degreased and bleached), and the entire surface is thoroughly cleaned with a soft pumice stone. Neither parchment nor vellum is subjected to the tanning process. They are processed with lime and therefore, by the appearance of the surface and to the touch, they look like paper.
Considering European handwritten books, you can see that in many of them the pages of opposite sides of the same sheets look different: the “meat” is lighter than the “hair”. This difference is more noticeable in ancient books than in later ones, because in the dressing of parchment, the masters of a later time more abundantly bleached it with chalk and scraped the hairy side with pumice much more diligently.
The scribe, starting to work on the manuscript, with special attention selected parchment sheets, similar in color and texture. Moreover, so that the sides of each spread of the future book would not differ too much from one another, he established such a sequence of pages in which the “hair” surface of the parchment was turned to the “hair” and the “meat” to the “meat”.
The use of parchment in Europe continued even after the advent of printing from wooden boards and typesetting stamps. It is estimated that for one copy of the first Bible published by I. Gutenberg (1399-1468), about 300 sheepskins were required.
In Europe, the mass production of parchment for printed books lasted until the 16th century, but this strong and durable material is still in demand today - diplomas and diplomas are printed on it. important documents, create works of calligraphic art. So, back in the 19th century. British and US patent documentation was issued in the form of printed or handwritten parchments.
Papyrus. Although papyrus is also not strictly speaking paper, it was the first writing material that shares many of the properties of modern paper. The words cigarette, papillotka, papier-mâché and the like come from the Greek name ("papyrus") of a perennial tropical herbaceous plant of the sedge family. The Greek word "byblos" meant the inner flesh of the papyrus stem. The writing material called papyrus has a layered structure, and real paper consists of separated and crushed fibers, but it can also be made from the stems of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), because. they contain enough fiber (cellulose). Before the beginning of the new era, there were extensive papyrus plantations in Egypt, but with the growth of paper consumption, they gradually decreased and eventually almost completely disappeared.
There are several other types of natural paper-like materials suitable for writing, drawing and drawing, similar to papyrus in terms of manufacturing methods - “huun paper” (Huun) and “amatal paper” (Amatal), made from the bark of mulberry trees by the Aztecs and Maya. "Paper delovang" (Deloewang) from carefully beaten bark of a mulberry from about. Java. "Rice paper" from the island of Taiwan. The latter material is a thin spiral cut from the core of the paper aralia tree (Fatsia papyrifera) and has nothing to do with rice or paper.
As already noted, the concept of a document is based on the dual unity of information and a material carrier. Material carriers have a great influence on the processes of creation, translation, storage and use of documented information. In particular, for the transmission of information in time, durable carriers are needed, while for its transmission in space, such characteristics are not essential.
It must be borne in mind that the carrier of information and the carrier of documented information are different concepts. This is also reflected in the standardized definitions. So, in accordance with GOST R 50922-96 “Information protection. Basic terms and definitions", "information carrier - an individual or a material object, including a physical field in which information is displayed in the form of a symbol, images, signals, technical solutions and processes". And according to GOST R 51141-98. Record keeping and archiving. Terms and definitions” a documented information carrier is “a material object used to fix and store speech, sound or visual information on it, including in a transformed form”.
The material carrier of information, as a rule, consists of two components - materials of the base of the record and the substance of the record. The exceptions are material media used for mechanical recording (carving, burning, extrusion, carving, perforation, mechanical sound recording and some others), where there is no recording substance, and signs are applied directly to the material base, changing its physical, physico-chemical structure.
Information carriers are closely connected not only with the ways and means of documenting, but also with the development of technical thought. Hence - the continuous evolution of types and types of material carriers.
The advent of writing stimulated the search and invention of special materials for writing. However, at first, a person used for this purpose the most accessible materials that could be found without much effort in the natural environment: palm leaves, shells, tree bark, tortoise shells, bones, stone, bamboo, etc. For example, the philosophical instructions of Confucius (mid-1st millennium BC) were originally written on bamboo tablets. In ancient Greece and Rome, along with wooden planks covered with a layer of wax, metal (bronze or lead) tables were also used, in India - copper plates, in ancient China - bronze vases, silk.
On the territory of Ancient Russia, they wrote on birch bark - birch bark (Fig. 2). To date, more than 1,000 birch bark letters of that time have been found, the oldest of which dates back to the first half of the 11th century. Archaeologists have even found a miniature birch bark book of 12 pages, 5 x 5 cm in size, in which double sheets are sewn along the fold. Preparing the birch bark for the recording process was not difficult. Previously, it was boiled, then the inner layer of the bark was scraped off and cut off at the edges. The result was the base material of the document in the form of a ribbon or rectangle. The letters were rolled up into a scroll. In this case, the text was on the outside.
They wrote on birch bark not only in Ancient Russia, but also in Central and Northern Europe. Birch-bark writings in Latin were found. There is a known case when in 1594 30 pounds of birch bark for writing was sold by our country to Persia.
The main material for writing among the peoples of Western Asia was originally clay, from which slightly convex tiles were made. After applying the necessary information (in the form of wedge-shaped signs), the raw clay tiles were dried or fired, and then placed in special wooden or clay boxes or in original clay envelopes. At present, at least 500,000 such clay tablets, discovered by archaeologists during excavations of the ancient cities of Assyria, Babylon, and Sumer, are stored in museums around the world and private collections. The last of the found clay tablets belong to the year 75.
Historically, the first material specially made for the purpose of writing was papyrus. Its invention, around the middle of the third millennium BC, became one of the most important achievements of Egyptian culture. The main advantages of papyrus were compactness and lightness. Papyrus was made from the loose core of Nile reed stems in the form of thin yellowish sheets, which were then glued into strips up to 10 m long on average (but sometimes their dimensions reached 40 m or more) and up to 30 cm wide. Depending on the quality, it varied up to 9 varieties of papyrus. Due to its high hygroscopicity and brittleness, it was usually written on one side and stored as a scroll.
As a material carrier of information, papyrus was used not only in ancient Egypt, but also in other countries of the Mediterranean, and in Western Europe - up to the 11th century. And the last historical document written on papyrus was the message of the Pope at the beginning of the 20th century.
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The parchment could be written on both sides. It was much stronger and more durable than papyrus. However, parchment was a very expensive material. This significant drawback of parchment was overcome only as a result of the appearance of paper.