1st world war. Russia in the First World War: briefly about the main events
Berlin, London, Paris wanted to start big war in Europe, Vienna was not opposed to the defeat of Serbia, although they did not particularly want a pan-European war. The reason for the war was given by the Serbian conspirators, who also wanted a war that would destroy the "patchwork" Austro-Hungarian Empire and allow the plans to create a "Great Serbia" to be realized.
June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) terrorists kill the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. Interestingly, the Russian Foreign Ministry and Serbian Prime Minister Pasic received a message through their channels about the possibility of such an assassination attempt and tried to warn Vienna. Pasic warned through the Serbian envoy in Vienna, and Russia through Romania.
In Berlin, they decided that this was an excellent reason to start a war. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who learned about the attack at the celebration of the "Week of the Fleet" in Kiel, wrote in the margins of the report: "Now or never" (the emperor was a lover of high-profile "historical" phrases). And now the hidden flywheel of war has begun to unwind. Although most Europeans believed that this event, like many before (like the two Moroccan crises, the two Balkan wars), would not become the detonator of a world war. In addition, the terrorists were Austrian subjects, not Serbian. It should be noted that the European society of the early 20th century was largely pacifist and did not believe in the possibility of a big war, it was believed that people were already “civilized” enough to resolve controversial issues by war, there are political and diplomatic tools for this, only local conflicts are possible.
In Vienna, they have long been looking for a reason to defeat Serbia, which was considered the main threat to the empire, "the engine of pan-Slavic politics." True, the situation depended on the support of Germany. If Berlin puts pressure on Russia and she retreats, then the Austro-Serbian war is inevitable. During the negotiations in Berlin on July 5-6, the German Kaiser assured the Austrian side of its full support. The Germans sounded the mood of the British - the German ambassador told British Foreign Minister Edward Gray that Germany, "taking advantage of Russia's weakness, considers it necessary not to restrain Austria-Hungary." Gray evaded a direct answer, and the Germans felt that the British would remain on the sidelines. Many researchers believe that in this way London pushed Germany to war, Britain's firm position would have stopped the Germans. Gray told Russia that "England will take a position favorable to Russia." On the 9th, the Germans hinted to the Italians that if Rome took a position favorable to the Central Powers, then Italy could get the Austrian Trieste and Trentino. But the Italians evaded a direct answer and, as a result, until 1915 they bargained and waited.
The Turks also began to fuss, began to look for the most profitable scenario for themselves. Naval Minister Ahmed Jemal Pasha visited Paris, he was a supporter of an alliance with the French. Minister of War Ismail Enver Pasha visited Berlin. And the Minister of the Interior, Mehmed Talaat Pasha, left for St. Petersburg. As a result, the pro-German course won.
In Vienna, at that time, they came up with an ultimatum to Serbia, and they tried to include such items that the Serbs could not accept. On July 14, the text was approved, and on the 23rd it was handed over to the Serbs. The answer had to be given within 48 hours. The ultimatum contained very harsh demands. Serbs were required to ban printed editions who promoted hatred of Austria-Hungary and the violation of its territorial unity; to ban the Narodna Odbrana society and all other similar unions and movements conducting anti-Austrian propaganda; remove anti-Austrian propaganda from the education system; dismiss from the military and civil service all officers and officials who were engaged in propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary; assist the Austrian authorities in suppressing the movement against the integrity of the empire; stop smuggling and explosives into Austrian territory, arrest border guards involved in such activities, etc.
Serbia was not ready for war, it had just gone through two Balkan Wars experienced an internal political crisis. And there was no time to drag out the issue and diplomatic maneuvering. This was understood by other politicians, Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov, having learned about the Austrian ultimatum, said: "This is a war in Europe."
Serbia began to mobilize the army, and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander "begged" Russia to help. Nicholas II said that all the efforts of Russia are aimed at avoiding bloodshed, and if the war starts, then Serbia will not be left alone. On the 25th, the Serbs responded to the Austrian ultimatum. Serbia agreed to almost all points except one. The Serbian side refused the participation of the Austrians in the investigation of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on the territory of Serbia, since this affected the sovereignty of the state. Although they promised to conduct an investigation and announced the possibility of transferring the results of the investigation to the Austrians.
Vienna regarded this answer as negative. On July 25, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began a partial mobilization of troops. On the same day, covert mobilization began German Empire. Berlin demanded that Vienna begin military operations against the Serbs immediately.
Other powers tried to intervene with a view to a diplomatic settlement of the issue. London came up with a proposal to convene a conference of the great powers and peacefully resolve the issue. The British were supported by Paris and Rome, but Berlin refused. Russia and France tried to persuade the Austrians to accept a settlement plan based on Serbian proposals - Serbia was ready to transfer the investigation to the international tribunal in The Hague.
But the Germans had already decided on the issue of war, in Berlin on the 26th they prepared an ultimatum to Belgium, which stated that the French army planned to strike Germany through this country. That's why german army must prevent this attack and occupy Belgian territory. If the Belgian government agrees, the Belgians were promised compensation for the damage after the war, if not, then Belgium was declared an enemy of Germany.
In London, there was a struggle between various power groups. Supporters of the traditional policy of "non-intervention" had very strong positions, they were supported by public opinion. The British wanted to stay out of the European war. The London Rothschilds, associated with the Austrian Rothschilds, financed an active propaganda of a non-interference policy. It is likely that if Berlin and Vienna had directed the main blow against Serbia and Russia, the British would not intervene in the war. And the world saw the “strange war” of 1914, when Austria-Hungary crushed Serbia, and the German army directed the main blow against the Russian Empire. In this situation, France could conduct a "positional war", limited to private operations, and Britain could not enter the war at all. London was forced to intervene in the war by the fact that it was impossible to allow the complete defeat of France and German hegemony in Europe. The First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill, at his own peril and risk, after the completion of the summer maneuvers of the fleet with the participation of reservists, did not let them go home and kept the ships in concentration, not sending them to their places of deployment.
Austrian cartoon "Serbia must perish".
Russia
Russia at this time behaved extremely cautiously. For several days, the emperor held lengthy meetings with the Minister of War Sukhomlinov, the Minister of the Navy, Grigorovich, and the Chief of the General Staff, Yanushkevich. Nicholas II did not want to provoke a war with the military preparations of the Russian armed forces.
Only preliminary measures were taken: on the 25th of the holidays, the officers were recalled, on the 26th the emperor agreed to preparatory measures for partial mobilization. And only in a few military districts (Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa). In the Warsaw Military District, mobilization was not carried out, because. it bordered simultaneously with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Nicholas II hoped that the war could be stopped, and sent telegrams to "cousin Willy" (the German Kaiser), asking him to stop Austria-Hungary.
These fluctuations in Russia became proof for Berlin that “Russia is now unfit for combat,” that Nikolai is afraid of war. Wrong conclusions were drawn: the German ambassador and military attaché wrote from St. Petersburg that Russia was planning not a decisive offensive, but a gradual retreat, following the example of 1812. The German press wrote about "complete decay" in the Russian Empire.
The beginning of the war
On July 28, Vienna declared war on Belgrade. It should be noted that the first World War began on a great patriotic upsurge. General rejoicing reigned in the capital of Austria-Hungary, crowds of people filled the streets, singing patriotic songs. The same mood reigned in Budapest (capital of Hungary). It was a real holiday, women filled up the military, who were supposed to smash the damned Serbs, with flowers and signs of attention. Then people believed that the war with Serbia would be a victory walk.
The Austro-Hungarian army was not yet ready for the offensive. But already on the 29th, the ships of the Danube Flotilla and the Zemlin fortress, located opposite the Serbian capital, began shelling Belgrade.
Reich Chancellor of the German Empire Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg sent threatening notes to Paris and Petersburg. The French were informed that the military preparations which France was about to begin "force Germany to declare a state of threat of war." Russia was warned that if the Russians continued military preparations, "then it would hardly be possible to avoid a European war."
London proposed another settlement plan: the Austrians could occupy part of Serbia as a "collateral" for a fair investigation, in which the great powers would take part. Churchill orders the ships to be moved north, away from a possible attack by German submarines and destroyers, and "preliminary martial law" is introduced in Britain. Although the British still refused to "have their say", although Paris asked for it.
In Paris, the government held regular meetings. The chief of the French General Staff, Joffre, carried out preparatory measures before the start of a full-scale mobilization and offered to bring the army to full combat readiness and take up positions on the border. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the French soldiers, according to the law, could go home during the harvest, half of the army went to the villages. Joffre reported that german army will be able to occupy part of the territory of France without serious resistance. In general, the French government was confused. Theory is one thing, reality is quite another. The situation was aggravated by two factors: firstly, the British did not give a definite answer; secondly, apart from Germany, France could be attacked by Italy. As a result, Joffre was allowed to withdraw the soldiers from vacations and mobilize 5 frontier corps, but at the same time take them 10 kilometers from the border to show that Paris was not going to attack first, and not to provoke a war with some random conflict between German and French soldiers.
There was also no certainty in St. Petersburg, there was still hope that a big war could be avoided. After Vienna declared war on Serbia, Russia announced a partial mobilization. But it turned out to be difficult to implement, because. in Russia there were no plans for partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, such plans were only against Ottoman Empire and Sweden. It was believed that separately, without Germany, the Austrians would not dare to fight with Russia. And Russia itself was not going to attack the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The emperor insisted on partial mobilization, the head of the General Staff, Yanushkevich, argued that without the mobilization of the Warsaw Military District, Russia risks missing a powerful blow, because. according to intelligence, it turned out that it was here that the Austrians would concentrate a strike force. In addition, if an unprepared partial mobilization is initiated, it will lead to a breakdown in rail transport schedules. Then Nikolai decided not to mobilize at all, to wait.
The information was the most contradictory. Berlin tried to buy time - the German Kaiser sent encouraging telegrams, reported that Germany was inciting Austria-Hungary to make concessions, and Vienna seemed to agree. And then there was a note from Bethmann-Hollweg, a message about the bombing of Belgrade. And Vienna, after a period of wagging, announced the refusal of negotiations with Russia.
Therefore July 30 Russian emperor gave the order to mobilize. But immediately canceled, because. several peace-loving telegrams from "Cousin Willy" came from Berlin, who reported on his efforts to persuade Vienna to negotiate. Wilhelm asked not to start military preparations, because. this would interfere with Germany's negotiations with Austria. Nikolai in response suggested that the issue be submitted for consideration by the Hague Conference. Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov went to the German Ambassador Pourtales to work out the main points for resolving the conflict.
Petersburg then received other information. The Kaiser changed his tone to a harsher one. Vienna refused any negotiations, there was evidence that the Austrians would clearly coordinate their actions with Berlin. There were reports from Germany that military preparations were in full swing there. German ships from Kiel were transferred to Danzig in the Baltic. Cavalry units advanced to the border. And Russia needed 10-20 days more to mobilize its armed forces than Germany. It became clear that the Germans were simply fooling St. Petersburg in order to gain time.
On July 31, Russia announced mobilization. Moreover, it was reported that as soon as the Austrians cease hostilities and a conference was convened, Russian mobilization would be stopped. Vienna announced that a halt to hostilities was impossible and announced a full-scale mobilization directed against Russia. The Kaiser sent a new telegram to Nicholas, saying that his peace efforts had become "illusory" and that the war could still be stopped if Russia canceled military preparations. Berlin got a pretext for war. And an hour later, Wilhelm II in Berlin, to the enthusiastic roar of the crowd, announced that Germany was "forced to wage war." Martial law was introduced in the German Empire, which simply legalized the previous military preparations (they had been going on for a week).
France was sent an ultimatum about the need to maintain neutrality. The French had to answer within 18 hours whether France would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and Russia. And as a pledge of "good intentions" they demanded to transfer the border fortresses of Tul and Verdun, which they promised to return after the end of the war. The French were simply stunned by such impudence, the French ambassador in Berlin was even ashamed to convey the full text of the ultimatum, limiting himself to the requirement of neutrality. In addition, in Paris they were afraid of mass unrest and strikes that the left threatened to organize. A plan was prepared according to which they planned, according to pre-prepared lists, to arrest socialists, anarchists and all "suspicious".
The situation was very difficult. Petersburg learned about Germany's ultimatum to stop mobilization from the German press (!). The German Ambassador Pourtales was instructed to hand it over at midnight from July 31st to August 1st, the deadline was given at 12 o'clock in order to reduce the opportunities for diplomatic maneuver. The word "war" was not used. Interestingly, St. Petersburg was not even sure of French support, because. the union treaty was not ratified by the French parliament. Yes, and the British offered the French to wait " further development events”, because the conflict between Germany, Austria and Russia "does not affect the interests of England." But the French were forced to join the war, because. the Germans did not give any other choice - at 7 am on August 1, German troops (16th Infantry Division) crossed the border with Luxembourg and occupied the town of Trois Vierges ("Three Virgins"), where the borders and railway communications of Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg converged. In Germany, they later joked that the war began with the possession of three virgins.
Paris on the same day began a general mobilization and rejected the ultimatum. Moreover, they have not yet talked about the war, informing Berlin that "mobilization is not a war." Concerned Belgians (the treaties of 1839 and 1870 determined the neutral status of their country, Britain was the main guarantor of Belgium's neutrality) asked Germany for clarification about the invasion of Luxembourg. Berlin replied that there was no danger to Belgium.
The French continued to appeal to England, recalling that the English fleet, according to an earlier agreement, should protect the Atlantic coast of France and the French fleet should concentrate in the Mediterranean. During the meeting of the British government, 12 out of 18 of its members opposed the support of France. Gray informed the French ambassador that France must decide for itself, Britain was not currently in a position to provide assistance.
London was forced to reconsider its position because of Belgium, which was a possible springboard against England. The British Foreign Office asked Berlin and Paris to respect Belgium's neutrality. France confirmed the neutral status of Belgium, Germany remained silent. Therefore, the British declared that in an attack on Belgium, England could not remain neutral. Although London retained a loophole here, Lloyd George opined that if the Germans did not occupy the Belgian coast, then the violation could be considered "minor".
Russia offered Berlin to resume negotiations. Interestingly, the Germans were going to declare war anyway, even if Russia accepted an ultimatum to stop mobilization. When the German ambassador handed the note, he gave Sazonov two papers at once, in both Russia they declared war.
There was a dispute in Berlin - the military demanded to start a war without declaring it, they say, the opponents of Germany, having taken retaliatory actions, would declare war and become "instigators". And the Reich Chancellor demanded the preservation of the rules international law, the Kaiser took his side, because. loved beautiful gestures - the declaration of war was historical event. On August 2, Germany officially declared general mobilization and war on Russia. It was the day the "Schlieffen plan" began to be implemented - 40 German corps were to be transferred to offensive positions. Interestingly, Germany officially declared war on Russia, and troops began to be transferred to the west. On the 2nd, Luxembourg was finally occupied. And Belgium was given an ultimatum to let the German troops through, the Belgians had to respond within 12 hours.
The Belgians were shocked. But in the end they decided to defend themselves - they did not believe in the assurances of the Germans to withdraw troops after the war, to destroy a good relationship with England and France were not going. King Albert called for defense. Although the Belgians had the hope that this was a provocation and that Berlin would not violate the neutral status of the country.
On the same day, England was determined. The French were informed that the British fleet would cover the Atlantic coast of France. And the reason for the war will be the German attack on Belgium. A number of ministers who were against this decision resigned. The Italians declared their neutrality.
On August 2, Germany and Turkey signed a secret agreement, the Turks pledged to take the side of the Germans. On the 3rd, Turkey declared neutrality, which was a bluff given the agreement with Berlin. On the same day, Istanbul began the mobilization of reservists aged 23-45, i.e. almost universal.
On August 3, Berlin declared war on France, the Germans accused the French of attacks, "aerial bombardments" and even violation of "Belgian neutrality." The Belgians rejected the German ultimatum, Germany declared war on Belgium. On the 4th the invasion of Belgium began. King Albert asked for help from the guarantor countries of neutrality. London issued an ultimatum: stop invading Belgium or Britain would declare war on Germany. The Germans were outraged and called this ultimatum a "racial betrayal". At the end of the ultimatum, Churchill ordered the fleet to begin fighting. Thus began World War I...
Could Russia have prevented the war?
There is an opinion that if Petersburg had given Serbia to be torn to pieces by Austria-Hungary, the war could have been prevented. But this is an erroneous opinion. Thus, Russia could only win time - a few months, a year, two. The war was predetermined by the course of development of the great Western powers, the capitalist system. Germany, the British Empire, France, the USA needed it, and sooner or later they would have started it anyway. Find another reason.
Russia could only change its strategic choice - for whom to fight - at the turn of about 1904-1907. Then London and the United States frankly helped Japan, while France adhered to cold neutrality. During that period, Russia could join Germany against the "Atlantic" powers.
Secret intrigues and the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
Film from the series documentaries"Russia of the XX century". The director of the project is Smirnov Nikolai Mikhailovich, a military expert-journalist, author of the project "Our Strategy" and the series of programs "Our View. Russian Frontier". The film was made with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its representative is Nikolai Kuzmich Simakov, a specialist in church history. Involved in the film: historians Nikolai Starikov and Pyotr Multatuli, Professor of St. Petersburg State University and Herzen State Pedagogical University and Doctor of Philosophy Andrey Leonidovich Vassoevich, Chief Editor national patriotic magazine " Imperial Revival Boris Smolin, intelligence and counterintelligence officer Nikolai Volkov.
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How World War I started. Part 1.How the 1st World War began. Part 1.
Sarajevo murder
On August 1, 1914, the First World War began. There were many reasons for it, and all that was needed was an excuse to start it. This occasion was the event that occurred a month before - June 28, 1914.
The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Joseph von Habsburg was the eldest son of Archduke Karl Ludwig, brother of Emperor Franz Joseph.
Archduke Karl Ludwig
Emperor Franz Joseph
The aged emperor ruled by that time for the 66th year, having managed to outlive all the other heirs. The only son and heir of Franz Joseph, Crown Prince Rudolf, according to one version, shot himself in 1889 in Mayerling Castle, having killed his beloved Baroness Maria Vechera before that, and according to another version, he became the victim of a carefully planned political assassination that simulated the suicide of the only direct heir to the throne. In 1896, Franz Joseph's brother Karl Ludwig died after drinking water from the Jordan River. After that, the son of Karl Ludwig Franz Ferdinand became the heir to the throne.
Franz Ferdinand
Franz Ferdinand was the main hope of the decaying monarchy. In 1906, the Archduke drew up a plan for the transformation of Austria-Hungary, which, if implemented, could prolong the life of the Habsburg Empire, reducing the degree of interethnic conflicts. According to this plan, the Patchwork Empire would turn into a federal state of the United States of Greater Austria, in which 12 national autonomies would be formed for each of the large nationalities living in Austria-Hungary. However, this plan was opposed by the Prime Minister of Hungary, Count István Tisza, since such a transformation of the country would put an end to the privileged position of the Hungarians.
Istvan Tisza
He resisted so much that he was ready to kill the hated heir. He spoke about this so frankly that there was even a version that it was he who ordered the assassination of the Archduke.
On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, at the invitation of the viceroy in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Feldzeugmeister (that is, general of artillery) Oscar Potiorek, arrived in Sarajevo for maneuvers.
General Oskar Potiorek
Sarajevo was the main city of Bosnia. Before Russian-Turkish war Bosnia belonged to the Turks, and as a result, it was supposed to go to Serbia. However, Austro-Hungarian troops were brought into Bosnia, and in 1908 Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia to its possessions. Neither the Serbs, nor the Turks, nor the Russians were satisfied with this situation, and then, in 1908-09, because of this accession, a war almost broke out, but the then Minister of Foreign Affairs Alexander Petrovich Izvolsky warned the tsar against rash actions, and the war took place a little later.
Alexander Petrovich Izvolsky
In 1912, the Mlada Bosna organization was created in Bosnia and Herzegovina to liberate Bosnia and Herzegovina from occupation and unite with Serbia. The arrival of the heir was most welcome for the Young Bosnians, and they decided to kill the Archduke. Six Young Bosnians suffering from tuberculosis were dispatched for the assassination attempt. They had nothing to lose: in the coming months, death awaited them anyway.
Trifko Grabetsky, Nedeljko Chabrinovich, Gavrilo Princip
Franz Ferdinand and his morganatic wife Sophia-Maria-Josephina-Albina Hotek von Hotkow und Wognin arrived in Sarajevo early in the morning.
Sofia-Maria-Josephina-Albina Hotek von Hotkow und Vognin
Franz Ferdinand and Duchess Sophie of Hohenberg
On the way to the town hall, the couple was subjected to the first assassination attempt: one of these six, Nedeljko Chabrinovich, threw a bomb on the route of the cortege, but the fuse turned out to be too long, and the bomb exploded only under the third car. The bomb killed the driver of this car and wounded its passengers, the most significant person of which was Piotrek's adjutant Erich von Merizze, as well as a policeman and passers-by from the crowd. Chabrinovich tried to poison himself with potassium cyanide and drown himself in the Milyatsk River, but neither of them worked. He was arrested and sentenced to 20 years, but he died a year and a half later from the same tuberculosis.
Upon arrival at the town hall, the Archduke delivered a prepared speech and decided to go to the hospital to visit the wounded.
Franz Ferdinand was dressed in a blue uniform, black trousers with red stripes, a high cap with green parrot feathers. Sofia was wearing a white dress and a wide hat with an ostrich feather. Instead of the driver, Archduke Franz Urban, the owner of the car, Count Harrach, sat behind the wheel, and Potiorek sat to his left to show the way. A Gräf & Stift car raced along the Appel embankment.
Diagram of the murder scene
At the intersection at the Latin Bridge, the car slowed down slightly, shifting into a lower gear, and the driver began to turn right. At this time, having just drunk coffee in Stiller's shop, one of the same tubercular six, 19-year-old high school student Gavrilo Princip, went out into the street.
Gavrilo Princip
He was just walking along the Latin Bridge and saw the turning Gräf & Stift quite by accident. Without a moment's hesitation, Princip pulled out Browning and pierced the archduke's stomach with the first shot. The second bullet went to Sofia. He wanted to spend the Third Principle on Potiorek, but did not have time - the people who had fled disarmed the youth and began to beat him. Only the intervention of the police saved Gavrila's life.
Browning Gavrilo Princip
Arrest of Gavrilo Princip
As a minor, instead of the death penalty, he was sentenced to the same 20 years, and during his imprisonment they even began to treat him for tuberculosis, extending his life right up to April 28, 1918.
The site where the Archduke was killed today. View from the Latin bridge.
For some reason, the wounded Archduke and his wife were taken not to the hospital, which was already a couple of blocks away, but to the residence of Potiorek, where, under the howling and lamentations of the retinue, both died of blood loss, without receiving medical care.
Everyone knows what followed: since the terrorists were Serbs, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia. Russia stood up for Serbia, threatening Austria, and Germany stood up for Austria. As a result, a month later, a world war broke out.
Franz Joseph survived this heir, and after his death, the 27-year-old Karl, the son of the imperial nephew Otto, who died in 1906, became emperor.
Karl Franz Joseph
He had to rule for a little less than two years. The collapse of the empire found him in Budapest. In 1921 Charles tried to become king of Hungary. Having organized a rebellion, he, with troops loyal to him, reached almost all the way to Budapest, but was arrested and on November 19 of the same year he was taken to the Portuguese island of Madeira, which was assigned to him as a place of exile. A few months later, he died suddenly, allegedly from pneumonia.
The same Gräf & Stift. The car had a four-cylinder 32-horsepower engine, which allowed it to develop a 70-kilometer speed. The working volume of the engine was 5.88 liters. The car did not have a starter and was started by a crank. It is located in the Vienna Military Museum. It even retained a number plate with the number "A III118". Subsequently, one of the paranoid deciphered this number as the date of the end of the First World War. In accordance with this decoding, it means "Armistice", that is, a truce, and for some reason in English. The first two Roman units mean "11", the third Roman and the first Arabic units mean "November", and the last unit and eight indicate the year 1918 - it was on November 11, 1918 that the Compiègne truce took place, which put an end to the First World War.
World War I could have been avoided
After Gavrila Princip assassinated the heir to the Austrian throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, the possibility of preventing the war remained, and neither Austria nor Germany considered this war inevitable.
Three weeks elapsed between the day the Archduke was assassinated and the day Austria-Hungary announced the ultimatum to Serbia. The alarm that arose after this event soon subsided, and the Austrian government and personally Emperor Franz Joseph hastened to assure St. Petersburg that they did not intend to take any military actions. The fact that Germany was not thinking of fighting at the beginning of July is also evidenced by the fact that a week after the assassination of the Archduke, Kaiser Wilhelm II went on a summer vacation to the Norwegian fjords
Wilhelm II
There was a political lull, usual for the summer season. Ministers, members of parliament, high-ranking government and military officials went on vacation. The tragedy in Sarajevo didn't particularly alarm anyone in Russia either: most politicians were immersed in the problems of domestic life.
Everything was ruined by an event that happened in mid-July. In those days, taking advantage of the parliamentary recess, the President of the French Republic, Raymond Poincare, and the Prime Minister and, at the same time, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, René Viviani paid an official visit to Nicholas II, arriving in Russia aboard a French battleship.
French battleship
The meeting took place on July 7-10 (20-23) at the Tsar's summer residence, Peterhof. In the early morning of July 7 (20) the French guests moved from the battleship anchored in Kronstadt to the royal yacht, which took them to Peterhof.
Raymond Poincaré and Nicholas II
After three days of negotiations, banquets and receptions, interspersed with visits to the traditional summer maneuvers of the guards regiments and units of the St. Petersburg Military District, the French visitors returned to their battleship and departed for Scandinavia. However, despite the political lull, this meeting did not go unnoticed by the intelligence of the Central Powers. Such a visit unequivocally testified: Russia and France are preparing something, and this something is being prepared against them.
It must be frankly admitted that Nikolai did not want war and tried his best to prevent it from starting. In contrast, the highest diplomatic and military officials were in favor of military action and tried to put the strongest pressure on Nicholas. As soon as on July 24 (11), 1914, a telegram arrived from Belgrade stating that Austria-Hungary had presented an ultimatum to Serbia, Sazonov joyfully exclaimed: “Yes, this is a European war.” On the same day, at breakfast with the French ambassador, which was also attended by the English ambassador, Sazonov called on the allies to take decisive action. And at three o'clock in the afternoon, he demanded to convene a meeting of the Council of Ministers, at which he raised the question of demonstrative military preparations. At this meeting, it was decided to mobilize four districts against Austria: Odessa, Kyiv, Moscow and Kazan, as well as the Black Sea, and, strangely, Baltic Fleet. The latter was already a threat not so much to Austria-Hungary, which had access only to the Adriatic, as against Germany, the sea border with which passed exactly along the Baltic. In addition, the Council of Ministers proposed to introduce from July 26 (13) throughout the country a "regulation on the preparatory period for war."
Vladimir Alexandrovich Sukhomlinov
On July 25 (12) Austria-Hungary announced that it refused to extend the deadline for Serbia's response. The latter, in its response on the advice of Russia, expressed its readiness to satisfy the Austrian demands by 90%. Only the demand for the entry of officials and the military into the country was rejected. Serbia was also ready to refer the case to the Hague International Tribunal or to the consideration of the great powers. However, at 6:30 p.m. that day, the Austrian envoy in Belgrade notified the Serbian government that its response to the ultimatum was unsatisfactory, and he, along with the entire mission, was leaving Belgrade. But even at this stage, the possibilities for a peaceful settlement were not exhausted.
Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov
However, through the efforts of Sazonov, it was reported to Berlin (and for some reason not to Vienna) that on July 29 (16) the mobilization of four military districts would be announced. Sazonov did everything possible to offend Germany as much as possible, which was bound to Austria by allied obligations. And what were the alternatives? some will ask. After all, it was impossible to leave the Serbs in trouble. That's right, you can't. But the steps that Sazonov took led precisely to the fact that Serbia, which had neither sea nor land connections with Russia, found itself face to face with the furious Austria-Hungary. The mobilization of four districts could not help Serbia in any way. Moreover, the notification of its beginning made Austrian steps even more decisive. It seems that Sazonov wanted a declaration of war on Serbia by Austria more than the Austrians themselves. On the contrary, in their diplomatic moves, Austria-Hungary and Germany maintained that Austria was not seeking territorial gains in Serbia and was not threatening its integrity. Its sole purpose is to ensure its own peace and public safety.
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire (1910-1916) Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov and German Ambassador to Russia (1907-1914) Count Friedrich von Pourtales
The German ambassador, trying to somehow even out the situation, visited Sazonov and asked if Russia would be satisfied with the promise of Austria not to violate the integrity of Serbia. Sazonov gave the following written answer: “If Austria, realizing that the Austro-Serbian conflict has acquired a European character, declares its readiness to exclude from its ultimatum items that violate the sovereign rights of Serbia, Russia undertakes to stop its military preparations.” This answer was tougher than the position of England and Italy, which provided for the possibility of accepting these points. This circumstance indicates that the Russian ministers at that time decided to go to war, completely disregarding the opinion of the emperor.
The generals hastened to mobilize with the greatest noise. On the morning of 31 (18) July, announcements printed on red paper appeared in St. Petersburg, calling for mobilization. The excited German ambassador tried to get explanations and concessions from Sazonov. At 12 o'clock in the morning Pourtales visited Sazonov and handed over to him, on behalf of his government, a statement that if Russia did not start demobilization at 12 o'clock in the afternoon, the German government would give an order for mobilization.
It was worth canceling the mobilization, and the war would not have started.
However, instead of announcing mobilization after the expiration of the term, as Germany would have done if she really wanted war, the German Foreign Ministry several times demanded that Pourtales seek a meeting with Sazonov. Sazonov deliberately delayed the meeting with the German ambassador in order to force Germany to be the first to take a hostile step. Finally, at the seventh hour, the Minister of Foreign Affairs arrived at the Ministry building. Soon the German ambassador was already entering his office. In great agitation, he asked if Russian government respond to yesterday's German note in a favorable tone. At that moment, it depended only on Sazonov whether or not there would be a war.
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire (1910-1916) Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov
Sazonov could not but know the consequences of his answer. He knew that three years remained before the full implementation of our military program, while Germany completed its program in January. He knew that the war would hit foreign trade, cutting off our export routes. He also could not help but know that he opposed the war most of Russian manufacturers, and that the sovereign himself and imperial family. If he had said yes, peace would have continued on the planet. Russian volunteers through Bulgaria and Greece would get to Serbia. Russia would help her with weapons. Meanwhile, conferences would be convened that, in the end, would be able to extinguish the Austro-Serbian conflict, and Serbia would not be occupied for three years. But Sazonov said his "no". But this was not the end. Pourtales again asked if Russia could give Germany a favorable answer. Sazonov again firmly refused. But then it was not difficult to guess what was in the pocket of the German ambassador. If he asks the same question a second time, it is clear that something terrible will happen if the answer is no. But Pourtales asked this question for the third time, giving Sazonov one last chance. Who is this Sazonov to make such a decision for the people, for the thought, for the tsar and for the government? If history forced him to give an immediate answer, he had to remember the interests of Russia, whether she wanted to fight in order to work off Anglo-French loans with the blood of Russian soldiers. And still Sazonov repeated his "no" for the third time. After the third refusal, Pourtales took from his pocket a note from the German embassy, which contained a declaration of war.
Friedrich von Pourtales
It seems that individual Russian officials did everything possible to start the war as soon as possible, and if they did not, then the First World War could, if not be avoided, then at least postponed until a more convenient time.
As a sign of mutual love and eternal friendship, shortly before the war, the “brothers” changed their dress uniforms.
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