During the second Balkan war it was defeated. Balkan Wars: Europe's Uncut Gordian Knot
The Balkans have always traditionally been considered too confusing and therefore no less explosive corner of Europe. Ethnic, political and economic contradictions are still not resolved here. However, a little more than 100 years ago, when the political picture not only in the Balkans, but throughout the rest of Europe was somewhat different, it was in this area that two wars thundered, which became tangible harbingers of a larger conflict.
Background of the conflict: what led to it?
The roots of the Balkan wars should not even be sought in the Turkish enslavement of the Balkan peoples, but in an earlier time. So, the contradictions between the peoples were observed here back in the days of Byzantium, when such strong states as Bulgaria and Serbia existed in the Balkans. The Ottoman invasion in a certain way united the Balkan Slavs against the Turks, who for almost five centuries became the main enemies of the Balkan Slavs.
After the rise of Balkan nationalism in the 19th century from a decrepit Ottoman Empire declared independence Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria, which became its opponents. However, this did not mean at all that all the contradictions in the Balkans were resolved. On the contrary, there was still a lot of land on the Balkan Peninsula that the new states claimed. It was this circumstance that made the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and its former possessions almost inevitable.
At the same time, the great European powers were also interested in weakening the Ottoman Empire. Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary and France had views of a number of Turkish territories and sought, by weakening it by proxy, to annex these territories. So, in 1908, Austria-Hungary managed to annex Bosnia, which previously belonged to the Ottoman Empire, and Italy invaded Libya in 1911. Thus, the moment for the liberation of the Slavic lands from Ottoman rule is almost ripe.
Russia played an important role in the formation of the anti-Turkish alliance. It was with her assistance that already in March 1912 an alliance was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria, which was soon joined by Greece and Montenegro. Although there were a number of contradictions between the countries of the Balkan Union, Turkey was the main adversary, which united these countries.
The Turkish government understood that the alliance between the Slavic states of the Balkans would be directed primarily against the Ottoman Empire. In this regard, in the fall of 1912, military preparations began in the Balkan part of the country, which, however, dragged on for a very long time. Turkey's plans provided for the defeat of opponents in parts: at first it was supposed to defeat Bulgaria, then Serbia, and then Montenegro and Greece. For this purpose, the Turkish troops on the Balkan Peninsula were consolidated into two armies: the western one, located in Albania and Macedonia, and the eastern one, designed to hold Thrace and Istanbul. In total, the Turkish troops amounted to about 450 thousand people and 900 guns.
Map of the Balkan Union and the theater of operations. The unsuccessful configuration of the border for the Ottoman Empire is clearly visible. With a successful attack on Kavala, the Ottoman troops inevitably ended up in a "bag", which was demonstrated in 1912
In turn, the allies concentrated their forces on the borders of the Ottoman Empire. The plan was to strike at the same time so that the Ottoman defenses would collapse and the country would suffer a crushing defeat. In this case, the war was supposed to last no more than a month. The total number of Allied troops was approximately 630 thousand people with 1500 guns. The advantage was clearly on the side of the anti-Ottoman forces.
The war became a fact (October 1912)
However, an organized simultaneous strike was prevented by a premature attack by Montenegro. So, the Montenegrin troops, concentrated on the border, from the first days of October were drawn into local clashes with the Turkish army. By October 8, these clashes predictably escalated into a full-scale war, which was confirmed in a message to the Turkish Foreign Ministry announcing the start of a war between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire.
The Montenegrin army launched an offensive in a southerly direction, with the goal of capturing the territory of Albania, which the country claimed. And this offensive achieved some success: after 10 days, the troops advanced 25-30 kilometers, inflicting serious losses on the Turkish army.
On October 18, 1912, Serbia and Bulgaria declared war on the Ottoman Empire. On October 19, Greece joined them. Thus began the First Balkan War.
Bulgarian troops immediately rushed to the coast of the Aegean Sea in order to capture the part of Thrace, inhabited mainly by Bulgarians, and interrupt communication between the Eastern and Western Turkish armies. In front of the Bulgarian army were troops that were not fully mobilized and did not have time to occupy the field fortifications. These circumstances significantly played into the hands of the Bulgarians. As a result, already on the fourth day after the declaration of war (October 23), the Bulgarian troops managed to block Edirne and come very close to the city of Kirklareli (Eastern Thrace). Thus, there was a threat directly to the capital of the Ottoman Empire - Istanbul.
Meanwhile, Serbian and Montenegrin troops united in a consolidated group and launched an offensive in southern Serbia and Macedonia. Parts of the 1st Army of Serbia on October 21, 1912 approached the city of Kumanovo and were preparing to take it. However, there were also large Ottoman forces from the Western Army. 120 thousand Serbs were opposed by about 180 thousand Turks, who were later to be joined by another 40 thousand soldiers. The 2nd Army advanced from the Pristina region to the Serbian troops as reinforcements.
The Turks attacked on 23 October. Their daytime attack, although it achieved some success, failed to overturn the Serbian troops. Additional difficulties were caused by foggy weather, which did not allow the effective use of artillery. Only at night, when the fog cleared, the artillery was brought into the battle. At the same time, the Serbs counterattacked so successfully that the results of the daytime attack by the Turks were essentially nullified.
The next day, Serbian troops went on the attack. The Turks were completely unprepared for this, which decided the outcome of the battle. As a result, Turkish troops began to retreat deep into Macedonia, losing most his artillery. The defeat of the Ottoman troops in the battle of Kumanov opened the way for the Serbs and their allies to Macedonia, Albania and Epirus.
The war flares up (October-November 1912)
Meanwhile, the troops of the 1st and 3rd Bulgarian armies received the task of capturing the city of Kirklareli (or Lozengrad). Having captured this city, the Bulgarians could cut off the Western Turkish army from the metropolis and significantly simplify the task of the Allies to capture the Turkish territories in the western Balkans.
The Ottoman command had high hopes for the defense of Kirklareli. The garrison of the city was inspected by the German general von der Goltz, who gave very optimistic forecasts regarding the defense. However, the Turkish troops themselves were not sufficiently trained, and their morale left much to be desired.
As a result of the battle under the walls of the city, the Bulgarian troops, with a skillful maneuver, managed to cut off the main part of the Turkish troops from the city and enter the almost empty city on October 24, 1912. This defeat seriously demoralized not only the troops, but also the government of the Ottoman Empire. In turn, in Bulgaria, the victory at Lozengrad caused a great patriotic upsurge. After stubborn battles, the Bulgarian troops approached the Chataldzha defensive line of the Turks, where they stopped.
The eastern army of the Turks, after the defeat in the battle of Kumanovo, began to withdraw first to Skopje, and then to the city of Bitola. However, here the Turkish troops were intercepted by the Serbs, and a bloody battle ensued. As a result, by the joint efforts of the Serbian and Bulgarian troops, the Turkish Western Army was destroyed in early November 1912.
At this time, the Greek troops, who began active fighting On October 18, they managed to capture the city of Thessaloniki and approached southern Macedonia. At the same time, the Greek fleet was marked by a number of victories over the Ottoman fleet, which also raised the spirit of the Balkan Union.
After the actual destruction of the Western and Eastern Turkish armies, the Chataldzha direction became the decisive front of the First Balkan War. Here, from the beginning to the middle of November, the Bulgarian troops made a number of unsuccessful attempts to break through the Turkish defenses, but failed to do so. The situation has reached an impasse.
Peace talks or necessary respite? (November 1912 - May 1913)
In November 1912, a situation developed on the fronts of the First Balkan War in which a truce was simply inevitable. The troops of the Balkan Union were bogged down in the siege of a number of Ottoman fortresses, and the Ottoman troops had practically no forces for active operations. There was also a threat of intervention in the conflict by Austria-Hungary, which pursued its interests in the Balkans.
Thus, already in November, hostilities along almost the entire front line ceased, and on December 26, peace negotiations began in London. These negotiations were rather difficult, mainly due to Turkey's unwillingness to suffer heavy territorial losses. At the same time, political tensions only grew in Turkey itself, which resulted in a coup on January 23, 1913, when the Young Turks, a movement that sought to restore the former prestige and power of the Ottoman Empire, took power in the country. As a result of this coup, the Ottoman Empire stopped participating in peace negotiations, and the fighting of the First Balkan War resumed at 19:00 on February 3, 1913.
After that, the Ottoman troops, who managed to concentrate during the truce in the Chataldzhi region (Istanbul direction), went on the offensive against the Bulgarian troops. However, the density of troops here was great, and the attempt to break through was reduced to positional battles, bogged down in which, the Turkish army was defeated.
In March 1913, the Bulgarian troops, having exhausted the Turks besieged in Adrianople, suddenly began to storm the fortress. Turkish soldiers were taken by surprise, which decided the outcome of the assault. On March 13, Bulgaria captured Adrianople.
Simultaneously with the events in the east of the Balkans, the siege of the city of Shkoder by Montenegrin troops continued. The city was besieged at the very beginning of the war, but thanks to the stubborn defense of the Turks continued to hold out. By spring, the Ottoman garrison of Shkoder was already exhausted enough that its new commander, Essad Pasha (the previous one, Huseyn Riza Pasha, was killed), began negotiations on surrendering the fortress to the Montenegrins. The result of these negotiations was the occupation of the city of Shkoder by Montenegro on April 23, 1913.
End of the war or first act? (May-June 1913)
From the beginning of May, a lull actually set in at the front, which was used to resume peace negotiations in London. This time, even the Young Turks understood that the war was actually lost for the Ottoman Empire, and the country needed a respite.
On May 30, a peace treaty was signed. According to him, almost all the territories lost by the Ottoman Empire, except for Albania, passed to the countries of the Balkan Union. Albania passed under the control of the great powers (Italy and Austria-Hungary), and its future was to be decided in the near future. Turkey also lost Crete, which passed to Greece.
Also, one of the main points of the London Peace Treaty was that the countries of the Balkan Union themselves would divide the conquered territories among themselves. It was this point that caused many strife and, ultimately, the split of the Balkan Union. It is possible that this clause was adopted with the active assistance of Germany or Austria-Hungary, who did not want to strengthen the pro-Russian Balkan Union.
Immediately after the war, the first disputes arose between yesterday's allies. So, the main one was the dispute regarding the partition of Macedonia, which had views, both Serbia and Bulgaria and Greece. The Bulgarian government dreamed of a Greater Bulgaria (which caused tension in relations with other countries of the Balkan Union), in Serbia, as a result of the victory, society was significantly radicalized. There was also an open dispute between Bulgaria and Greece regarding the city of Thessaloniki and Thrace. In view of all these disputes, the situation was such that Bulgaria found itself alone against all its former allies.
The active diplomatic efforts of Germany and Austria-Hungary also added fuel to the fire, suggesting to the Serbian government that it was Serbia that had more rights to Macedonia. At the same time, the Bulgarian government was told the same thing, but diametrically opposed. Only Russian diplomats called for a diplomatic solution of issues, but it was too late: new conflict matured fairly quickly, and before the peace treaty had been signed in London, the Second Balkan War was already on the horizon.
June 1913 is characterized by the transfer and deployment of troops on the Serbian-Bulgarian border. In this aspect, Serbia had a number of advantages, since a large part of the Bulgarian troops were transferred from the Chataldzhi region, which took time. The Serbian troops during the First Balkan War acted not far away, therefore they managed to concentrate earlier.
At the end of June, Serbian and Bulgarian troops came into contact, and the situation became critical. Russia made a last attempt to keep the peace and convened negotiations in St. Petersburg. However, these negotiations were not destined to materialize: on June 29, Bulgaria attacked Serbia without declaring war.
New war (June-July 1913)
Bulgarian troops launched an offensive against Macedonia with the forces of the 4th Army. Initially, they were successful, and managed to defeat the advanced units of the Serbs. However, then the 1st Serbian Army moved towards the Bulgarians, which stopped the rapid advance of the enemy troops. In July, the Bulgarian army was gradually "squeezed out" from Serbian Macedonia.
Also on June 29, the 2nd Bulgarian Army launched an offensive in the direction of the city of Thessaloniki in order to occupy the city and defeat the Greek army. However, even here the Bulgarians, after initial successes, were expected to be defeated. The Greek army made an attempt to surround the Bulgarian army in the area of the city of Kilkis, but this only led to its displacement back to the border. The attempt of the Bulgarians to counterattack also ended in failure, and after a series of defeats, the 2nd Bulgarian army was demoralized and began to retreat. The Greek troops managed to capture a number of settlements in Macedonia and Thrace (Strumica, Kavala) and came into contact with the 3rd Serbian army.
Bulgaria was bogged down in the conflict, and its hopes for a quick victory did not come true. The government understood that there was little chance of victory, but continued the fighting in the hope of the fatigue of Serbia and Greece and the most acceptable peace. However, third countries did not fail to take advantage of this difficult situation.
Bulgaria's uneasy relations with Romania, which had long laid claim to Southern Dobruja, as well as with the Ottoman Empire (for obvious reasons) also played a role. Taking advantage of the fact that Bulgaria was involved in heavy fighting, these countries began active hostilities against it. On July 12, 1913, Turkish troops crossed the border with Bulgaria in Thrace. On July 14, Romanian troops also crossed the Bulgarian border.
The Turkish army managed to capture Adrianople by July 23 and defeat almost all Bulgarian troops in Thrace. Romania, however, did not meet resistance due to the fact that all Bulgarian forces were concentrated on the Serbian and Greek fronts. Romanian troops moved freely to the capital of Bulgaria - the city of Sofia.
Realizing the hopelessness of further resistance, on July 29, 1913, the Bulgarian government signed an armistice. The Balkan Wars are over.
Results of wars and loss of sides
On August 10, 1913, a new peace treaty was signed in Bucharest. According to him, Bulgaria was losing a number of territories in Macedonia and Thrace, leaving behind only a part of eastern Thrace with the city of Kavala. Also, in favor of Romania, territories in Dobruja were taken away. Serbia received all the Macedonian territories that had been taken from Turkey as a result of the London Peace Treaty. Greece secured the city of Thessaloniki and the island of Crete.
Also on September 29, 1913, a separate peace treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Turkey in Istanbul (since Turkey was not a member of the Balkan Union). He returned to Turkey part of Thrace with the city of Adrianople (Edirne).
An accurate assessment of the losses of countries separately during the First and Second Balkan Wars is significantly hampered by the fact that the time interval between these conflicts is very small. That is why most often they operate with summary data on losses.
Thus, the losses of Bulgaria during both wars amounted to approximately 185 thousand people killed, wounded and died from wounds. Serbian losses amounted to approximately 85 thousand people. Greece lost 50 thousand people killed, died of wounds and diseases and wounded. Montenegrin losses were the smallest and amounted to about 10.5 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, suffered the greatest losses - about 350 thousand people.
Such high losses of Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire are explained by the fact that both of these countries at different stages of the conflicts fought against several countries, inferior to them numerically. Also, the main burden of the battles in the First Balkan War also fell on Bulgaria and Turkey, which led to their great losses and, as a result, their greater exhaustion.
Among the factors that influenced the defeat of Turkey, and then Bulgaria, one should indicate:
- Unsuccessful concentration of troops of the Ottoman Empire on the eve of the First Balkan War (communication between the Western army and the mother country was interrupted in the first weeks of the conflict);
- The ambitious plans of the Ottoman (and then the Bulgarian) command, which were, in fact, unrealistic;
- A war against several countries alone, which, with the resources available to both the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, was tantamount to defeat;
- Tensions with non-belligerent neighbors. This manifested itself most deplorably for Bulgaria in 1913.
As a result of the Balkan wars, a new serious power appeared on the Balkan Peninsula - Serbia. However, a number of problems related primarily to the interests of the great powers in this region remained unresolved. It was these problems that ultimately led to the crisis that soon developed into the First world war. Thus, the Balkan wars failed to smooth the situation in the region, but in the end only aggravated it.
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100 Great Wars Sokolov Boris Vadimovich
BALKAN WARS (1912-1913)
BALKAN WARS
(1912–1913)
The war of the coalition (Balkan Union) of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece against Turkey in order to conquer Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula (First Balkan War) and the war of the same coalition and Turkey and Romania that joined it against Bulgaria with the aim of redistributing the territories captured in the previous war (Second Balkan War).
In Macedonia, the population was dominated by Bulgarians. Their share exceeded 50 percent. There were about three times fewer Turks than Bulgarians, one-third fewer Greeks than Turks, and two and a half times fewer Albanians than Greeks. Serbia claimed a large part of Macedonia. The Serbian royal dynasty sought to unite around itself all the southern Slavs. Also in Thrace, the Bulgarians made up more than half of the population, surpassing both the Turks and the Greeks. Contradictions between Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece over the territory of Macedonia led to the Second Balkan War.
The First Balkan War began on October 9, 1912 with the attack of the Montenegrin army on the Turkish fortress of Shkoder in Albania. On October 17, when Bulgarian, Greek and Serbian troops concentrated for an attack, Turkey declared war on Athens, Sofia, Belgrade and Cetinje. The next day, Bulgaria and Greece, in turn, declared war on Turkey (on October 7, Serbia joined them). In this war, they acted as aggressors, counting on the support of the great European powers and on the internal weakness of the Ottoman Empire.
The Turkish army was significantly outnumbered by its opponents. After mobilization, she had an army with a total strength of 914 thousand people, of which she used about 700 thousand people with 1582 guns. The Bulgarian army numbered 738 thousand people, of which almost 600 thousand were transferred to the theater of operations. Montenegro mobilized a 40,000-strong army, which fully participated in the war. Serbia mobilized 291 thousand people, of which 175 thousand people were sent to the front. Greece fielded 175 thousand people, of which 150 thousand people participated in the battles. Thus, the overall superiority of the states of the Balkan Union over Turkey in the number of armies was approximately 1.4 times.
By October 25, Bulgarian troops defeated the main forces of the Turkish Eastern Army near Lozengrad. The Greek Thessalian army, meanwhile, knocked down weak Turkish barriers at the Sarandaporo mountain pass, and the 1st Serbian army defeated the Turkish Vardar army in the Kumanovo region. By November 3, the Thessalian army had defeated the Turkish forces at Enije Vardar and opened the way to Thessaloniki, while the 1st and 2nd Bulgarian armies inflicted a heavy defeat on the Turkish Eastern Army on the Karagachder River. During this battle, on October 29, for the first time in history, the Bulgarian pilot Radul Milkov and the observer Prodan Tarakchiev conduct reconnaissance and air bombardment of enemy positions.
On November 3, the Turkish government turned to the great powers for mediation in concluding a truce with the states of the Balkan Union. But the war continued. On November 6, the main Turkish forces were pushed back to the Chatalja defensive positions in front of Istanbul. Bulgarian troops could not overcome them on the move. Stubborn battles ensued. On November 8, Turkey again turned to the great powers with a request for mediation, but was refused.
On the night of November 8-9, the Turkish garrison in Thessaloniki capitulated. Greek and Bulgarian troops entered the city. Three days later, Turkey turned to Bulgaria, and through it to the rest of the allies, with a request for an armistice and a preliminary peace treaty. Bulgaria did not accept this request. The government in Sofia hoped that the Bulgarian army would break through the Chataldzha positions and capture Constantinople (Istanbul). However, the attack on these fortifications, undertaken on November 17–18, ended in failure. More successfully for the Bulgarians, hostilities developed in the Aegean Thrace, where on November 19 their 2nd Macedonian-Odrin brigade captured the city of Dedeagach.
On November 20 and 21, the largest battles at sea took place. Four Bulgarian minesweepers in the Black Sea attacked the Turkish cruiser Hamidiye and hit it with several torpedoes, causing serious damage. The cruiser, however, remained afloat and was able to reach Istanbul.
On November 27, Bulgarian troops managed to capture the Turkish corps of Yaver Pasha in the Dedeagach area. More than 9 thousand prisoners, 8 guns and 2 machine guns were taken. After this defeat, on November 25, negotiations began on a preliminary (preliminary) peace treaty, and on December 3, a protocol on a temporary truce was signed. On December 16, negotiations between Turkey and the states of the Balkan Union began in London and a conference of ambassadors of the great powers opened. But already three days after the start of the peace conference, the Bulgarian command decided to prepare for the assault on Edirne (Odrin or Adrianople).
Meanwhile, on January 23, 1913, a coup d'état took place in Turkey. Turkish nationalists came to power - the Young Turks, led by Jemal Pasha, Enver Pasha and Talaat Pasha. On 29 January they broke off the peace talks. Hostilities resumed.
Initially, Turkish troops were able to push back the 1st and 3rd Bulgarian armies from the Chataldzha positions by February 13. Serbian and Montenegrin troops launched an unsuccessful assault on Shkodra. On February 26, hoping to use its military successes during a peace conference, Turkey accepted the mediation of the great powers to negotiate with the state of the Balkan Union. However, the allies were not going to stop the war yet.
On March 5, the Greeks in Epirus captured the Turkish fortress of Janina. On March 24, the Bulgarian troops went on the offensive and five days later pushed the Turks back to the Chataldzha fortifications. On March 26, the 2nd Bulgarian Army captured Edirne and captured a 60,000-strong garrison led by Shukri Pasha and 524 guns. Bulgarian losses in this case were small: 1316 killed, 451 missing and 6329 wounded.
On April 14, 1913, peace negotiations began in London and an agreement was signed on the cessation of hostilities. On May 9, the European Great Powers imposed a protocol on Bulgaria, according to which she was forced to cede the city of Silistra in Dobruja to Romania as compensation for her benevolent neutrality in the war with Turkey. On May 30, the states of the Balkan Union signed the London Peace Treaty with Turkey, according to which the Ottoman Empire lost Macedonia, most of Thrace and Albania, which gained independence (a small part of its territory went to Montenegro, and the vast Kosovo region to Serbia). But the winners could not share the booty, and this led to the Second Balkan War.
Even before the signing of the London Peace, at the end of February 1913, clashes began between the Bulgarian and Greek troops in Western Macedonia. The Bulgarian command began the concentration of troops in Macedonia in case they had to fight with the former allies. At the same time, Serbia and Greece entered into negotiations with Romania on a possible alliance against Bulgaria. On May 5, Athens and Belgrade formed an alliance against Sofia. On May 8, Romania proposed a similar alliance to Turkey. Former allies, as well as the enemy - Turkey feared that Bulgaria, which had the most strong army, will establish its hegemony in the Balkans, capturing almost all of Macedonia and Thrace. Serbia hoped to gain access to the sea by annexing a significant part of the Albanian territory. However, Austria-Hungary opposed this, fearing the strengthening of the Serbian state and its influence on the Yugoslav population of the Danubian monarchy. Then Belgrade demanded compensation from the Bulgarian part of Macedonia. In Sofia, realizing the inevitability of a new military clash, on May 25, additional mobilization was announced. Five days later, additional mobilization began in Greece and Serbia. On June 4, Serbia and Greece concluded a military-political alliance against Bulgaria, and on June 6 they offered Turkey to join them. Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek troops were moving up to the borders.
On June 8, Russian Emperor Nicholas II warned Belgrade and Sofia that whoever started hostilities first would be subject to political sanctions. Meanwhile, on June 11, Montenegro re-mobilized the army demobilized after the First Balkan War. Bulgaria insisted that Russia and other great powers hold an early arbitration on the Macedonian issue to resolve Serbian-Bulgarian territorial disputes. Russian diplomacy in every possible way delayed the solution of this issue, as it did not want to quarrel with Serbia, which at that moment was most closely connected with Russia of all the Balkan states.
On June 22, Bulgaria presented Russia with an ultimatum: to hold an arbitration within seven days, threatening otherwise to start a war against Serbia and Greece. On June 27, Romania warned Bulgaria that the start of hostilities against Serbia would mean a Romanian-Bulgarian war. But on June 29, the Bulgarian army invaded the lines of control of Serbian and Greek troops in Macedonia. Main blow inflicted by the 2nd Bulgarian army, which was supposed to capture Thessaloniki. At this time, the more powerful 4th Army was advancing in the direction of the Zletovska River and the city of Krivolak. The plan of the Bulgarian command was to withdraw Greece from the war as soon as possible, and then to bring down all the forces on Serbia in order to cope with it before the Romanian army had time to complete the mobilization and go on the offensive. At this time, the Serbian troops stationed in Macedonia could be cut off from Serbia. However, the Bulgarians started the offensive in this direction with insufficient forces and very quickly curtailed it, when on July 2 the Greek troops launched a counteroffensive and began to push the 2nd and 4th Bulgarian armies.
By July 10, the Bulgarian units operating against Serbia withdrew to the old Serbian-Bulgarian border. On July 12, Turkey started a war against Bulgaria. By July 23, Turkish troops ousted the Bulgarians from Eastern Thrace and recaptured Edirne. The position of the Bulgarians became hopeless after the Romanian army launched an invasion of northern Bulgaria on July 14 and, almost unopposed, moved on Sofia and Varna. True, on the same day, the Bulgarian troops launched a successful counter-offensive against the Greek army, and by July 30, the 40,000-strong group of Greeks in the area of the Kresna Gorge in the Rhodopes, bypassed from the flanks, was in a semi-encirclement. However, there was no time or energy to eliminate it.
Bulgaria's opponents had a 4-fold superiority in infantry and had 1.6 times more artillery and 2.5 times more cavalry. It was pointless to continue fighting. On July 30, 1913, the Bulgarian government accepted the offer of the Greek King Constantine to conclude an armistice, which was signed in Bucharest on the same day. On July 31, hostilities ceased. On August 10, 1913, the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Romania, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. Most of Macedonia went to Serbia and Greece. Greece also received part of Western Thrace. Bulgaria retained only a small southeastern region of Pirin Macedonia in the Petrich region and part of Western Thrace with the port of Dedeagach on the Aegean Sea. Romania received the Bulgarian southern Dobruja with the cities of Turtukai and Balchik. On September 29, 1913, Bulgaria and Turkey signed the Treaty of Constantinople, according to which the Bulgarians returned to the Turks the main part of Eastern Thrace with Edirne and retained only a small area with the city of Malko Tarnovo.
During the two Balkan wars, Bulgaria's losses amounted to 186 thousand killed, wounded and died from wounds and diseases. Of this number, only in the Second War, there were 33 thousand killed and dead, and 60 thousand wounded. Serbia in the First Balkan War lost 25 thousand people killed and died from wounds and diseases, as well as wounded. In the Second Balkan War, the total losses of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Turkey amounted to 80 thousand killed, dead and wounded. The total losses of Bulgaria can be estimated at 66 thousand dead, Turkey - 45 thousand, Greece - 14 thousand, Montenegro - 2.5 thousand and Serbia - 17 thousand dead, including those killed and those who died from wounds. In addition, 16,000 Serbs, more than 35,000 Turks, at least 10,000 Greeks and the same number of Turks died of diseases. Turkey suffered the greatest loss of prisoners. More than 100 thousand Turkish soldiers and officers were taken prisoner in the First Balkan War.
As a result of the Balkan Wars, Serbia became the most powerful state in the Balkans, focusing on Russia and France. Greece, Montenegro and Romania were also attracted to the Entente. The losers Bulgaria and Turkey, on the contrary, soon joined the German bloc.
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From the author's bookLIFSHITS, Vladimir Alexandrovich (1913-1978); KHAZIN, Alexander Abramovich (1912-1976), pop playwrights 539 U principe. "Questionnaire", a scene from the play. Leningrad. tra of miniatures "White Nights" (1957) "I'm not a fool, no, I have a principle. I was thinking here, I understood something, at the principe. 540 Murlin Murlo. "At the windows of the house"
A hundred years ago, the Second Balkan War broke out. It was one of the most fleeting wars on the Balkan Peninsula - June 29 - July 29, 1913. On June 29, 1913, at 3 o'clock in the morning, Bulgarian troops attacked the Serbs without declaring war, and in the evening - the Greeks. Thus began the Second Balkan War between Bulgaria on the one hand, and Serbia, Montenegro and Greece on the other. Bulgaria was also opposed by Turkey and Romania. This war was beneficial to the Western powers - the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans were undermined, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary increased their influence on the peninsula. The Balkan Union collapsed, dispelling St. Petersburg's hopes for a pan-Slavic union that could withstand the expansion of Turkey and the Austro-German bloc. The Balkan states moved from cooperation to a struggle for a place under the sun. Bulgaria began to lean towards an alliance with the Austro-Hungarian and German empires hoping for revenge.
Background of the war
Great power ambitions of the Balkan politicians. The degradation of the Ottoman Empire allowed the Balkan peoples, with the help of the Russian state, to restore their independence. But the politicians of these countries did not want to stop there. The Bulgarian government wanted to expand the borders of the Bulgarian state as much as possible by creating Great Bulgaria - a power that was supposed to occupy the entire eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, get Macedonia and Thrace. The Bulgarians considered themselves the main winners in the First Balkan War, their army inflicted the most serious blows on the Turks. The results of the war offended Bulgaria, she wanted more. The most resolute dreamed of "Great Bulgaria", which, as in the times of the greatest power of the Bulgarian kingdom, would stretch from the Black and Aegean to the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Serbia wanted to annex Western Macedonia and Albania to its country, to get access to the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. The Greeks planned to expand the borders of their country as much as possible, claiming Thrace and South Macedonia, just like the Bulgarians. The idea of restoring the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople was born. Romania had territorial claims against Bulgaria, claiming Southern Dobruja.
The London Peace Treaty of May 30, 1913, which drew a line under the First Balkan War, did not satisfy the Balkan states. The Ottoman Empire lost all European possessions, except for Constantinople and a small part of Eastern Thrace, and wanted to return at least part of the territory. With the support of the great powers, Albania was created, although Greece, Montenegro and Serbia claimed its territory. Thrace and Macedonia were not divided, new borders were not created. The Treaty of London created a casus belli.
- The First Balkan War weakened the positions of Austria-Hungary and Germany in the Balkans. The presence of the Balkan Union and the strengthening of Serbia and Montenegro forced Vienna to keep more troops in the south, which weakened the army in Galicia - against Russia. Therefore, the efforts of Vienna and Berlin were focused on tearing Bulgaria away from Serbia and Russia, quarreling the Serbs and Bulgarians among themselves. The Austro-German politicians were going to break the Balkan Union, create a threat to Serbia from the rear from Bulgaria. The Bulgarian state was to become part of the grouping of the Central Powers. German and Austrian diplomats inspired the Serbs that since they did not get the desired access to the Adriatic in the war, they should compensate themselves at the expense of Macedonia and Thessaloniki, having received access to the Aegean Sea. This required unleashing a war with Bulgaria and Greece. On the other hand, the Bulgarians were convinced of the need to capture Macedonia. Vienna promised Sophia support in this matter.
Politics of England and various behind-the-scenes structures. The "world behind the scenes" has been preparing the ground for a start for more than a year big war in Europe. The Balkans were supposed to give rise to a world war, in which it was necessary to draw Russia, and this was inevitable due to historical ties Russian state with the Balkan peoples. clear position England, and France supported it, could stop the war in the Balkans. The ambiguity of England's position provoked the offensive actions of the Austro-German bloc. England will take the same position before the start of the First World War, giving the German government hope for the neutrality of London.
Pre-war political situation
In early 1913, the Serbian press, which belonged to the Vienna-oriented Liberal Party and the nationalist secret organization Black Hand, which had connections with European Freemasonry, launched a campaign against the Serbian-Bulgarian alliance. The Pasic government was accused of being too compliant with Bulgaria on the territorial issue. The same hysteria was raised in Bulgaria. Both sides insisted on the historical right to Macedonia. These sentiments were fueled in every possible way by Austria-Hungary and Germany.
On May 26, 1913, the Serbian government demanded that Sofia revise the terms of the 1912 agreement. On May 28, the head of the Serbian government Pasic, speaking in the assembly (parliament), said that Serbia and Greece should have a common border. Therefore, the agreement with the Bulgarians should be changed in favor of Serbia. Belgrade was also supported by the Greeks. Greece did not want the transition of Macedonia under the rule of Bulgaria. In addition, the transformation of Thessaloniki into the main shopping center in the south of Serbia promised considerable benefits to Greece. On June 1, 1913, Serbia and Greece signed an alliance treaty and a military convention directed against Bulgaria. The agreement provided for the division of Macedonia between Serbia and Greece, the establishment of a common border between the states. A secret protocol was also signed on the division of Albania into spheres of influence of Serbia and Greece. In Sofia, this agreement was perceived as an anti-Bulgarian provocation.
This agreement made war inevitable. The Serbian press, politicians, court circles and the military rejected any compromise with Bulgaria and demanded that the army achieve the solution of "national tasks". Only the Serbian socialists were against the war, but their voice was virtually inaudible in the nationalist choir. Even the king himself began to call for the maximum expansion of the borders of the Serbian state. At the end of May, the heir to the Serbian throne, Alexander Karageorgievich, visited the Serbian troops stationed in Macedonia. Speaking to the military with speeches, he spoke about the need for an immediate solution to the territorial dispute with Bulgaria. At the beginning of the summer of 1913, the "Serbization" of Western Macedonia began. The press accused the Pasic government, which stood on more moderate positions and was guided by Russia, of national betrayal. The Serbian government was firmly tied in foreign policy with Russia and France, and was forced to reckon with their opinion.
Russia's position
Russia tried to keep the Balkan Union. Its creation was a great diplomatic success for the Russian Empire: this alliance could be directed both against Turkey and against Austria-Hungary. Based on it, Russia could resolve the issue of the Black Sea straits in its favor. Russian diplomacy advised Sofia to make concessions. Petersburg proposed to immediately convene a conference of heads of government of the Balkan Union, with arbitration by Russia. The conference was supposed to find a peaceful way out of the current situation. However, there were too many who wanted to destroy the Balkan Union, the great-power ambitions of the Balkan states were fueled both by the Austro-Hungarian bloc, and by France and England.
The Russian Emperor Nicholas II addressed the heads of Serbia and Bulgaria with a personal message, where he warned that at the start of a fratricidal war, St. Petersburg would retain its freedom of action. Sofia and Belgrade complained about each other. The Serbian monarch Peter replied that Belgrade's demands could not be limited by the Serbo-Bulgarian agreement of 1912. The Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand accused the Serbs of planning to deprive Sophia of the fruits of her victory.
The Russian Foreign Ministry demanded that Belgrade immediately agree to convene the conference. The same offer was made to Sofia. But Austria-Hungary assured the Bulgarian government that it would support Sophia's claim to Macedonia. The Bulgarians rejected St. Petersburg's proposal to convene a conference and declared the need to comply with the terms of the 1912 Serbian-Bulgarian agreement. Sofia demanded the passage of her troops to the regions of southwestern and southern Macedonia. They were occupied by Serbian and Greek forces. Belgrade refused. The Bulgarian government urgently recalled its ambassador from Serbia.
The Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand of Saxe of Coburg-Gotha, who previously balanced in the game with the pro-Russian and pro-German parties, made the final choice. Bulgaria decided to strike first. On June 25, the Bulgarian envoy in St. Petersburg informed the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Sazonov, that Bulgaria could no longer wait and was forced to break off further negotiations with Russia and Serbia. The Russian minister declared that Bulgaria thereby "takes a treacherous step in relation to the Slavic cause" and "takes a decision tantamount to declaring a fratricidal war." Thus, the “Slav brothers” framed Russia, and not for the last time.
War
On June 29, the commander of the Bulgarian army, General Mikhail Savov, ordered the troops to advance. By this time, Bulgaria had 5 armies - a total of about 500 thousand people. The Bulgarian command planned to attack in the southern direction, cut off the communication between Serbia and Greece, capture Skopje and all of Macedonia. Further, Sofia believed that negotiations would begin, and Serbia would be forced to agree to peace on Bulgaria's terms. Serbian Army - three armies and two separate detachments(about 200 thousand people in total), was located along the entire border with Bulgaria. Serbia had no special plans on the eve of the war.
On the night of June 30, 1913, without declaring war, Bulgarian units attacked Serbian troops stationed in Macedonia. The 4th Bulgarian army was advancing in the Macedonian direction, the 2nd army - in the direction of Thessaloniki. The Bulgarians defeated the Serbian border troops, but soon they were stopped by the 1st Serbian army led by Alexander Karageorgievich. The 2nd Bulgarian army defeated the advanced units of the Greeks and reached the coast of the Aegean Sea. On June 30, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Bulgaria. The King of Greece, Constantine I, led the army (about 150 thousand) and ordered a counteroffensive. At this time, Serbian troops stopped the advance of the 1st and 5th Bulgarian armies on Pirot.
The Bulgarian offensive bogged down by July 2, Sofia clearly overestimated her strength and underestimated the fighting spirit and power of her opponents. Sophia was even initially inclined to the idea of withdrawing troops and declaring a border conflict. However, there was no turning back. Serbia, Greece and Montenegro got a long-awaited opportunity to crush a competitor. The Bulgarian troops found themselves in a difficult situation and began to retreat to the old border. Bulgaria had to pull the overwhelming majority of its forces to the border with Greece and Serbia. By July 4, the Greek army defeated the Bulgarians in the battle of Kilkis. The remnants of the Bulgarian troops retreated to the border. On July 7, Greek troops entered Strumica. On July 10, the Bulgarians withdrew to the eastern bank of the Struma. On July 11, the Greeks made contact with Serbian troops.
Romania closely followed the unfolding events. Romanian politicians were also infected with the idea of "Great Romania" (they are still sick, the healing experience of the Second World War, unfortunately, has already been forgotten). Bucharest had territorial claims to all its neighbors - Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary and Russia. But due to its military weakness, Romania could count on an increase in its territory only in the event of a catastrophic weakening of its neighbors. Only Bulgaria was a more or less equal enemy. But even here it was necessary to act carefully so as not to cause serious complications with Russia, and not to run into defeat.
The Romanians prudently did not get involved in the First Balkan War. Like, let the Serbs and Bulgarians fight the Turks, and we'll see who wins. At the same time, Bucharest prepared troops, and in case of success of the Ottomans, was ready to strike at Bulgaria. The Romanians demanded the transfer of Southern Dobruja to them. When Porto was defeated, at the London Conference the Romanian delegation tried to snatch its share, but it did not work out. Convinced that Bulgaria was being defeated by Greece and Serbia, on July 14, Romanian troops (Romania had about 450 thousand people) crossed the Romanian-Bulgarian border in the Dobruja region and moved to Varna. There was practically no resistance from the Bulgarians. Almost all Bulgarian troops were concentrated against the Serbian and Greek armies. The Romanian cavalry calmly approached Sophia.
Almost simultaneously with the Romanians, Turkey attacked Bulgaria. Their forward units crossed the Maritsa River. The initiator of the outbreak of hostilities was Enver Pasha, the leader of the Young Turks. Izet Pasha was appointed commander of the operation. The Young Turks planned to take advantage of the Second Balkan War to improve their positions in the European part of Turkey. The Ottomans fielded over 200 thousand people. Turkish troops cleared Eastern Thrace of the Bulgarians within a few days. July 23 occupied Edirne (Adrianople). Russia invited England and France to hold a collective naval demonstration against Turkey, expressing fear that after the capture of Adrianople, the Turks would become insolent. But England and France agreed to carry out such an operation, only with the participation of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, that is, in fact they refused. The repeated proposal to hold a naval demonstration only by the forces of the Entente was categorically rejected.
The Bulgarian army fought back desperately. The Bulgarians were able to stop the Serb advance on Sofia and stabilize the situation on the Greek front. But with the entry into the war of Romania and Turkey, the Bulgarians were doomed. On July 29, Sofia, realizing the hopelessness of the situation and facing the threat of a military catastrophe, went to peace negotiations.
Results
With the mediation of Russia on July 31, 1913, Bucharest signed an armistice. On August 10, 1913, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. Bulgaria lost most of the territories occupied during the First Balkan War, and also transferred South Dobruja to Romania - about 7 thousand square kilometers. Macedonia was divided between Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria was able to maintain access to the Aegean Sea. On September 29, 1913, a peace treaty was signed in Constantinople between Bulgaria and Turkey. Bulgaria gave Turkey part of Eastern Thrace with the city of Edirne.
They celebrated in Serbia - the territory of the state increased from 48.3 to 87.7 thousand square kilometers, and the population - from 2.9 to 4.4 million people. The main rival of Serbia on the Balkan Peninsula among the Slavic states - Bulgaria was defeated and relegated to the background. However, the joy was short-lived. The destruction of the Balkan Union, strategically, will go sideways to Serbia, sharply worsening the ability of the Slavs in the fight against the Austro-German forces in the First World War.
Russia suffered a serious diplomatic defeat.
The Slav brothers, instead of strengthening the alliance and cooperation, staged a fratricidal massacre to the delight of Russia's geopolitical opponents. Soon a new provocation will follow from the Balkans, which will force Russian empire enter the First World War, which will end for her in a geopolitical catastrophe.
First Balkan War(October 9, 1912 - May 30, 1913) was fought by the countries of the Balkan Union of 1912 (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire for the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke. In Aug. In 1912, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in Albania and Macedonia. Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece demanded that Turkey grant autonomy to Macedonia and Thrace. Tour. The government rejected these demands and began to mobilize the army. It served immediately. the reason for declaring war on Turkey by the states of the Balkan Union. Oct 9 1912 military actions against tour. Montenegro began the army, October 18 - Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece. The Allies mobilized 950 thousand people. and deployed armies, in which there were 603 (according to other sources up to 725) thousand people. and 1511 op. Grech, the fleet had 4 battleships, 3 cruisers, 8 destroyers, 11 gunboats. boats.
Turkey, having mobilized 850 thousand people, put up to the beginning of the war in Europe. theater ok. 412 (according to other sources about 300) thousand people and 1126 op. Tour grouping. troops could be reinforced by the transfer of formations from Asia Minor (up to 5 corps). Navy Turkey was weaker than the Greek. and had in its composition 3 battleships, 2 cruisers, 8 destroyers and 4 gunboats. boats. The countries of the Balkan Union surpassed the pr-ka both in number and in the quality of weapons, especially artillery, and in terms of the level of combat training of the troops. Their armies, inspired by the goals of the national liberation struggle, had a higher morale. Bolg. the army created grouping of three armies in the Istanbul direction. Ch. Serbian forces (3 armies) were aimed against the tour. groups in Macedonia, gr. Thessalian and Epirus armies, respectively, on Thessaloniki and Ioannina. The Greek fleet was to act against naval forces Turkey and ensure Allied dominance in the Mediterranean. The Montenegrin army was intended for joint operations with the Serb troops in Macedonia. The allies, occupying an enveloping position in relation to the Turkish troops, intended to defeat them in the Balkans before reinforcements arrived. The Turkish command strove to restrain the onslaught of the allies by active actions before the reinforcements arrived. Considering Bulgaria the most dangerous adversary, Turkey deployed the main against it. grouping of their troops (185 thousand people and 756 op.).
The Montenegrin army, together with 20 thousand. Serbian Ibar detachment began operations against Turkish troops in the North. Thrace and Sev. Albania. Bulgarian troops crossed the Bulgarian-tour. border and, advancing to the south, on October 22. started fighting with the tour. forces. 2nd Bolg. army, being on the right flank of the Bolg grouping. troops, threw back the Turks and began the siege of Edirne (Adrianople). 1st and 3rd Bolg. army, acting on the lion. flank, in a number of oncoming battles pushed the Turks, 22-24 Oct. at Kirk-Kilis (Lozengrad) they defeated the 3rd round. corps and began to move to the south. direction. Oct 29 - Nov 3 at Luleburgaz there was a bitterness. battle, during which the 4th round was defeated. frame. Tour. troops hastily retreated. Bolg. the command failed to organize an energetic pursuit of the pr-ka. The Turks entrenched themselves in the Chatalja fortifications, positions (35-45 km west of Istanbul). Bulgarian attempts. troops 17 -18 Nov. were not successful in capturing these positions. The front has stabilized here.
Tour in Macedonia. troops 23 Oct. launched an offensive against the 1st Serbian army, but the attacks of the Turks were repulsed. The next day, the Serb armies launched a general offensive. 2nd Serb, the army struck in the south-west. direction, creating a threat to the right flank of the tour. groupings. The 1st Serbian Army launched an offensive on Kumanovo and on 24 October. seized it, and the 3rd Serbian army carried out a flank attack on Skopje (Uskub), which was occupied on 26 October. Serb, the troops quickly advanced to the south and 18 November. in conjunction with the Greek parts took the city of Bitol (Monastir). Tour grouping. troops in Macedonia was defeated. Serbian formations reached the Adriatic coast and took part, together with the Montenegrin troops, in the siege of Shkoder (Scutari). Grech, the troops cleared Epirus of the Turks and laid siege to Ioannina. In Yuzh. Macedonian Greeks won 1-2 Nov. victory at the city of Yenidzh and launched an offensive against Thessaloniki, the garrison of which capitulated on November 9. The Greek fleet blocked the exit of the tour. naval forces from the Dardanelles and undertook operations to seize the islands in the Aegean Sea.
Nov 28 Albanian independence was proclaimed. However, further military Allied successes did not meet the interests of the great powers. Russia, supporting the countries of the Balkan Union, at the same time feared that the exit of the Bulgarians to Istanbul would create for it unfavourable conditions when deciding the question of the Black Sea straits. Germany and Austria-Hungary did not want the strengthening of Serbia and Greece, considering them supporters of the Entente, and sought to prevent the defeat of Turkey, in which they saw their potential ally. Under pressure from the great powers in Dec. In 1912, a truce was signed between Turkey, Bulgaria and Serbia.
Negotiations began in London between the ambassadors of the warring powers on the terms of a peace treaty. Jan 23 1913 in Turkey there was a state. coup. The new government (the party of the Young Turks) rejected the peace terms. Feb 3 the countries of the Balkan Union resumed hostilities. After new defeats tour. army, which in March surrendered Ioannina and Edirne (Adrianople), in April 1913 the 2nd truce was concluded. Montenegro did not join this truce, and its troops continued the siege of Shkodra. The 1st Balkan War ended with the signing of the London Peace Treaty in May 1913, according to which Turkey lost almost all of its possessions in Europe. Despite the fact that the 1st Balkan War was fought in the name of the dynastic interests of the monarchs of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, in the name of the nationalist aspirations of the bourgeoisie of these countries, it completed the liberation of the Balkans. peoples from tour. yoke. Objectively, this war had a national-liberation, progressive character. “The Balkan war,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is one of the links in the chain of world events that marks the collapse of the Middle Ages in Asia and Eastern Europe"(Complete collection of works. Ed. 5th. T.23, p.38).
Second Balkan War(June 29 - August 10, 1913) was fought between Bulgaria on the one hand, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro and Turkey - on the other. It was caused by a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the former allies in the 1st Balkan War. Serbia, deprived of access to the Adriatic Sea, demanded compensation in Macedonia. Greece also claimed ter. increments at the expense of Bulgaria, which received most of the reclaimed land. Romania presented claims to Bulgaria for land in Dobruja. The beginning of the 2nd Balkan War was accelerated by the intervention of the imperialist. powers, especially Austria-Hungary and Germany, who sought to undermine the influence of the Entente in the Balkans. Bulgaria, instigated by the Austro-Germans. unit, on the night of June 30, 1913, the military began. actions against Serbs and Greeks in Macedonia. Bulgarian offensive. armies were stopped. Serb, the troops launched a counterattack and broke through the positions of the 4th Bolg. army. The fighting continued until 6 July. Bolg. troops were forced to retreat. On July 10, Romania opposed Bulgaria. One rum. the corps occupied Dobruja, and the main. rum strength. armies, not meeting resistance, moved to Sofia. On July 21, Turkey, violating the terms of the London Peace Treaty of 1913, also began hostilities against the Bulgarians. troops and occupied Edirne. Under the threat of complete defeat, Bulgaria capitulated on July 29. According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1913 (between Bulgaria on the one hand and Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Romania on the other), Bulgaria lost not only most of its acquisitions, but also the South. Dobruja, and according to the Constantinople peace treaty of 1913 (between Bulgaria and Turkey) was forced to return Edirne to Turkey. As a result of the Second Balkan War, a new alignment of forces took place on the Balkan Peninsula: Romania withdrew from the Triple Alliance of 1882 and moved closer to the Entente, Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. The Balkan wars led to a further aggravation of international contradictions, hastening the outbreak of World War I.
In the Balkan wars, some changes in the methods of conducting combat operations were determined, due to the development of military equipment, primarily an increase in the power of fire, range and rate of fire of art. systems, an increase in the number of machine guns (the Allies had 474 machine guns, the Turks had 556), the use of new types of weapons and military. equipment - aircraft (in addition to aerial reconnaissance they began to be used for bombing), armored cars and radio. All this led to the transition to land. troops to sparse battle formations, the use of terrain folds and trenches for shelters, it became necessary to protect troops from aviation. The armies were deployed along the front for hundreds of kilometers. At the same time, the desire of the parties to group the main forces in the main directions became obvious. The advantage of maneuvering actions and strikes in converging directions (concentric strikes), detours and coverage was confirmed. The increased fire capabilities of the troops strengthened the defense, therefore, an important condition for a successful attack was the creation, which means fire superiority over the avenue. At the same time, the increase in the strength of the defense complicated the conduct of maneuver combat operations. The tendencies of transition to positional forms of wrestling intensified. It is clear that in order to be successful in coalition war you need a well-established strategist, the interaction of allied troops.
Publications: Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V. International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. Ch.1.M., 1925.
Lit .: Lenin V.I. Events in the Balkans and Persia.- complete collection op. Ed. 5th. T. 17; Lenin V.I. Balkan peoples and European diplomacy. - Right there. T. 22; Lenin V.I. About the fox and the chicken coop. - Right there. T. 22; Lenin V.I. Shameful resolution. - Ibid. T. 22; Lenin V.I. New chapter world history. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V.I. Horrors of war. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V. I. The social significance of the Serbian-Bulgarian victories. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V.I. The Balkan War and Bourgeois Chauvinism. - Ibid. T. 23; History of diplomacy. Ed. 2nd. T. 2. M., 1963; History of Yugoslavia. T. 1. M., 1963; Vladimirov L. War and the Balkans. Pg., 1918; Zhebokritsky V.A. Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars 1912-1913 Kyiv, 1961; Zhogov P.V. Diplomacy of Germany and Austria-Hungary and the First Balkan War 1912-1913. M., 1969; Mogilevich A.A., Airapetyan M.E., On the way to the world war of 1914-1918. L., 1940; Ryabinin A.A. Balkan war. SPb., 1913. D.V.Verzhkhovsky.
The Balkan Wars are two wars that took place in 1912-1913 on the territory of the former Ottoman Empire.
These "small" conflicts were one of the prerequisites for the First World War.
Territory of Independence
As a result of the defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, a number of independent states were formed, each of which belonged to one people, although they also had their own national minorities.
By the beginning of the 20th century, such independent states were formed in this region as:
- Greece, which threw off the Ottoman yoke back in early XIX century;
- Bulgaria, which gained independence during the Russian-Turkish war;
- Serbia;
- Montenegro;
- Romania.
An independent Albania has not yet appeared. Albanians lived in some Turkish vilayets and outlying Serbian and Greek regions. The liberated peoples proved their right to these territories by the fact that their ancestors lived here even before the Ottoman invasion.
Moreover, they were all Christian (mostly Orthodox) peoples who experienced spiritual oppression under the Ottoman yoke - they were forcibly converted to Islam, and those who disagreed were physically destroyed or restricted in their rights.
First Balkan War
The new Balkan states that gained independence realized that they would have to defend it only together: the weakened, but not disappeared, Ottoman Empire could swallow them back; in addition, the then world powers laid eyes on the small principalities and republics - Austria-Hungary, Russia, etc.
Therefore, the four Balkan states formed an alliance that fought against a single enemy - the Ottoman Empire. All countries of the Balkan Union wanted to win new territories for themselves from the Turks, but in some cases their interests intersected.
Second Balkan War
In June 1913, a new conflict began. Two more countries joined the Balkan Union. Romania was the first. And the second ally suddenly became former enemy- Ottoman Empire. Now the enemy of the Balkan Union was Bulgaria, which had seized significant territories during the first war and longed for even greater expansion.
The Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand relied on the support of Germany and Austria-Hungary; at the same time, another ally - Russia - turned away from her and stopped cooperation. The project called "Whole Bulgaria" did not take place - on July 29 the country capitulated. Under the terms of the peace treaty signed in Bucharest, Bulgaria was losing significant territories.
Results of the Balkan Wars
- New states were formed on the lands of the former Ottoman Empire. Among them was Albania, which gained independence on November 28, 1912.
- Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania and Greece have significantly increased their territories.
- However, the Balkan wars were a prerequisite for. Serbian nationalists Gavrilo Princip and Nedeljko Čabrinović killed Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, intending to achieve the secession of Bosnia from Austria-Hungary and annex it to Greater Serbia. This act was the formal start of the war.
- In the Balkans, several "hot spots" were formed, inhabited by opposing national groups. Conflicts in these areas do not subside until our time, as they are supported by world powers and political blocs.
- The displacement is called the vector connecting the start and end points of the trajectory The vector connecting the beginning and end of the path is called
- Trajectory, path length, displacement vector Vector connecting the initial position
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- Acceptable Value Range (ODZ), theory, examples, solutions