France (modern time). Some Breton words and roots
French conquest of Vadai- armed conflict unleashed by the French government against Wadai kingdoms located in Africa on the territory of the mountainous region with the same name in the eastern part Chad- central part Sudan, in 1909 and ended in 1911. As a result of hostilities, the Wadai territory was annexed and became part of the French colonial empire.
background
Situated on the edge of the desert Sahara and dense forests Equatorial Africa, the Vadai region is thus the meeting point Islamic and African cultures. Islam began to play a predominant role in the region, although the power here has long been in the hands of representatives of the Negroid race. The existence of the Vadai Sultanate in Europe was known from the works of Arab geographers, but only after visiting the country Gustav Nachtigal in 1873 received a detailed description.
At the beginning of the XVII century. The Vadai Highlands were ruled by the Sultans of Darfur. The main population here was the people maba. According to local legends, in the XV-XVI centuries. Wadai was ruled by kings from the dynasty Tundzhur who had their capital in Kadame. They were not Muslims, although some of them had Arabic names.
Islam spread among the mabs thanks to the Muslim cleric Abd al-Karim, who traced his family to caliphs Abbasids. He came to Wadai from the kingdom Bagirmi, where he founded a small Muslim community in Bidderi. When the number of his followers multiplied, Abd al-Karim encouraged them to start holy war against the Tundzhur clan. The victory in this war remained with the Muslims, who captured the last king of Kadam, who bore the name David, and killed him. After that, Abd al-Karim proclaimed himself a kolak (sultan) and around 1635 founded the city of Vara, which became the capital of the mab for more than three centuries.
States of Central Africa on a map of the late 19th century.
The Wadai Sultanate extended to Sudanese areas Darfur, which became a British possession only after the British expedition in 1916. Geographically it is rocky semi-desert area, abounding in hills, with partially forested valleys. In the Dar-Tar region, heights reach 1200 meters.
The population of the Sultanate, consisting of different tribes, in the life of which occupied an important place slave trade, amounted to three social class: upper class ( hourin), peasant class ( mesakin), and slaves ( abyd). Sultan was the head of state kolak) with a personal retinue of 1,400 people. Sultans ruled the Vadai empire for almost 400 years, relying on chiefs (agad) and village elders (mandjak). The state was divided into provinces, the rulers of which withheld part of the taxes in their favor. In the 19th century, in the maba settlement areas, feudal dependent peasants paid a fixed rent; slave labor was used. On the outskirts inhabited by non-Muslims, the Vadai nobility collected unlimited tribute.
Due to the political stability that prevailed in Wadai, and the security of movement associated with it, the most profitable ran through the territory of the Sultanate. trans-Sahara route from the Mediterranean to Black Africa. From abeche, which was the largest city on the territory of modern Chad, the path was divided into two, passing through Dar Fur to the village El Fasher: northern trade route through the lands of Dar-Tam, and southern pilgrimage route through tribal lands Masalites. Leaving to the north, this route connected Abéché with Benghazi and the oases Kufra.
In the last decade of the 19th century, the influence of France, advancing from the Congo and from the Niger, became increasingly felt in Vadai - the Anglo-French agreement on March 21, 1899 attributed Vadai to the French sphere of influence. Meanwhile, civil war broke out in Vadai itself. In 1900, Sultan Ibrahim died from a wound received in battle, and he was succeeded by Ahmed Abu Al-Ghazali ibn Ali. He was warned Sheikh Senussi(Senussi el Mandi) about the danger posed by the arrival of Christians (that is, the French) in the region, but neglected this danger because of the confrontation with the princes Dudmurroy(brother of Ibrahim) and Asil. Ghazil and Dudmurra, although they were members of the royal family, did not belong to the nationality on their mother's side. maba; only Asil, the Sultan's grandson Muhammad Sharif, was pure maba in origin.
In December 1901, Abu Ghazali was expelled from the capital by the prince Asilom, but Dudmurra took advantage of this coup. He captured Abu Ghazali and blinded him. Asil fled to Kelkel, west of the lake Fitri and entered into negotiations with the French. In the spring of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation of members of the order Senusia, the Vadai attacked French postal posts in the region Shari and took away many slaves. At Tomba (May 13, 1904), they suffered a crushing defeat, but soon resumed their raids again, as evidenced by the constant skirmishes on the western and southwestern borders of Vadai in 1905-1907. The fighting led to the strengthening of the position of the French and their ally Asil.
Campaign
First stage
In 1908, Dudmurra, again, probably with the assistance of the Senusites, proclaimed jihad. In October 1908, the French troops were given the task of "pacifying" Wadai by the government. French captain Jean Joseph Fighenchou, sub-district commander Fitri, received in April 1909 information about the planning of an attack by Sultan Wadai Muhammad Salih, known as Dudmurra(Terrible Lion), to the settlement Birket Fatima. Figenshu, at the head of a detachment of 180 Senegalese shooters with 2 cannons and 300 allies from among the supporters of the deposed Dudmurra Asila, heading towards the capital of the Sultanate, the city of Abéché. In the battle of Wadi Shawk (aka the battle of Johame) on June 1, 1909, the French detachment defeated the troops of Dudmurra, destroying 360 Wadais with their own losses of 2 people. Figenshu himself was seriously wounded in the neck in this battle.
The French detachment occupied the capital on June 2, after a short bombardment, but the Sultan managed to escape north to his ally, Sultan Taj ad-Din from the Dar Massalit region on the border with Darfur. Asil was planted as the new sultan by the French celebrating the victory. In addition, considering themselves now full-fledged owners of Wadai, the colonial authorities issued an order to surrender everything small arms. By October, their control extended to many of the provinces (dars) of the sultanate—Dar Tama, Dar Sila, Dar Runga, and Dar Kimr. Dar el-Masalit, the land of the Masalites, where Muhammad Salih hid in search of allies, remained unconquered.
The French forces were not enough to fully protect the 900-kilometer border with the lands of the Masalites, in the immediate vicinity of the residence of various warlike tribes. The first raid came towards the end of 1909, when Taj al-Din, the Sultan of Dar el-Masalita, attacked the vicinity of Abéché. Figenshu, having recovered from his wound, with a detachment of Senegalese shooters (3 officers, 109 privates) went on December 31 to pursue him. On January 4, 1910, a French column was ambushed at Wadi Kadia, next to the modern El Geneina in Sudan, and was almost completely exterminated - only eight Europeans and three African allies managed to escape. The soldiers of the Sultan got 180 rifles and 20,000 cartridges for them as trophies.
After receiving news of the disaster at Wadi Kadia, Lieutenant Colonel Henri Moll, appointed military governor of Chad, began to prepare a punitive expedition. Five weeks after the death of the Figenshu detachment, under the command of Julien, French reinforcements arrived in the troubled Abéché. By this time, the deposed Dudmurra had resumed attacks in an attempt to regain his power by capturing the capital, but was defeated on April 17 near Biltina one of Asil's brothers named Segeiram, and once again was forced to retreat to the Masalites. At the same time, about 1500 warriors of the nationality fore under the command of Adam Rijal (Adoum Roudjial), the commander of the Darfur Sultan Ali Dinar, fortified in Gered, plundered the Dar-Tama region.
At the end of March, Captain Chauvelot, on the orders of Commander Julien, with 120 Senegalese riflemen and some auxiliary troops, attacked the fortified camp of Rijal at Guereda. In a half-hour close combat, the French detachment, having spent 11,000 rounds of ammunition, suffered losses - 2 killed and 17 wounded, but put the Darfurians to flight, who lost 200 people killed in this battle.
Second phase
In the middle of 1910, the French authorities concentrated in Central Africa 4200 soldiers, divided into twelve separate units, four each in the provinces of Oubangi-Shari, Chad and Wadai. In early October, preparations for a punitive expedition were completed, and on October 26, Mall with a detachment of up to 600 people advanced to the Masalites.
The French troops were divided into two columns: the first column, consisting of a little more than 300 riflemen (with the support of 200 auxiliary troops), under the command of Colonel Moll, headed towards the Masalit capital Darjil (Drijele), towards the Masalite army; the second column (130 shooters), led by Captain Arno, was supposed to block the path of Dudmurre when trying to invade Vadai.
The first column crossed the border of the Masalit lands on November 5 and reached Dorote on November 8, stopping there to replenish the supply of water. The actions of the French troops were observed by Taj ed-Din and Dudmurra, in whose army there were from 4 to 5 thousand horsemen. The two sultans launched their attack on the morning of 9 November. The surprised French were unable to quickly rally to repulse the attack of the attackers, who proceeded to destroy the camp. A fierce hand-to-hand fight ensued in the camp. Lieutenant Colonel Moll was mortally wounded by a spear in the neck. Sultan Taj ed-Din was also killed in the clash, which broke the cohesion of the Masalites, who immediately began to plunder the camp.
Captain Shovelo, returning to the beginning of the Masalites attack from the patrol, gathered the surviving fighters on the hill - a total of about 100 shooters. The Chauvelo group hit the attackers, who began to loot the camp, in the back, regained control of the cannons and forced the Masalites to flee the battlefield. They left 600 dead on the field, including Taj ed-Din and 40 members of his family. Dudmurra, who lost his main ally in the face of the deceased Sultan, also fled. Of the Europeans, five were able to continue the fight, eight officers were killed, five were wounded. 28 of the 310 Senegalese riflemen were dead, 69 wounded and 14 missing. The ammunition was almost exhausted, almost all pack and mount animals were stolen or killed, there was no longer any contact with Captain Arno's column. A new attack by the Masalites was to be expected at any time.
The commander of the second detachment, Captain Arno, having received unclear reports of the defeat near the village Bir Tawil, marched to the battlefield. On November 17, the columns connected, and then 20 reached Abéché, where the news of a new catastrophe threw the population into a panic. The fight also caused a stir in France. Lieutenant Colonel Largo was sent to the place of the deceased Moll, who received new powers to fight the Masalites.
Third stage
After a brief lull caused by the regrouping and consolidation of combat detachments, in early 1911, French troops subordinated the will of the colonial authorities to the Sultan of the Dar al-Kuti region. After this operation, the French stepped up operations in the east, defeating the Fore, who at that time raided the undefended province of Dar Tama, taking away many slaves from there. One of the units, under the command of Chauvelo, succeeded on April 11 in expelling Fort from their base in the village of Kapka, and this area came under French jurisdiction.
Abeche 10 years after the beginning of the events described. Buildings built under the last Wadai Sultan, 1918
In the northern regions of the mountain range Ennedi Group mecharists(camel cavalry) of 120 horsemen and 200 allies under the command of Major Illaire (Hillaire), defeated the troops of the Khoan tribes at Sidi Saleh in May. gang attacks Tuareg on the survivors of Hoan near Kassoan, and on May 20 near Kafra, forced them to flee to Darfur.
On June 29, Captain Shovelo, while reconnaissance of the area, met with the forces of Dudmurra, numbering up to 2000 people. Meanwhile, in June-August 1911, an uprising broke out in the province of Dar-Tama, later called the Kodoi-Rebellion rebellion - tribes that resisted the collection of taxes by the new masters of the continent. The rebel detachment was quickly dispersed, but Dudmurra again managed to escape to the lands of the Masalites. He suggested that in the near future to abandon the fight and lay down their arms, if in return he would be given the possession of a small domain in the border region. On October 14, Dudmurra officially abdicated, transferring power over Wadai to the French delegation, and then headed for Abéché, entering the city on October 27 on the white horse of the fallen lieutenant colonel Moll. After that, he was placed under house arrest at Fort Lamy (now Ndjamena), but at the same time received a pension of 40 per month.
Effects
Taj al-Din succeeded as Sultan Dar el-Masalit in 1910 Bahr al-Din Abu Bakr Ismail, which ruled under French control until 1951 . After the start Italian conquest Tripolitania and Cyrenaica slave caravans stopped running to Benghazi. Local rulers were thus deprived of the main source of income with which they financed their private armies. Being a puppet in the hands of the French, Asil ruled under the French protectorate for only a few months and was deposed in June 1912, and all power was concentrated directly in the hands of the French administration. Wadai became a French colony.
Armament
The French colonial army was represented in this war Senegalese arrows (tyrailleurs), who traditionally wore dark blue tunics, red fezzes with a blue tassel falling over their shoulders, breeches and sandals with windings. They were armed with a reliable repeating rifle of the Lebel system of the 1886 model Mle1886 M93, which, with minor modifications, was in service with the French army until 1960. The Lebel rifle (fusil Lebel) of the 1886 model is a manual reloading weapon using a longitudinally sliding rotary bolt, and its rate of fire reaches 10 rounds per minute. It should also be noted that the aiming range, which was huge for those times, was up to 2400 meters. Machine guns were not used by the French colonial army in these campaigns. The machete (panga) was often used as a weapon. The officers wore the standard tropical uniform.
The Masalites were known throughout the region as a warlike tribe. Usually they wore white clothes, and the upper class in addition wore white turbans and baldrics. In battle, they used throwing knives (60-90 cm) and axes, and if they had firearms, then they were mainly repeating rifles of the company Remington Arms Traditionally, the Masalites fought in groups with a vanguard of a hundred horsemen, followed by the main column of foot soldiers. The cavalry also brought up the rear of the detachment.
Links
- France Wadai War 1909-1911(English) (unavailable link). onwar.com. Retrieved October 19, 2013. Archived from the original on November 3, 2006.
The war in Algiers, which began on the night of October 31-November 1, 1954 and lasted eight years, claimed the lives of half a million people, most of whom were Arabs. Despite military successes in the fight against the rebels, due to the failure on the political front, France was forced to leave its colony.
A century long occupation
The history of the French conquest of Algeria dates back to 1830 - it was then that an amphibious corps landed on the coast of North Africa, and after a short defense the city was taken. Officially, his capture was explained by the need to get rid of the Turkish rulers. The reason for the capture of the city was also a diplomatic conflict that occurred three years earlier, when the Algerian bey hit the French consul with a fly swatter. In fact, the French authorities expected that the military campaign would rally the army and help establish the restored power of King Charles X. This calculation turned out to be wrong, and soon the power of the king fell. However, this did not prevent the French from colonizing the rest of the territory of Algeria - the occupation began, which lasted 132 years.
At the beginning of the occupation, the local population still made attempts to resist - the centers of the uprising broke out in different parts of the country, but were suppressed. In 1848, Algiers was declared a French territory under the control of a governor-general and divided into departments headed by prefects. The Arabs called the first colonists "black-footed" - probably due to the fact that they wore black leather shoes. The Blackfoot modernized Algiers, began building highways, railways, schools and hospitals, and a select few from among the local population could now study the French language, history and culture.
TNF begins the fight
By 1945, Algeria was inhabited by almost a million Europeans, a fifth of whom were full-blooded French - power over the country belonged to them, like most fertile lands. The indigenous population did not have the right to hold high government posts and was limited in voting rights. Despite more than a century of history of colonization, in the 40s the struggle for independence began to flare up in the country. At first, these were single actions that became more and more successful - for example, the rebellion in the town of Setif, which occurred in 1945, gave rise to riots throughout the country, to which the French responded with monstrous punitive actions. The events in Setif clearly demonstrated that a peaceful struggle for their rights is impossible for the Algerians.
The National Liberation Front (FLN) became the largest movement that arose as a result of the merger of several groups and led the struggle for the independence of Algeria. The surrender of the French garrison in Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954, which took place in distant Vietnam, inspired the Algerians to try to achieve the desired independence by force of arms. This struggle was based primarily on the local partisan movement. In addition, the leaders of the FLN counted on the support of the UN, Arab countries and assistance from the communist bloc, and also intended to assert the right of the Algerian people to self-determination in the international arena.
The Front chose the territory of the Ores mountain range, which served as a shelter from government troops, as the main field of its activity. In 1945-54, the highlanders raised uprisings against the French three times, and therefore the leadership of the TNF hoped that they would again be able to enlist the support of the population.
How riots turned into war
In October 1954, orders were circulating throughout Algeria: "Arm, train and be ready." The FLN created clandestine networks of workshops for the production of explosive devices, firearms were secretly delivered to the guerrillas, from World War I repeating rifles to weapons lost by the Americans during the landing in North Africa in 1942. The decisive moment for the uprising was chosen on the eve of All Saints' Day (the night of October 31 to November 1) - about seven hundred rebels simultaneously carried out seven attacks in different parts of the country, killing seven and injuring four Frenchmen. The French authorities did not see this as the beginning of the war, since the number of rebels was insignificant, and their weapons left much to be desired. However, the rebels were determined, intending to use the slogan "suitcase or coffin" to force the Europeans to leave Algeria on pain of death. This appeal amazed those who considered the country their home from generation to generation - it seemed incredible to the Algerian French that someone could doubt their right to be called Algerians.
In France itself, the decision to keep Algeria was due to a number of reasons: the presence of many settlers there, its formal inclusion in the metropolis, the prestige of the state, and, finally, the discovery of oil deposits in the south of the country.
At the time of the uprising, the French authorities had at their disposal about 49,000 soldiers of all branches of the armed forces. The French Air Force consisted of eight Junkers and one helicopter. An incorrect assessment by the metropolitan authorities of the real state of affairs allowed the rebels to accumulate forces and made it inevitable that the guerrilla war would spread throughout Algeria. The response of the colonialists to the insurgent terror was the random arrests of suspects, the search for and destruction of partisans.
French soldiers from the 4th Zouave Regiment
Social and economic reforms, hastily carried out by the French government, were late, and therefore did not bring the desired result. Although access to government posts was now open to the natives, education became available, the wage gap between Europeans and Muslims decreased, the leaders of the FLN could no longer be satisfied with anything other than complete independence. The escalation of the conflict continued. Army reinforcements arrived in the country, and in March 1955 martial law was declared in Algeria. The rebels were still having difficulty with weapons, so the FLN's tactics were to wage a war of attrition. The rebels focused their efforts on expanding underground structures, winning over the people to their side - both through propaganda and intimidation.
Terror as a tool of struggle
The FLN lifted the ban on attacking European settlers and launched unrestricted terror against the French population of Algeria. Thus, the rebels provoked the French authorities into retaliatory military measures and contributed to the growth of alienation between the two peoples. So, on August 20, 1955, the rebels carried out a brutal attack on the European community in the town of Philippeville, killing people without distinction of age and sex. The soldiers who arrived at the place did not understand for long and, having gathered all the captured, lined them up against the wall and shot them with machine guns. According to official sources, the number of those killed was 1273 "rebels", while the actual number of victims remained unknown.
The atrocities of the rebels changed the attitude of the French military towards them, and the increase in violence on the part of the army led to the fact that the partisan detachments began to replenish at an even faster pace. In addition, the Algerian rebels began to receive material assistance and support from the countries of the communist bloc and the Arab states.
In France, the events at Philippeville led to a change of government led by Prime Minister Guy Mollet. His policy towards Algeria was to win the war first and reform later. Measures to increase the army contingent in Algiers brought the war to a national level - the number of French troops in the country increased from 50,000 people in 1954 to more than 400,000 people in 1958. At first, the contingent was replenished at the expense of veterans who were returning from Indochina. Later, Algiers became the location of one of the most combat-ready French units - the Foreign Legion. In the first years of the war, the soldiers of the French army were ill-prepared for African conditions and had no experience in anti-partisan struggle. The main approach to fighting the insurgency was the "quadrillage" method, according to which the country was divided into seventy-five sectors. In each of them there were garrisons, patrols were carried out and cooperation was established with the SAS (Special Administrative Section) - a special organization that acted as an intermediary between the administration and the local population during military operations, and also provided social assistance to the population.
Helicopter landing
The most important place in the struggle for independence was the Algerian capital. One of the leaders of the FLN, Yassef Saadi, was tasked with launching a ruthless terror in the city in order to discredit French rule, and soon Algeria was plunged into chaos with incessant bombings and widespread killings. The terror by the rebels caused a French response - the so-called ratonnage(the massacre of the Arabs). It is known that during the battles for Algeria, about 3,000 Muslims went missing. Restoring order in the capital was led by General Massu and Major Ossaress, who imposed a curfew and fenced the Muslim population of the city with barbed wire. In military terms, the FLN was defeated - pogroms and explosions in the capital ceased, and Yasef Saadi was captured. In France itself, the battles for the Algerian capital raised a wave of criticism against the army leadership, which, in turn, felt disgust and hatred for the government of the Fourth Republic.
French paratroopers from the 10th Airborne Division
With most of the FLN fighters now out of Algeria (many taking refuge in neighboring Tunisia and Morocco), French authorities have focused their efforts on isolating the country, intercepting ships and cutting off airways. In addition, the famous "Maurice Line" was erected on the Tunisian border - an eight-foot fence of barbed wire energized at 5,000 volts, minefields and observation towers. All these efforts made the rebels feel a severe shortage of weapons and ammunition, calling into question the very existence of partisan detachments.
Stormtroopers "Skyrader" over Algeria
However, at this time, the political situation in the metropolis began to change. The unpopularity of the war, economic and social difficulties reduced the level of support for the government in France, while in Algeria any plans to change course were perceived by the Blackfoot as a betrayal. On May 13, 1958, they captured the capital of the colony and proclaimed their own government state of emergency. The command of the army contingent supported this self-proclaimed government, and France was on the verge of revolution when Charles de Gaulle, who became prime minister, entered the game. In turn, the leaders of the FLN announced the creation of a Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Algeria, and this idea was immediately supported by the Arab countries.
Having come to power, de Gaulle appointed General Maurice Schall as commander of the troops in Algeria, who immediately began large-scale raids to search for partisans. His "Operation Oranje", launched by elite paratrooper units followed by mechanized columns, combined the actions of ground and air units. So, H-21 helicopters, nicknamed "flying bananas", could land two battalions of paratroopers in five minutes. In addition, three hundred training aircraft were converted to attack ground targets. The mechanized columns blocked the partisans, after which the attack aircraft launched rocket and bomb attacks on them. According to General Schall, during the operation, which lasted two months, the French managed to defeat half of the rebel detachments.
Transfer by helicopter of an army vehicle Citroen 2CV
France changes course
Despite military successes, the French never developed a political recipe for ending the conflict. De Gaulle intended to preserve the commonality between the two peoples by giving the Muslims equal civil rights with the French. On September 16, 1959, he announced that the issue of granting independence to Algeria would be decided in a referendum. In response, Belqasim Krim, the only survivor of the nine leaders of the TNF, addressed his supporters and stressed: "Your struggle forced the enemy to talk about self-determination, abandoning the myth of French Algeria". From that moment on, the underground stopped all overt military operations in order to demonstrate to the world that the FLN remained undefeated. An active propaganda of support for Algeria in the struggle for self-determination began on the international arena, and TNF agitators condemned the actions of the French in the colony, trying to sow discord between France and its allies.
Confusion and depression grew in the French army itself. Radical adherents of the idea of preserving French Algeria created the Secret Military Organization (HVO), which sought to keep Blackfoot power in the country. The mutiny in April 1961 by the generals, including Chall, made it clear that most of the French army in Algeria did not support de Gaulle's "capitulation policy". Although de Gaulle's power was under threat, in May 1961 the government decided to start negotiations with the FLN.
This was contrary to repeated promises by the French government not to negotiate with the terrorists. Negotiations, which lasted for a year, led to the abandonment of France from its original positions, and on March 19, 1962, the Evian Accords were signed, ending the war and opening the way for Algeria to independence. This agreement ended sixteen years of French attempts to hold on to colonies in Indo-China and North Africa. Under the terms of the agreement, the security of the colonists was to be ensured by the new authorities for three years, but these promises seemed illusory to many, and almost 750,000 people left the country, moving to France, Spain and Israel. However, the fate of the Algerians, who supported the French during the war years, was the most tragic - the ban on "illegal" emigration from Algeria contributed to the brutal arbitrariness on the part of the FNO, which exterminated entire families.
Consequences of the conflict
The war in Algiers, which lasted eight years, claimed the lives of half a million people, most of whom were Arabs. Despite military successes in the fight against the rebels, due to the failure on the political front, France was forced to leave Algeria. Interestingly, until 1999, the French authorities refused to call what happened a war. In 2001, General Paul Ossaress openly admitted the use of torture and executions in Algeria with the permission of the French leadership.
The main goal of the French - to maintain colonial rule in Algeria without radical changes in its political system - was doomed to failure. In France, the effects of that war are still being felt today. Thus, the terms of the Evian Agreement opened access to France for Algerian guest workers - subsequently they turned into second-class citizens who inhabited the outskirts major cities. Regular riots in France indicate that the historical conflict between the French state and Algerian Muslims has not yet been resolved.
Sources:
- Martin Windrow, The Algerian War 1954–62
- Gilles Martin. War in Algeria: The French Experience
- Martin Windrow, Mike Chappel. The Algerian War 1954–62
- James Arnold. "Snake Jungle"
Notre Dame Cathedral. Main facade. XII - XIII centuries.
The changes that have taken place in France in the socio-economic field, due to the growth of productive forces, have caused a number of changes in the political superstructure.
The emergence of cities testified not only to the violation of the isolation of feudal farms and the strengthening of economic ties between individual regions, but also to the creation of real prerequisites for the unification of France into a single more or less centralized state.
A new social stratum was formed in the city, which embodied the further development of production and exchange and was a natural ally royalty in its struggle with the big feudal lords for the unification of feudally fragmented France into a single state.
The presence of townspeople (burghers) who were interested in eliminating feudal fragmentation and endless strife that impeded the development of crafts and trade strengthened the position of the central government.
“All revolutionary elements,” Engels pointed out, “that were formed under the surface of feudalism, gravitated towards royal power, just as royal power gravitated toward them. The union of royal power and the burghers dates back to the 10th century; often it was violated as a result of conflicts - after all, during all the Middle Ages, development did not go continuously in one direction; but nevertheless this union, renewing, became stronger and stronger, more powerful, until, finally, he helped the royal power to win the final victory ... ".
The beginning of the strengthening of royal power in France falls on the XII century. It was to this time that the struggle of the Capetians within the royal domain with large feudal lords, who wished to maintain their political independence there, dates back.
The mainstay of royal power in this struggle was the middle and small feudal lords, who willingly supported the centralization efforts of the king in the face of exacerbation of class contradictions in France.
“The unification of larger areas into feudal kingdoms,” wrote Marx and Engels, “was a need both for the landed nobility and for the cities. Therefore, at the head of the organization of the ruling class - the nobility - everywhere stood the monarch.
Beginning in the twelfth century, the Capetians (whose monetary income increased considerably due to the development of trade) grew so strong that they succeeded in subjugating all the major feudal lords of the royal domain. Of particular importance in this regard was the reign of Louis VI (1108-1137), nicknamed the Fat.
But after the kings of France dealt with the recalcitrant feudal lords within the royal domain, they immediately had to face a new, stronger and more dangerous enemy, who acted as their main rival on the continent, the kings of England.
In 1154, the Count of Anjou, lord of a vast area bordering the royal domain, ascended the English throne as Henry II and thus laid the foundation for the Anjou dynasty, or the Plantagenet dynasty.
In the hands of the English kings from the Plantagenet dynasty, thus, were huge possessions - England and a significant part of France, namely the duchy of Normandy (connected with England since the Norman conquest of 1066), the county of Anjou with its subordinate counties of Maine and Touraine and the duchy of Aquitaine , which fell into the hands of Heinrich Plantagenet as a result of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a divorced wife french king Louis VII (1137-1180).
The possessions of the English king on the continent in the 12th century were six times greater than those of the king of France and, moreover, closed his access to the sea.
It is quite clear that the question of the further expansion of the royal domain and the unification of politically fragmented France was most directly connected with the struggle against the English king. This struggle took on a decisive character during the reign of Philip II Augustus (1180-1223).
As a result of many years of struggle with the Plantagenets, Philip II Augustus, who invariably relied on the help of cities in his activities, managed to subjugate Normandy, Maine, Anjou and part of Poitou with the city of Poitiers. Only the southern part of Poitou and the Duchy of Aquitaine remained in the hands of the English kings.
But this increase in the power of the French king immediately aroused fears on the part of his immediate neighbors, and an extensive coalition was formed against Philip II Augustus, which included the count of Flanders, the duke of Lorraine, the English king and the German emperor.
However, Philip II Augustus defeated each of his opponents separately, and then inflicted a decisive defeat on the hostile coalition at the Battle of Buvin, where in June 1214 he managed to defeat the combined troops of the German emperor and the Count of Flanders. This victory had great importance for the further development of France and was greeted by the population of its northern and northeastern regions with great joy.
1643-1715 Reign of Louis XIV, pron. Sun King. The apogee of French absolutism. Numerous wars were fought (the war of devolution for the Spanish inheritance, etc.). The high expenses of the royal court and high taxes caused popular unrest.
1664 Purchase from England of the port of Dunkirk in the Padé Calais.
1685 The Edict of Nantes is repealed (1598), Protestantism is prohibited.
1697 Accession of Alsace (capital of Strasbourg), a region in eastern France.
1766 Accession of the Duchy of Lorraine (with the main cities of Nancy and Metz) under the reign of King Louis XV (1715-1774).
1768 Purchase of the island of Corsica from the Republic of Genoa a year before the birth of the future Emperor Napoleon I in its capital Ajaccio.
1774-1792 Reign of King Louis XVI. Overthrown by a popular uprising in 1792. Condemned by the Convention and executed in 1793.
The French Revolution
1789-1799 Great French Revolution.
1789, June Deputies of the third estate - artisans, merchants, peasants - declared themselves the National Assembly.
1789, July The National Assembly declared itself on July 9 the Constituent Assembly. An attempt to disperse it caused a popular uprising; The storming of the Bastille on July 14 marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
1789, October - 1791, September Until the adoption of the constitution, the Constituent Assembly governs the state.
1791 Accession of the city of Avignon, papal possession in France, based on the results of a popular vote.
1791, June Flight of Louis XVI and his family, their detention in Varenie and return to Paris under escort.
1791, September Adoption of the constitution by the Constituent Assembly and its signing by Louis XVI. Closing of the Constituent Assembly.
1792, August Popular uprising and overthrow of the monarchy in France. Decrees of the Legislative Assembly on the abdication of the king from power and the convening of the National Convention (the highest authority).
1792, September Opening of the National Convention. Decree of the Convention on the abolition of royal power.
1793, January 21 Execution former king Louis XVI. The power of the Bourbon dynasty was interrupted until 1814. The nobility, who emigrated from revolutionary France, proclaimed in absentia the son of Louis XVI, who was sitting in prison, as King Louis XVII (he did not reign).
1793, July 13 The murder of Jean-Paul Marat, one of the leaders of the Jacobins, by the noblewoman Charlotte Corday-d "Armon (she stabbed Marat with a dagger in the bathroom of his house).
1794, July 28 Execution of Maximilien Robespierre, the main leader of the Jacobins, the organizer of mass terror. End of the Jacobin dictatorship in France.
1795-1799 Board of the Directory (a board of five leaders of the republic). It expressed the interests of the big bourgeoisie and pursued an aggressive foreign policy. End of the French Revolution.
Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte
November 9, 1799 Coup of the 18th Brumaire. Establishment of the Consulate (the highest authority) consisting of three consuls. The actual power was given to the First Consul, General Napoleon Bonaparte, who established a military dictatorship in the country.
1804, May 18 Establishment of the First Empire in France. Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed "Emperor of the French" by Napoleon I.
1804-1814 Reign of Napoleon I. He began serving in the army with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery, advanced during the French Revolution and under the Directory. In November 1799 he became First Consul and gradually concentrated full power in his hands. Thanks to victorious wars, he significantly expanded the territory of the empire, made most of the states of Western and Central Europe dependent on France. With his reforms, he finally destroyed feudal remnants in France and accelerated their elimination in the conquered countries. The entry of troops of the anti-French coalition into Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate. He was exiled to the island of Elba (in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Italy).
1815, June 18 In the Battle of Waterloo (south of Brussels in Belgium), the Anglo-Dutch army under the command of the English Field Marshal Wellington and the Prussian army of Field Marshal Blucher defeated the army of Napoleon I.
1815, June 22 The second abdication of Napoleon, followed by his voluntary surrender to the British and exile to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean (possession of Great Britain). He died there May 5, 1821.
Restoration of the Bourbons
1814-1824 Reign of Louis XVIII. During the French Revolution - one of the leaders of the French emigration. With the help of foreign armies, he took the throne after the fall of the empire of Napoleon I. The period of his reign was interrupted in 1815 by the "Stages" of the return of Napoleon I to power.
1824-1830 Reign of King Charles X. The July ordinances of 1830 were issued restricting democratic freedoms; in 1830, expansion into Algeria began. Overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830.
1830 July Revolution in France. She put an end to attempts to restore the feudal-absolutist order. Established the July Monarchy. home driving force- workers and artisans. It served as a direct impetus for the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and the Polish uprising (1830-1831). Dealt a decisive blow to the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia).
1830-1848 The July Monarchy in France is the period of the reign of King Louis Philippe, a native of the side branch of the Bourbons and the son of the Duke of Orleans, between the July (1830) and February (1848) revolutions. The time of domination of the top of the commercial, industrial and banking bourgeoisie.
1842 Acquisition of the Marquesas in Polynesia (Pacific).
Second Republic
February 24-25, 1848 February Revolution. The final overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty, the proclamation of the Republic and democratic freedoms. Accompanied by the inconsistency of government actions.
1848, December Election of the nephew of Napoleon I, Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, as President of the Republic. The Republicans made significant concessions to the monarchists.
1851, December 2 Coup d'état. President Louis Bonaparte established a military dictatorship supported by the bourgeoisie, the army and the Catholic Church.
Second Empire
December 2, 1852 Restoration of the monarchy. President Louis Bonaparte is proclaimed emperor under the name of Napoleon III.
1852-1870 Reign of Napoleon III. Adhered to the policy of Bonapartism. Under him, France participated in Crimean War 1853-1856, in the war against Austria in 1859, in the interventions in Indochina 1858-1862, in Syria 1860-1861, in Mexico 1862-1867. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, he surrendered with the army as a prisoner near Sedan in 1870. Deposed by the September Revolution.
1860 Treaty of Turin with the Kingdom of Sardinia on the cession of the city of Nice and the region of Savoy to France.
Third Republic
1870, September 4 September Revolution in Paris. The fall of the empire, the proclamation of the republic. Formation of the National Defense Government. In February 1871, Adolphe Thiers became head of government.
1871, March 18 - May 28, the Paris Commune, was proclaimed after the uprising of the Parisians and the flight of the government of Thiers. At the same time, it was both a legislative and an executive body. Suppressed by government troops with the help of the Prussian armies.
1871 September Thiers is elected President of the Republic. Ruled until May 1873, removed by a Conservative majority in Parliament.
1875 Adoption of the Constitution of the Republic under President Patrice McMahon (1873-1879). The Third Republic lasted until 1940.
1894-1906 The Dreyfus Affair - a high-profile trial on false charges of a French officer General Staff Jew A. Dreyfus in espionage in favor of Germany. Despite the lack of evidence, the court sentenced Dreyfus to life imprisonment. The struggle around the Dreyfus affair led to a political crisis. Under pressure from the country's democratic forces, Dreyfus was pardoned by President Emile Loubet in 1899, and rehabilitated by a military court in 1906.
Major wars
1667-1668 Devolutionary war of France against Spain, the main reason is the struggle for the Spanish Netherlands. Started by France, which used hereditary (devolutionary) law as a pretext. According to the Peace of Aachen (1668), France retained 11 cities captured by it (including Lille), but returned the Franche-Comté region to Spain.
1793, December 18 The liberation of Toulon, captured by the British, in these battles for the first time distinguished the young commander Napoleon Bonaparte.
On April 5, 1795, Prussia and Spain concluded separate peace treaties with the French Republic in Basel.
Napoleonic Wars
1796-1797 Italian campaign of Bonaparte. In April 1796, the French army crossed the Alps and defeated the Sardinian troops, forcing Sardinia to make peace. In May, French troops defeated the Austrians at Lodi, in June they besieged the fortress of Mantua and forced it to capitulate in February 1797. In March of the same year, the French invaded Austria and launched an offensive against Vienna, and in April a truce was signed. Bonaparte provoked a clash with the Republic of Venice and occupied Venice. In October 1797, the Peace of Campoformia was signed, according to which Austria ceded to France the territory of the Austrian Netherlands and recognized the formation of a republic in Lombardy.
1798-1801 Egyptian campaign of the expeditionary army of General Bonaparte with the aim of conquering Egypt and preparing a base for an attack on British possessions in India. In June 1798, the French landed near Alexandria and captured Egypt, but were cut off from France, since the French fleet in August 1798 was defeated by Nelson's English squadron at Abukir. After an unsuccessful campaign in Syria (1799), Bonaparte left the army and returned to Paris in October 1799. In 1801 the French troops in Egypt capitulated.
1800, June 14 In the battle of Marengo, the army of Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the Austrian army of Field Marshal Melas, after which the Austrians were forced to leave Northern Italy.
1805 December 2 battle of austerlitz, in which the army of Napoleon I defeated the Russian-Austrian troops under the command of General Kutuzov, which led to the withdrawal of Austria from the war.
1805, December 26 The Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, according to which Austria recognized all French conquests in Italy, Western and Southern Germany, transferred to Napoleon the Venetian region, Istria and Dalmatia (except Trieste). At the expense of Austria, Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg received territorial increments. The Treaty of Pressburg meant the end of the "Holy Roman Empire" (1806).
1806, October 14 In two interconnected battles (near Jena and Auerstedt), the army of Napoleon I defeated the Prussian troops, after which the French occupied almost all of Prussia, including Berlin.
1807, June 14 In the Battle of Friedland, the army of Napoleon I defeated the Russian troops under the command of General Benigsen.
1807, July 7-9 Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia and Prussia. Prussia lost about half of the territory. Russia agreed to the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and lost strongholds in the Mediterranean, and also joined the British continental blockade.
1809, July 5-6 In the battle near the village of Wagram (near Vienna), the army of Napoleon I defeated the Austrian army of Archduke Charles. Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809, according to which she made significant territorial concessions to France and reduced her army.
1812, June 24 - December 14 The invasion of the Napoleonic army on Russia (Patriotic War of 1812). It ended with the expulsion of the French.
1813, October 16-19 Allied Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops in the Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations") defeated the army of Napoleon I. The victory of the allies led to the liberation of Holland and Germany and the collapse of the Confederation of the Rhine German states under the protectorate of France).
May 30, 1814 Conclusion of peace treaties between the allied powers and France in Paris. The independence of Holland, Switzerland, German principalities and Italian states was restored (excluding the lands that went to Austria). Restored the borders of France as of January 1, 1792.
September 1814 - June 1815 The Vienna Congress of European States (with the exception of Turkey) ended the wars of the coalitions of European powers with Napoleon I. Treaties were concluded aimed at satisfying the territorial claims of the victorious countries; the territorial fragmentation of Germany and Italy was fixed; The Duchy of Warsaw is divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria. France is stripped of her conquests. In September 1815, the decisions of the Congress of Vienna were supplemented by an act establishing the Holy Alliance of the main European states.
Mid 17th century The capture of island territories in Central America and Guiana in the northeast of South America.
1830 Conquest of Algiers.
1843 Establishment of a protectorate over the Society Islands in Polynesia (Pacific Ocean).
1863 Establishment of a protectorate over Cambodia.
1867 Seizure of South Vietnam.
1881 Military expedition to Tunisia. Establishment of a protectorate.
1883-1885 Conquest of North Vietnam.
1888 Capture of Djibouti on the Red Sea.
1890-1894 Conquest of territories in West and Equatorial Africa.
1896 Incorporation of Madagascar. Treaty with England on the division of spheres of influence in Thailand.
1899 Conquest of the territories around Lake Chad in Central Africa.
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- The displacement is called the vector connecting the start and end points of the trajectory The vector connecting the beginning and end of the path is called
- Trajectory, path length, displacement vector Vector connecting the initial position
- Calculating the area of a polygon from the coordinates of its vertices The area of a triangle from the coordinates of the vertices formula
- Acceptable Value Range (ODZ), theory, examples, solutions