Arabic language in which countries. Arab countries
ARABIC, the language of the Arabs. Official language Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, Oman, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia (along with Somali), Djibouti (along with French), Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania. It is also common as a language of everyday communication in Israel, Iran, Turkey, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Senegal, Nigeria, Niger, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Mali, Kenya, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire and in some other countries where Islam is practiced. There are known "island" (existing in a limited area) dialects of the Arabic language in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (in the Bukhara and Kashkadarya regions) and on the island of Cyprus. Preserved by Arab emigrants in Europe, America, Australia. One of the official and working languages of the UN and a number of other international organizations. Worldwide, the number of Arabic speakers is about 250 million people (late 20th century, estimate).
Arabic language belongs to the Semitic languages. It exists in literary and written form (as a language of the classical period and as a modern literary language, which is a somewhat modified form of classical Arabic) and in an oral-colloquial form, represented by territorial and social dialects, as well as inter-regional oral-colloquial forms of the language of inter-Arab communication. According to phonetic, grammatical and lexical features, modern Arabic dialects and interregional forms of the Arabic language differ in many respects from the literary and written form, and also differ from each other.
Arabic alphabet
The Arabic language has been characterized by dialectical branching since the pre-literate period. On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, on the borders with Syria and Mesopotamia, dialects of nomadic tribes and a settled population were formed. Already ancient Arabic philologists noted that in the 7th-8th centuries there were phonetic and grammatical differences between the western and eastern ancient dialects. In the Middle Ages, as a result of the development of settled centers and cities of the Arab-Muslim civilization, the spread of the Arabic language to the vast territories of the Middle East, North Africa, and the European Mediterranean, its new territorial dialects were formed. In the new territories, the social stratification of dialects continued to be preserved: urban and rural dialects stood out, which were opposed to nomadic (Bedouin) dialects.
Modern Arabic dialects are usually classified geographically (taking into account their typological features). The following groups are distinguished: eastern (Mesopotamian) - dialects of Iraq and "island" dialects of Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan; Arabian - dialects of the Arabian Peninsula; Central Arabic - Syro-Palestinian, Lebanese, Jordanian dialects; Egyptian-Sudanese; North African (Maghreb) - dialects of Western Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara. AT last group also includes Maltese.
In the 5th-6th centuries, the classical form of the literary Arabic language began to take shape in the oral genres of folk art. The appearance of writing (by the middle of the 7th century) led to its stable preservation to the present day. The development of Arabic culture and science in the Middle Ages contributed to the improvement of the literary form of the Arabic language.
Literary Arabic retains the main features of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the language of the classical period. Its phonetic features are the presence of fricative interdental consonants, the voiced affricate g ("j") (except for the Egyptian area), voiced and voiceless pairs of laryngeal, pharyngeal and uvular consonants; retention of six vowel phonemes with opposition in timbre and length. The morphological structure is characterized by a three-case system of nominal declension, three forms of number (unit, binary and mi) for pronouns, names and verbs, special grammatical ways form and word formation of names and verbs. In general, literary Arabic is a language of inflectional-agglutinative type and synthetic structure. Arabic dialects, on the contrary, lose many of the features of inflection and synthetism and shift towards greater analyticism. The phonetic systems of modern Arabic dialects are also characterized by a change in the sound composition and phonological oppositions. From a typological point of view, the development trend of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the dialects of the Arabic language, their current state correspond to the development trend and the state of modern Semitic languages.
Thus, in relation to the Arabic language, one should distinguish between the definitions of "modern" and "new Arabic". The concept and term "modern Arabic" includes both forms of its existence and functioning. The concept and term "new Arabic language" define a new phonetic and grammatical structure of the oral-colloquial form of the Arabic language; behind the entire set of forms that differ from literary and written Arabic, by the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century in scientific literature the name "New Arab type" was fixed.
According to the results latest research literary and written and oral and colloquial forms, the Arabic languages have their own areas of functioning. The literary form is used in the field of written and oral communication, in the religious sphere. Oral-colloquial form - in the field of informal communication, in everyday life. It can also penetrate into the sphere of written communication of persons who do not know the literary language well; it is used in fiction and drama (when transmitting direct speech of characters, in humorous and satirical genres), when recording folklore works, in the media in programs of the corresponding genres.
This state of diglossia is a serious problem in contemporary Arab society. It is also complicated by dialectal differences. Scientific and socio-political centers and circles of the Arab world have been looking for ways to solve it for many decades. In many ways, it depends on language policy, literacy and education in each of the Arab countries and in the Arab world as a whole.
The oldest monuments in languages closest to the Arabic language known to us are rock inscriptions of the 5th century BC - 4th century AD (the so-called Samud, Lihyan and Saf) discovered on the caravan routes connecting Arabia with the territory of Syria and adjacent countries. They are made in a variety of Sabaean (South Arabian) writing. They belonged to the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. According to the content, they represented the message by the author of the inscription of his name and genealogy, information about his stay in this place or about the direction of his migration, mourning for the dead loved ones and fellow tribesmen, appeal to the deities for help and protection. Another group - tombstone and memorial inscriptions. The most famous of them are from Central Arabia, from the ancient city of Qaryat al-Faw (3rd-4th centuries), made in Sabaean writing; from an-Namara (4th century), from Zebed and Harran (6th century), made in Nabataean-Aramaic script (see Arabic script). The first written monument of classical Arabic in Arabic script is the Koran, written down in the middle of the 7th century; the earliest copy of the record that has come down to our time (several fragments of the Koran) dates from the 8th century. The early written monuments of the Arabic language also include Arabic papyri of the 2nd half of the 7th-9th centuries, representing the original texts of their time.
For writing for the Arabic language, see the article Arabic script.
Lit.: Sibawayhi. Al-Kitab. Al-Qahira, 1317 (Higr.); Yushmanov N. V. Grammar of the literary Arabic language. L., 1928. 3rd ed. M., 1999; he is. Works on general phonetics, Semitology and Arabic classical morphology. M., 1998; Al-Ghalayim Mustafa. Gami' ad-durüs al-Arabiyyah. Bayrut, 1953; Grande B. M. Arabic Grammar Course in Comparative Historical Illumination. M., 1963. 2nd ed. M., 2001; Zavidovsky Yu.N. Arabic dialects of the Maghreb. M., 1963; Kamilev S. Kh. Moroccan dialect of the Arabic language. M., 1968; Hassan Abbas. An-Nahw al-wafl. Al-Qahira, 1971; Belkin V. M. Arabic lexicology. M., 1975; Mishkurov E. N. Algerian dialect of the Arabic language. M., 1982; he is. Arabic language. Modern Arabic dialects // Languages of the world. Semitic languages. M., 2005; Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie. Wiesbaden, 1982. Bd 1: Sprachwissenschaft; Bakalla M. N. Arabic linguistics: an introduction and bibliography. L., 1983; Sharbatov G. Sh. Arabic literary language, modern Arabic dialects and regional everyday spoken languages // Languages of Asia and Africa. M., 1991. [T. four]. Book. 1. Afroasian languages. Semitic languages; Belova A. G. Historical morphology of the Arabic language. M., 1994; she is. Essays on the history of the Arabic language. M., 1999; Fischer W. Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch. 2nd ed. Wiesbaden, 1987; he is. Classical Arabic II The Semitic languages. L.; N.Y., 1997; Versteegh S.N.M. The Arabic language. N.Y., 1997; Shagal V.E. Arab countries: language and society. M., 1998.
Dictionaries: Biberstein Kazimirski A. Dictionnaire arabe-français... : En 2 vol. R., 1860 (reprint. Beyrouth, 1970); Lane E. W. Arabic-English lexicon: In 8 vol. L.; Edinburgh, 1863-1893 (reprint. New Delhi, 1985); Ibn Manzur Muhammad. Lisan al-'arab. Bayrut, 1955-1956. Vol. 1-15; Ma'aluf Luis. Al Mundjid. Bayrut, 1965; Bustam Butrus. Muhit al-Muhit-Bayrut, 1977; Wehr H. Dictionary of modern written Arabic: (Arabic-English). 4th ed. /Ed. J. Milton Cowan. Wiesbaden, 1979; Sharbatov G.Sh. Russian-Arabic educational dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 1980; he is. Arabic-Russian educational dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 1982; Borisov V. M. Russian-Arabic Dictionary: In 2 vols. 2nd ed. M., 1981; Polosin V.V. Dictionary of poets of the Abs tribe. (VI-VIII centuries). M., 1995; Baranov Kh.K. Arabic-Russian Dictionary. 8th ed. M., 1996.
Arabs write from right to left - I know almost everything about this. However, only this Interesting Facts concerning this very unusual, rich and highly demanded language are not limited. Much more can be said about him.
1. Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasian group. Today it is one of the most common and, its importance is gradually increasing. According to various estimates, from 250 to 350 million people live in the world who speak this language. It is state in 26 countries of the world in the East and in Africa. Also, to one degree or another, this language is familiar to numerous followers of Islam around the world.
2. There are 5 groups of Arabic dialects. Speakers of separate dialects belonging to different groups can hardly understand each other, and more often they do not understand at all. The most common of them is Egyptian, since it is in Egypt that the largest number of Arabic speakers live (about 70 million). At the same time, there is a single literary or standard language.
3. Standard Arabic is one of the 6 official languages of the UN. It publishes great amount printed products. It is the language of literature and business communication. And thanks to the ubiquity of the Internet, the differences between individual dialects and the literary language are gradually being erased.
4. The oldest work written in Arabic (classical Arabic literary language) is the Quran. There are many cases when people successfully studied Arabic precisely for the purpose of reading the Holy Book in the original language. There are also many other remarkable literary monuments. For example, the tales of "A Thousand and One Nights", the rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and much more.
5. As Modern Literary Arabic continues to develop, the number of differences between it and Classical Arabic gradually increases. This changes not only vocabulary, but also grammar.
6. There is an opinion that Arabic is one of the richest languages, containing a huge number of concepts that are very difficult to translate into other languages. It should be noted that the Arabs were historically reluctant to borrow other people's words, preferring to create their own. Fortunately, the word-formation possibilities of this language are really huge. However, much depends on the dialect. So, in the Egyptian dialect there are a lot of borrowings from French.
7. At the same time, there are a lot of modern concepts and names from Arabic (Arabisms) came to other languages. These are words such as "algebra", "algorithm", "Aldebaran", "giraffe", "coffee", "syrup" and many others.
8. The Arabic language has simply had a huge impact on the modern one. Not surprising, because a significant part of the Iberian Peninsula has long been under the rule of the Arabs. At least 10% of the words in modern Spanish come from Arabic. In addition, a noticeable influence was exerted on grammar and phonetics.
9. Arabic writing is a special topic. The alphabet of this language includes 28 letters, which allow you not only to compose words, but to create entire written drawings and patterns. Needless to say, Arabic calligraphy is a whole area of decorative art, the origin of which has long been disputed by scientists. But so far everything remains only at the level of hypotheses.
10. There are no capital letters in Arabic, punctuation marks are also written from right to left, and underlining is used instead of underlining. The Arabic script was formed in Arabia, in the III-IV centuries. AD It is interesting that Arabs who study Western languages often make the same mistake - they forget to put capital letters.
11. Arabic is considered one of the most difficult languages to learn. This is facilitated by an unusual writing, in which it is difficult to separate one letter from another, as well as a very complex grammar. The matter is not limited to cramming alone, you need to radically change your way of thinking and work hard on pronunciation.
Language is perhaps the most important function human body- it allows us to get food as a child, it allows us to get almost anything we want as adults, and it also gives us many hours of entertainment through literature, radio, music, and films. This list (in order from least common) summarizes the most important languages in use today.
10. French
Number of speakers: 129 million
Often referred to as the most romantic language in the world, French is spoken in many countries including Belgium, Canada, Rwanda, Cameroon and Haiti. Oh yes, and in France too. We are actually very lucky that French is so popular because without it, we would be at a dead end with Dutch Toast, Dutch French Fries and Dutch Kissing (fu!).
To say "hello" in French, say "Bonjour" (bon-JUR).
9. Malay-Indonesian language
Number of speakers: 159 million
Malayo-Indonesian is spoken - surprise - in Malaysia and Indonesia. In fact, we will deviate from the quantity because there are many Malay dialects, the most popular of which is Indonesian. But they are all in to a large extent are based on the same root language, making it the ninth most spoken language in the world.
Indonesia is a charming place; The nation consists of more than 13,000 islands, it is the sixth most populous country in the world. Malaysia is bordered by two large areas of Indonesia (including the island of Borneo), and is mainly known for its capital Kuala Lumpur.
To say “hello” in Indonesian, say “Selamat pagi” (se-la-macht pa-gi).
8. Portuguese
Number of speakers: 191 million
Think of Portuguese as a small language. In the 12th century, Portugal gained independence from Spain and expanded throughout the world with the help of its famous explorers such as Vasco da Gama and Prince Henry the Navigator. (It's good that Henry became a navigator... could you imagine if a guy named "Prince Henry the Navigator" became a florist?) this is National language), Macau, Angola, Venezuela, and Mozambique.
To say hello to Portuguese, say, “Bom dia” (Bom DI-a).
7. Bengali language
Number of speakers: 211 million
In Bangladesh, a country of over 120 million people, Bengali is spoken by just about everyone. And because Bangladesh is actually surrounded by India (where the population is growing so fast that it feels like breathing the air you can get pregnant), the number of Bengali speakers in the world is much higher than most people would expect.
To say "hello" in Bengali, say "Ei Je" (Ai-jay).
6. Arabic language
Number of speakers: 246 million
Arabic, one of the oldest languages in the world, is spoken in the Middle East, with speakers found in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt. Also, because Arabic is the language of the Quran, millions of Muslims in other countries also speak Arabic. So many people have a working knowledge of Arabic, in fact, which made it the sixth official language of the United Nations in 1974.
To say “hello” in Arabic, say “Al salaam a’alaykum” (Al sa-LAM a a-LEY-kum).
5. Russian language
Number of speakers: 277 million
Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin, and Yakov Smirnov are among the millions of Russian speakers. Of course, we used to think of them as our communist enemies. Now we think of them as our communist friends. One of the six languages at the UN, Russian is spoken not only in his homeland, but also in Belarus, Kazakhstan and the USA (we name a few places).
To say "hello" in Russian, say "Hello" (Hello).
4. Spanish
Number of speakers: 392 million
Except for all those children who study it in high school, Spanish is spoken in just about every South American and Central American country, not to mention Spain, Cuba and the United States. There is a particular interest in the Spanish language in the United States, since many English words borrowed from their language, including: tornado, bonanza, patio, quesadilla, enchilada, and taco grande supreme.
To say "hello" in Spanish, say "Hola" (OH-LA).
3. Hindustani
Number of speakers: 497 million
Hindustani is the main language of overpopulated India, and it includes a huge number of dialects (of which Hindi is the most widely spoken). While many predict that India's population will soon surpass China's, the acceptance of English in India prevents Hindustani from being recognized as the world's most spoken language. If you're interested in getting a little Hindi, there's a very easy way: Rent an Indian movie. The film industry in India is the most prosperous in the world, producing thousands of action/romance/musicals every year.
To say "hello" in Hindustani, say "Namaste" (Na-ma-ste).
2. English
Number of speakers: 508 million
While English does not have a majority of speakers, it is official language more countries than any other language. It is spoken all over the world, including New Zealand, USA, Australia, England, Zimbabwe, Caribbean Sea, Hong Kong, South Africa and Canada. We would like to tell you more about English language, but you probably already feel pretty comfortable in this language. Let us just go on and on about the most popular languages in the world.
Today there are a huge number language schools offering English courses in Moscow. The courses are taught according to the latest educational methods. You study in English, without using Russian. All new words and concepts are explained by already familiar words, gestures, pictures - this makes the learning process much more interesting and interactive, and if learning is interesting, then the results will be better! All new constructions and words after studying are immediately fixed in practice, when working in pairs and mini groups. Thus, learning English in courses is not limited to getting acquainted with grammar and memorizing new words: you learn exactly how to communicate.
1. Mandarin Chinese
Number of speakers: more than 1 billion
Surprise, surprise, the most widely spoken language on the planet is in the most populated country on the planet. The second-placed English language is 2 to 1 in terms of the number of speakers, but this should not give you reason to think that Chinese easy to learn. Conversational Mandarin can be very tough because each word can be pronounced in four directions (or “tones”), and beginners are bound to have trouble distinguishing one tone from another. But if over a billion people could do it, you could too. Try to say hi!
To say “hello” in Chinese, say “Ni hao” (Ni Hao). (“Hao” is pronounced as one syllable, but the tone requires your voice to drop halfway and then rise again at the end.)
,
Comoros,
Kuwait,
Lebanon,
Libya,
Mauritania,
Morocco,
UAE,
Oman,
Eritrea,
Saudi Arabia ,
Syria,
Somalia,
Sudan,
Tunisia,
Chad,
SADR
() ,
State of Palestine
(partially recognized state),
Somaliland
(unrecognized state).
Organizations:
UNO,
African Union,
OIS ,
LAG,
GCC,
Agadir Agreement
Regulatory Organizations: Royal Moroccan Academy (Morocco), Arabic Language Academy (Egypt), Arabic Language Academy in Damascus (Syria), Jordanian Arabic Language Academy (Jordan), Iraqi Scientific Academy in Baghdad (Iraq), Arabic Language Academy in Khurtum (Sudan), the House of Wisdom Foundation (Tunisia), the Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya (Libya), the Israeli Academy of the Arabic Language (Israel).
from 260 to 323 million
The only official One of the official
Arabic language (Arab. اللغة العربية , al-luga al-ʿarabiyya listen)) belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasian family of languages. There are about 240 million speakers of Arabic and its variants (mother tongue), and about 50 million people use Arabic as a second language. Classical Arabic - the language of the Quran - is used to a limited extent for religious purposes by adherents of Islam around the world (total number of 1.57 billion people).
Dialects
Modern colloquial Arabic falls into 5 groups of dialects that are actually separate languages from a linguistic point of view:
- Maghreb group of dialects
- Egyptian-Sudanese Arabic
- Syro-Mesopotamian Arabic
- Arabian dialect group (= "language")
- Central Asian group of dialects (= "language")
The Maghreb language belongs to the western group, the rest - to the eastern group of Arabic languages and dialects. (See "language or dialect" problem); It is preferable to use the term “dialect” established in Arabic studies ( Arab. لهجة )
Literary language (in Western Arabic studies, the term English is used. Modern Standard Arabic- modern standard Arabic) - single. Literary Arabic combines vocabulary for many things in modern world or science, but at the same time in some Arab countries is rarely used in colloquial speech.
The place of the Arabic language in the Semitic language group
Classical Arabic differs little from Old Arabic. Many Semitic roots are also found in Arabic. There has been a tendency in Semitic studies in the past to regard Classical Arabic as the most archaic of the Semitic languages. However, over time, through comparison with other Afroasiatic languages, it has been found that much of Classical Arabic is not so original.
Story
For centuries, the language was constantly changing, which, however, had little effect on writing, because short vowels, except in the Koran, are not written in the text.
Classical (High) Arabic is not the native language of the Arabs today. However, even today, with a modified vocabulary, it is used in almost all newspapers and books, with the exception of Tunisia, Morocco and partly Algeria, where Arabic shares the role of a literary language with French. In scientific and technical literature in other Arabic countries, where the required vocabulary is lacking, English is often used. This language is sometimes ironically referred to as Modern High Arabic.
Vocabulary
For vocabulary The modern Arabic literary language is characterized by the fact that its main part is originally Arabic. “The Arabs highly value the word-formation possibilities of their language, seeing in the richness and clarity of word-formation paradigms the key to adapting the Arabic literary language to current state society. Moreover, it should be noted that in modern processes nominations, the most active are models with a high index of generalization. Yes, in recent times the dictionary of the Arabic literary language is significantly replenished due to derivative names formed by adding the suffix ية-, which forms a derivative series with the meaning of generalized abstract qualities and properties: استقلالية independence; حركية dynamism, dynamics; شمولية maximalism; totalitarianism; اشكلالية - problem, etc.” . Some of the vocabulary is general Semitic and only a small foreign language, such as the words: "TV" - تِلِيفِزْيُونْ [tilifizyon], دكتورة the title of doctor, سكرتير secretary, فيلم film. The total number of loanwords from European languages is small, accounting for about one percent of the vocabulary.
For the Arabic literary language, four large synchronous slices of vocabulary development are distinguished: the pre-Islamic dictionary of the communal-tribal system (end of the 7th - and beginning of the 8th centuries); expansion of the vocabulary associated with the birth, development and prosperity of the medieval Arabic-speaking civilization (until the 12th century); the period of stagnation and reduction in the range of use of the Arabic literary language (XIII-XVIII centuries) and the beginning modern period(since the middle of the 19th century).
Synonymy, polysemy of words and homonymy have been widely developed in the Arabic language. The main ways of word formation are: morphological - according to word-building models and formulas, syntactic and semantic.
Despite the fact that the vocabulary is very rich, it is often not standardized enough and is often overloaded with the linguistic past. For example, there is no word that exactly matches the word nation. The word (أمة , ummah) denoting in the past, and in a religious context to this day, “a community of believers (Muslims)”; or, for example, "nationality" (جنسية , jinsiya) in general means "belonging to gender", for example, sexual life sounds like (حياة الجنسية , haya: t al-jinsiyya). The word "nationalism" (قومية , kaumiya) comes originally from vocabulary nomads kaum and means "tribe" in the sense of "nomadic tribe".
Phonetics
Phonetically, literary Arabic is characterized by a widely developed system of consonant phonemes, especially guttural, emphatic and interdental.
“In the phonetic sections of grammatical works, either only the articulations of Arabic sounds were described, or also their combinatorial change. The Indian system of classification of sounds, based on the place of articulation and other articulatory features, had a significant influence on the Arabs. The method of comparing sounds in articulatory and functional relations was used. Avicenna introduced the concept of correlation to establish relationships between sounds. Gemination cases were qualified as the result of complete progressive or regressive contact assimilation. Partial and distant assimilation was described. Questions about the interaction of consonants and vowels, about the replacement of consonants, about metathesis, about the loss of hamza, about elision, about the emergence of a connecting vowel, about palatalization, velarization, about sound symbolism were studied.
Pronunciation
Efforts are underway in many Arab countries to bring the pronunciation closer to standard Arabic. The basis is the citation norm (ar. tilāwa تلاوة ) of the Koran. This style of pronunciation is usually used only in a religious context.
It can be stated with certainty that the original pronunciation of High Arabic is not exactly known. For example, there is no consensus on the pronunciation of the ending un indefinite nouns ( kitabun etc. kitab). There are arguments in favor of two options, and since there were no vowels (vowels) in the ancient handwritten script, it is impossible to say with certainty how it was pronounced.
Swadesh list for Arabic | ||
№ | Arab | Russian |
---|---|---|
1 | أنا | I |
2 | أنت | you |
3 | هو | he |
4 | نحن | we |
5 | أنت | you |
6 | هم | they |
7 | هذا | this, this, this |
8 | أن | that, that, that |
9 | هنا | here |
10 | هناك | there |
11 | الذي | who |
12 | أن | what |
13 | حيث | where |
14 | عندما | when |
15 | كما | how |
16 | ليس | not |
17 | جميع | all, all, all, all |
18 | كثير | many |
19 | بعض | several |
20 | قليل | few |
21 | آخر | other, other |
22 | واحد | one |
23 | اثنان | two |
24 | ثلاثة | three |
25 | أربعة | four |
26 | خمسة | five |
27 | عظيم | big, great |
28 | طويل | long, long |
29 | واسع | wide |
30 | سميك | thick |
31 | ثقيل | heavy |
32 | صغير | small |
33 | قصير | short, brief |
34 | ضيق | narrow |
35 | رقيق | thin |
36 | امرأة | woman |
37 | رجل | the male |
38 | رجل | human |
39 | طفل | child, child |
40 | زوجة | wife |
41 | زوج | husband |
42 | والدة | mother |
43 | والد | father |
44 | حيوان | beast, animal |
45 | سمك | fish |
46 | طائر | bird, bird |
47 | كلب | dog, dog |
48 | قملة | louse |
49 | ثعبان | snake |
50 | دودة | worm |
51 | شجرة | wood |
52 | غابة | forest |
53 | عصا | stick, rod |
54 | فاكهة | fruit |
55 | بذرة | seed, seeds |
56 | يترك | sheet |
57 | جذر | root |
58 | قشرة | bark |
59 | زهرة | flower |
60 | عشب | grass |
61 | حبل | rope |
62 | جلد | leather |
63 | لحم | meat |
64 | دم | blood |
65 | عظم | bone |
66 | دهن | fat |
67 | بيضة | egg |
68 | قرن | horn |
69 | ذيل | tail |
70 | قلم | feather |
71 | شعر | hair |
72 | رئيس | head |
73 | الأذن | ear |
74 | عين | eye, eye |
75 | أنف | nose |
76 | فم | mouth |
77 | سن | tooth |
78 | لغة | tongue) |
79 | مسمار | nail |
80 | قدم | foot, leg |
81 | ساق | leg |
82 | ركبة | knee |
83 | يد | hand |
84 | جناح | wing |
85 | معدة | belly, belly |
86 | في الداخل | entrails, intestines |
87 | العنق | neck |
88 | ظهر | back |
89 | صدر | breast |
90 | قلب | heart |
91 | كبد | liver |
92 | شرب | drink |
93 | هناك | eat, eat |
94 | عض | bite |
95 | مص | suck |
96 | بصق | spit |
97 | تقيؤ | tear, vomit |
98 | ضربة | blow |
99 | تنفس | breathe |
100 | ضحك | laugh |
Writing
Arabic is written from right to left. Moreover, in Arabic, unlike languages with Latin or Cyrillic graphics, there are no capital letters, so proper names are written like any other word, as well as the first word in a sentence.
Anthroponymy
Arabic names are traditionally written in direct order.
Grammar
"Arab scholars usually divided grammar into syntax, morphology and phonetics and paid considerable attention to the issues of word formation, and in connection with it etymology, thanks to which in the 11th century. high level reached the root theory. Syntax and morphology are the most original parts of Arabic grammar, having no sources in either Greek or Indian works and focused on the specifics of the Arabic language.
The task of syntax was the structural-semantic analysis of the sentence. It postulated a subject-predicate relationship between two names or between a name and a verb. The sentences were small/elementary and large, forming a hierarchy; nominal, verbal and adverbial sentences - depending on which word is at the beginning of the sentence, and, accordingly, different types of subjects and predicates. Secondary members of the proposal were singled out and classified in detail (up to five types of additions, circumstances different types, "applications"). There were cases of formal and virtual implementation of inflections. The concept of an implied member was introduced to explain the construction. Relations of coordination, control and contiguity were also analyzed.
In morphology, parts of speech and features of their formation that were not syntactically determined were considered. This included such issues as parts of speech (name, verb and particles up to 27 types), root structure, names and their multifaceted classification for various reasons (explicit names - nouns, adjectives, hidden names - personal pronouns, common names - demonstrative and relative pronouns etc.), verbs (with a detailed classification of their forms and meanings), two-case and three-case names, the formation of relative names, the formation of composites, the formation of forms of number and gender, the formation of deminatives, changes in the form of a word due to the presence of weak root consonants, pausal forms, etc. The question of masdar was also discussed here.
Particularly great successes were achieved in phonetics (Khalil ibn Ahmad; Abu Ali ibn Sina - Avicenna, 980-1037; Sibavaihi).
The Arabic language is characterized by highly developed inflection. (The inflection and similarity of the inflection of Semitic and Indo-European languages has been called into question by some researchers of languages. Inflection Indo-European languages represents a different phenomenon from the inflection of the Semitic languages, as it implies a stronger interaction of inflection with the root. Arabic is characterized by agglutination. Some scientists, in particular, A. A. Reformatsky, believe that the fusion of the Semitic languages \u200b\u200bis special form agglutination, since the fusion of a Semitic word is a predictable process, following relatively strict formulas that Arabic authors like to represent using the three-letter root فعل with the meaning do and the vowels themselves forming a fusion, as a rule, are independent of the root. A similar, but not analogous, phenomenon is seen in a number of non-Semitic languages, in particular Germanic. Such are, for example, pairs of words of the singular and plural in English, like foot - feet, tooth - teeth, or changes in root vowels in irregular verbs English or so-called strong verbs German language, but in the Germanic languages there is no regularity in the reproduction of the so-called fusion formulas. Most words in Arabic can be traced back to their original verb form, which usually consists of three or four (rarely two or five) root consonants.
Although the root is indivisible for the speaker's mind, some familiarity with the analysis of the root is useful for facilitating the memorization of such an extensive root word as Arabic is endowed with, and for the feasible interpretation of unfamiliar roots when reading without a dictionary.
Root of the word
The Arabic root is most often three-letter, less often two- or four-letter, and even less often five-letter; but already for a four-letter root, a requirement is set that it contains at least one of the smooth consonants (vox memoriae (memory): مُرْ بِنَفْلٍ).
According to the well-known domestic Arabist S. S. Meisel, the number of triconsonant roots in the modern Arabic literary language is 82% of total number Arabic root.
Not any consonants can participate in the composition of the root: some of them are compatible in the same root (more precisely, in the same cell; see below: b), others are incompatible.
Incompatible:
- Glottal: غ ع خ ح (if ع and ء are compatible)
- Non guttural:
ب and فم
ت and ث
ث and س ص ض ط ظ
ج and ف ق ك
خ and ظقك
د and ذ
ذ and ص ض ط ظ
ر and ل
ز and ض ص ظ
س and ص ض
ش and ضل
ص and ض ط ظ
ض and ط ظ
ط and ظك
ظ and غق
غ and ق ك
ق and ك غ
ل and ن
This feature of the composition of the Arabic root somewhat facilitates the task of the reader of the manuscript without dots; for example, the spelling حعفر should be جَعْفَر
It should be noted that the translation of the cases الرَّفْعُ, الجَرُّ and النَّصْبُ is very conditional, since the genitive and accusative cases of the Arabic language include names that, when translated, can appear in any of the remaining three cases of the Russian language:
Zayd cut the rope with a knife (active)
We were talking about studying (prepositional case)
قُلْ لِمُحَمَّدٍ - الجَرُّ Say to Muhammad (dative)
قَاوَمَ اَلشَّعْبُ اَلْمُسْتَعْمِرِينَ - اَلنَّصْبُ The people fought against the colonialists (active case)
The signs by which the case is recognized are different and they depend on the morphological features of the name.
Islamic Studies
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Noun
A noun in Arabic has such morphological concepts as gender, number - singular, dual (very rarely used in dialects) and plural, case and state, as well as the categories of definiteness, indefiniteness and neutral status.
Genus. There are only two genders in Arabic: masculine and feminine. For names with a characteristic ending [atun], the feminine gender is often characteristic. In general, the belonging of a name to a particular genus is associated with a meaning, for example, with a sign of gender.
For example, the noun أُمٌّ ["ummun]-(mother), despite its ending is feminine. For many nouns denoting the name of a profession or occupation, the feminine gender is formed simply by adding the endings [-atun] to the corresponding masculine name. For example:
طَالِبٌ [ student] | طَالِبَةٌ [ student] |
To convey the feminine ending in writing, ﺓ [t̄’ marbutụa], a letter that is not in the alphabet, is used. It is a graphic variant of the usual ت [t], which is called [t̄ ’], or “stretched t”. Connecting the ends of the “stretched t” to each other, we get ﺓ [t̄’ marbutṭa]. In Semitic languages, [t] is one of the main indicators of gender. When agreeing with names, ت is used in verbs, and ﺓ in names. [t̄’ marbutụa] is written only at the end of a word and can have two styles: without connection - ﺓ and when connected to the right - ﺔ .
Verb
The verb is characterized by a high development of verb forms, called breeds: a single system of conjugation of all verbs; a developed system of temporary forms (three simple and three complex tenses); two pledges (real and passive); five moods (indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative and reinforced); the system of verbal names associated with the breeds (the so-called "masdars").
The verb denotes the action or state of a person or object and acts as a predicate in a sentence. The most common type of Arabic verb is the three-consonant verb. Three consonants standing side by side and voiced by fatha (the middle root can also be voiced by ḍamma or kasra) represent the verb of the 3rd person masculine singular of the past tense. Such a verb form has the formula فَعَلَ . As the simplest, this form is taken as the initial form in the formation of derivative forms and is conventionally translated in dictionaries as an infinitive. When conjugating an Arabic verb, personal pronouns are omitted, since person, number and gender are quite fully expressed in personal endings.
Past tense of the verb - The past tense of an Arabic verb is used to express an action that took place before the moment of speech, and is formed by replacing the ending of the 3rd person singular masculine with the corresponding personal endings. The Arabic verb, unlike the Russian one, does not receive a clear aspectual meaning in the form of the past tense, and therefore, depending on the meaning of the sentence, it can be translated both in the form of the perfect and in the form of the imperfect form of the Russian verb. For example:كَتَبَ "he wrote" or "he wrote".
Present-future tense Arabic verb expresses an action that is unfinished in nature, occurring or beginning simultaneously with the moment of speech or with some other moment, directly or indirectly indicated in this statement. The present-future tense form is formed from the past tense form by adding the appropriate prefixes and endings; at the same time, the first root loses its vowel (a sukun appears above it), and the second receives fathu, ḍamma or kasra, which is called typical vowel and is indicated in dictionaries by the corresponding letter (a, i, y) placed in brackets after the verb.
Future tense of the verb formed on the basis of the present tense form by adding the prefix سوف to it [saufa] or its shortened version س [sa]. Unlike س, which is written together with the verb form, سوف is written separately with it. Both prefixes have no independent meaning. The conjugation of the verb in this tense form is basically the same as the conjugation in the present-future tense form.
In modern Arabic, especially in the periodical press, the verb of the second kind is actively used, formed from the prefix سوف, as well as the masdar of this verb تسويف, in the meaning of "endless delay", "constant postponing for an indefinite future" in relation to any plans, promises or obligations, for example, pre-election, etc.].
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Most used words
The three most common words are particles that are written together with the next word. These include الـ al(definite article), و wa(conjunction "and"), and بـ bi(preposition "through").
The eight most commonly used individual words
- في fi(in)
- من min(from, from)
- على " ala(on the)
- أن Anna(what (conjunction))
- إن inna(truly)
- إلى silt(to, to, before)
- كان ka: on(to be)
- هذا، هذه ha:ra, ha:rihi(this[t], this)