What are the components of the geographic shell do you know. The geographical envelope, its components, the relationship between them
1. Geographic envelope, its components, the relationship between them.
The geographic shell is the shell of the Earth, within which the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere mutually penetrate and interact. All the parts of the geographic envelope listed in the definition are interconnected with each other. So, for example, during a volcanic eruption, dust and ash particles enter the atmosphere, this makes it difficult for the influx of sunlight and the temperature of the Earth's surface decreases. Relationships of all constituent parts geographical shell can be traced on the example of the circulation of substances (water, chemical elements) and the circulation of energy .. The boundaries of the geographic shell once scientists define it in different ways. The average thickness is 55 km. Per upper bound take tropopause - a transitional layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, located at an altitude of 8-10 km in subpolar latitudes and up to 17 above the equator. Bottom line, located in the lithosphere, conditional. Compared to the measures of the Earth, the geographic envelope is a thin film.
All components (components) of the geographic envelope are connected into a single whole through the circulation of matter and energy. The greatest role is played by the air cycle in the troposphere, which contributes to the global water cycle. The role of the biological cycle is great in the life of civil defense. All cycles are interconnected and form a common global cycle of matter and energy, which ensures the development of civil defense,
The geographical shell is divided into continents and oceans, which, in turn, can be divided into separate parts of the earth's surface (it can be a small lake or a large forest) - natural complexes. A natural complex (abbreviated as PC) is a site earth's surface, which is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction. This area has more or less clearly defined boundaries, has a natural unity, which is also manifested in its appearance. Each natural complex differs from others in certain features of its components (rocks, water, soil, vegetation, animals, etc.). The components of nature have come a long way of development, so their combinations are not random, but natural. There are many connections and interactions between the components. The interaction between components unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. On land, PCs are called territorial, and in the ocean - aquatic. PCs are having a huge impact economic activity person. Man created new PCs: cities, roads, gardens, fields, parks, airfields, etc.
The largest natural complexes into which the geographical shell is divided are the continents and oceans. Each continent is a unique natural complex that differs from others in its geographical position, size, surface structure, climatic features, and development history.
2. Agro-industrial complex of the Vologda region. Problems and prospects of development.
The agro-industrial complex of the Vologda Oblast is not a branch of specialization of the economy of the Vologda Oblast, but it fully meets the needs of the population in basic food products: meat, milk, chicken eggs and potatoes. At the same time, a number of branches of the food and light industries are of special importance, since their products enter the interregional exchange. Agriculture consists of two branches: animal husbandry and agriculture. The leading position is occupied by animal husbandry. This is facilitated by a rich food base - large areas natural pastures and hayfields, including vast floodplain meadows. The main areas of animal husbandry are dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding. The main producers of meat and milk are the southern regions of the region - Vologda, Gryazovetsky, Cherepovets and Sheksninsky, as well as Totemsky in the east. The processing of meat and milk is concentrated in these areas. In addition to cattle breeding, pig breeding is developed in the region. About 80% of the pig population is fattened in large complexes. The Nadeevo complex is located near Vologda, where more than 40 thousand heads of pigs are fattening at the same time, a similar enterprise operates in the Cherepovets region. Poultry farming is developed in the Vologda Oblast. Large highly mechanized poultry farms are located in the vicinity of Vologda, Cherepovets, Sheksna and Veliky Ustyug. Farming in structure Agriculture area plays a secondary role. The main function of agriculture is to provide fodder for livestock. The main fodder crops are seeded grasses - clover, timothy grass and vetch, pea and oat mixtures. Sowing crops for food grain is limited by the position of the region in the cold agro-climatic zone. The main grain crops are rye, barley and oats, wheat crops are slightly spread in some southern regions. Vologodskaya Oblast- the area of traditional flax growing, on the basis of which a fairly powerful flax processing complex was formed. After the recession, the industry is on the rise. Potato production not only provides for its own needs, but also allows you to export the surplus. Vegetable growing is concentrated in the suburbs of Vologda and Cherepovets. Light industry: there are two flax mills in the region - in Vologda "Vologda Textile" and in Krasavin - "Severlen". The combines receive flax fiber from flax mills, spin flax thread and produce fabric. In Vologda, Cherepovets and in a number of small towns and villages in the region, enterprises of the clothing and knitwear industry operate. A sheepskin and fur factory operates in Vologda, producing fur coats, sheepskin coats, and sheepskin coats. There are light industry enterprises in Veliky Ustyug: a leather and haberdashery factory, a felted shoe factory, and a brush factory. Food industry. Large enterprises of the dairy industry - Vologda, Cherepovets dairy plants, the company "Severnoye Moloko" - Gryazovets, Sukhonsky milk-canning plant in Sokol, Sheksninsky butter plant, cheese-making plant in Ustyuzhna. Most large enterprises meat processing industry - plants in Vologda and Cherepovets. A fruit and vegetable cannery operates in Vologda. The flour-grinding industry is represented by the Sheksna Bread Products Plant and the Vologda Mill Plant, which meet the needs of the region in flour. There are large confectionery factories in Vologda and Cherepovets. A baby food factory has recently been built in Vologda, and a factory in Kadnikovo that produces ready-made breakfasts in retail packaging.
3. Determine from statistical materials, compare population growth rates in different parts of the country (at the teacher's choice) and explain their differences.
Population growth is an increase in its number. It occurs due to natural and mechanical growth. It's crowded related processes. Natural increase is the difference between fertility and mortality (it can be negative, then they talk about natural population decline). Mechanical growth is migration.
To explain the differences in growth, it is necessary to consider the whole complex of factors that determine natural growth and migration:
Standards of living,
Share of urban and rural population,
Level economic development region,
National-religious traditions.
The geographic shell - an integral and continuous shell of the Earth, was formed as a result of the interpenetration and interaction of the substances of individual geospheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Its boundaries are fuzzy, so scientists define them in different ways. The upper boundary is taken by the ozone screen at a height of 25-30 km, the lower one - within the lithosphere at a depth of several hundred meters, sometimes up to 4-5 km, or along the ocean floor. It consists entirely of the hydrosphere and the biosphere, most of atmosphere and part of the lithosphere. The geographic envelope is a complex dynamic system, which is characterized by the presence of substances in three aggregate states - solid, liquid and gaseous, an oxidizing environment and living matter, complex migration of matter with the participation of water, oxygen and living organisms, the concentration of solar energy and wealth various kinds free energy.
The geographic shell covers the entire planet, so it is considered a planetary complex. It is here that all shells closely touch, interpenetrate, and life is focused. The geographical shell is a living human society, it has a number of specific features. It is distinguished by a wide variety of composition and types of energy. The geographic envelope is heterogeneous not only in the vertical but also in the horizontal directions. It is differentiated into separate natural complexes - relatively homogeneous parts of the Earth's surface. Its differentiation into natural complexes is due to the uneven supply of heat to its different parts and the heterogeneity of the earth's surface.
Zonal features of the geographic envelope
The geographical envelope has a number of regularities. The most important of them are integrity, rhythm of development, horizontal zonality and altitudinal zonality. Integrity is the unity of the geographic shell, due to the interconnectedness of its components. A change in one of the components necessarily entails a change in the others. Thus, forests lead to a whole chain of natural changes: forest plants and animals disappear - soils are destroyed and washed away - the level of groundwater decreases - rivers become shallow. Integrity is achieved by the circulation of matter and energy (circulation of the atmosphere, the system of sea currents, the water cycle, the biological cycle). They provide the repeatability of processes and phenomena, promote the relationship between natural components.
Due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the Sun, uneven heating of the earth's surface, all processes and phenomena in the geographic shell are repeated after a certain period of time. This is how rhythm arises - regular repetition in time natural phenomena and processes. There are daily and seasonal rhythms, for example, the change of day and night, seasons, tides and the like. There are rhythms that repeat after a certain period of time: windows of climate fluctuations and water levels in lakes and the like.
Zoning is a regular change of natural components and natural complexes in the direction from the equator to the poles. It is due to the different amount of heat due to the sphericity of the Earth. Zonal complexes include geographical zones and natural areas. Geographical belts - the most zonal complexes, extend in a latitudinal direction (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, etc.). Each geographical zone is divided into smaller complexes of natural zones (steppes, deserts, semi-deserts, forests).
Altitudinal zonality is a regular change of natural components and natural complexes with the ascent into the mountains from their foot to the peaks. It is due to climate change with height: a decrease in temperature (by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of ascent) and an increase in precipitation up to a certain height (up to 2-3 km). The altitudinal zonality has the same sequence as on the plain when moving from the equator to the poles. However natural belts in the mountains change much faster than natural areas on the plains. In addition, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitudinal belts that begin with an analogue of the horizontal zone within which the mountains are located depends on the height of the mountains and location.
Introduction
1. Geographical shell as a material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earthly shells
2. Circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope
3. The main regularities of the geographic shell: the unity and integrity of the system, the rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonal
4. Differentiation of the geographic envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas
5. Altitudinal zonality of mountains in different geographical zones
6. Physical-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems of physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography
The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographical landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographical envelope is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous energy and mass exchange between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic envelope are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographic shell, mankind arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.
The geographic shell was first defined by P. I. Brounov as early as 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth”. This is the most complex part of our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere come into contact and interpenetrate. Only here is possible the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun takes place; it was only within its limits that the emergence and spread of life became possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.
The geographical shell is characterized by integrity, due to the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.
The uneven development in time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a result of these processes, different ages of individual sections of the geographical envelope, the heredity of the course of natural processes, the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographic envelope makes it possible in many cases to predict natural processes.
The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements of geographical science. It continues to be actively developed and discussed. Since this doctrine has not only a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the purposeful accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Its practical significance is also great, since it is precisely such systems approach to consider infrastructure geographical objects underlies the geographical zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, and even more so globally, any problems related to one degree or another to the interaction of man, society and nature: neither environmental, nor nature management, nor generally optimization of human relationships and natural environment.
aim control work is the consideration of the geographic envelope from the perspective contemporary ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be identified and solved, the main of which will be:
1 consideration of the geographic shell as a material system;
2 consideration of the main regularities of the geographic envelope;
3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographic envelope;
4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.
The dynamics of the geographic envelope depends entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth-Moon system also play a certain role.
The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographic shell of the tops. earth's crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Current state geographical shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of the planet Earth.
Scientists identify three stages in the development of the geographic shell: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years), was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance of higher forms of living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographic envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).
The geographic envelope is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The main material components of the geographic shell are the constituents of the earth's crust rocks(with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; in the polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is essential. The main energy components are gravitational energy, the internal heat of the planet, the radiant energy of the Sun and the energy of cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it also depends on the number of terms included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural combination), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and relationships, i.e., on the geographical structure.
A.A. Grigoriev spent upper limit geographic envelope (GO) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, detrimental to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.
Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters the lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. The density of O 3 is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. The total ozone content X in a vertical column of air ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if it is brought to normal pressure (1013, 2 mbar) at t = 0 o C. The value of X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.
Below the boundary of the ozone screen, air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and the ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly affects the formation of the relief.
S.V. Kalesnik places an upper bound on the G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the sources of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of not more than 40-45 km and not less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper - over, above, genesis - origin). This is a zone of sedimentary rocks that arise in the process of weathering, changes in igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.
The views of D.L. Armand. D. L. Armand's geographic sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (the silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and under high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the actual geographical sphere, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the "Great Geographical Sphere", including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with a lower horizon of which (700 -1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.
The geographic envelope is an integral continuous near-surface part of the Earth, within which there is an intense interaction of four components: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere (living matter). This is the most complex and diverse material system of our planet, which includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), the upper part of the lithosphere and the living organisms inhabiting them. The spatial structure of the geographic envelope is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.
The boundaries of the geographic envelope are indistinct. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens, and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical shell in different ways. The upper bound is often taken ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays that have a detrimental effect on living organisms are retained. However, some researchers conduct it along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which most actively interacts with the earth's surface. The base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick is usually taken as the lower boundary on land, and the ocean floor in the ocean.
The idea of a geographical shell as a special natural formation was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century. A.A. Grigoriev and S.V. Kalesnik. They revealed the main features of the geographic envelope: 1) the complexity of the composition and the diversity of the state of matter; 2) the flow of all physical and geographical processes due to solar (cosmic) and internal (telluric) energy; 3) transformation and partial conservation of all types of energy entering it; 4) the concentration of life and the presence human society; 5) the presence of a substance in three states of aggregation.
The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components. These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical condition(solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).
The geographic envelope has a vertical structure consisting of separate spheres. The lower tier is composed of dense matter of the lithosphere, while the upper ones are represented by lighter matter of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such a structure is the result of matter differentiation with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographic shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to single out a landscape sphere inside it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where the earth's crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere come into contact and actively interact.
The geographical envelope in the horizontal direction is divided into separate natural complexes, which is determined by the uneven distribution of heat in different parts of the earth's surface and its heterogeneity. I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest, planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and natural formations such as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazonian Lowland, etc. The smallest natural territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physical-geographical region. It is a block of the earth's crust, connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block should be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and areas.
How is the exchange of substances between the outer shells of the Earth?
1. Interaction of the earth's shells. Geographic cover. It is known that the outer shells of the Earth - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere develop in close relationship with each other. Their main constituents are gas, liquid and solid substances, being mixed, they pass from one state to another. Therefore, at the points of contact between the shells, their constant interaction is observed. For example, let's observe the relationship between the atmosphere and the biosphere. Air is a necessary condition for the life of all organisms. People and animals breathe air oxygen, plants absorb carbon dioxide, producing organic matter. At the same time, the composition of gases in the atmosphere is closely related to the life of organisms. (Remember how oxygen is formed in the air.)
Living organisms subject the upper layer of the atmosphere to complex changes. They are involved in the process of weathering rocks. The remains of plants and animals create organic rocks in the earth's crust. In turn, various substances of the earth's crust are part of organisms. The upper layer of the lithosphere is the living environment for organisms.
The atmosphere and lithosphere are also closely related. You know that the atmosphere is heated by the sun's rays hitting the earth's surface. In this regard, a regularity of changes in air temperature in the troposphere with height appeared. Dust and other small particles rising from the earth's surface affect the transparency of the air and the conditions for heating the upper layer of the earth's surface. Around small particles that have risen into the air, water vapor thickens, clouds form, etc.
Earlier we considered the interaction of the earth's shells. In fact, such interaction is not only bilateral, but also multilateral.
As a result of close contact and mutual influence of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, a special shell of the Earth was formed - the geographic shell. She creates the necessary conditions for the emergence and development of life on Earth. On the present stage During the development of the Earth, living organisms have reached such a level that they constitute a separate shell - the biosphere.
The geographic shell includes the upper layer of the lithosphere changed under the influence of other shells, the lower layer of the atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere.
The geographical envelope is characterized by the following features:
1) each earthly shell consists of only one substance: the atmosphere - from air, the hydrosphere - from water, the lithosphere - from rocks, the biosphere - from living organisms. And the material composition of the geographic shell is very complex. It includes all the substances mentioned earlier. Therefore, it is characterized as a complex shell;
2) organisms live only in a geographical envelope. Life does not extend to the upper layers of the atmosphere and the deep interior of the lithosphere;
3) the heat that comes to the Earth with the sun's rays is completely concentrated in the geographic envelope. Heat is characterized by latitudinal distribution. Such latitudinal zonality is completely absent in the upper layers of the atmosphere or in the deep parts of the lithosphere;
4) although the geographical envelope consists of separate components, it is an integral system. Changes that occur in some areas that are part of the geographic envelope cause changes in others. For example, you know that the emergence and development of life on the earth's surface contributed to changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
2. Components of nature. Natural complex. The geographical envelope consists of rocks, air, water, soil, plants and animals. These components of the geographic shell are called natural components, or geographical components (component in Latin - component).
The totality of the natural components of any territory constitutes an integral system. This system is called the natural complex, or geographical complex.
Each component of the natural complex is closely interconnected with others (Fig. 82).
Rice. 82. The relationship between natural components.
A change in one of them necessarily leads to a change in the others.
For example, let's imagine a natural complex of a sandy desert. Abundance of sand, rare thorny plants, animals adapted to life in the sands. Now let's pay attention to how this natural complex changes if we dig a canal here and let the river water flow. Seeping water will raise the groundwater level and form salt marshes and lakes. Reeds, meadows, shrub groves will grow on the banks of the canal, around the lakes. Instead of various animals of the sandy deserts, tugai animals will appear and take root. Due to changes in humidity and the nature of plants, floodplain soil will form instead of sand. The climate of the area will noticeably change, humidity will increase and the heat will subside.
The geographic envelope is the largest on the globe natural complex (the most complex system). It consists of an interdependent system of natural complexes. The next natural complexes after the geographical are the continents and the Ocean. Numerous rivers flowing into the Ocean bring with them a large amount of rocks. (Remember how mountains sink.) Also, winds from the Ocean carry clouds and precipitation onto land. (How does the water cycle occur in nature?)
The exchange of matter between the land and the ocean unites them into an integral planetary geographical system. Since the surface of the Ocean is monotonous, from the outside it seems that it is no longer divided into natural complexes. However, it is not. In each part of the Ocean, water temperature, salinity, plants and animals, microorganisms differ. This makes it possible to divide the surface of the Ocean into natural complexes.
The natural complexes of the land surface, on the contrary, are well traced. The land is divided into natural countries, and they are divided into even smaller parts. West Siberian Plain, Saryarka, Tien Shan are examples of natural countries. Small natural complexes: floodplain, grove, lake shore, ravine, etc.
1. What is called a geographic shell?
2. Why are the atmosphere and lithosphere not completely included in the geographic envelope?
3. What is the main difference between the geographic shell and other earthly shells?
4.What is natural ingredients?
5. How is a natural complex formed?
6. Give some examples of natural complexes in your area?
7. How do you understand the system of internal connections of natural complexes?
8. Analyze according to Figure 82 the two-way relationship between the components of nature (water and air, soil and plants, etc.).
9*. Analyze the two-way relationship between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere.