Coat of arms of the Habsburgs. The Austrian Monarchy of the Habsburgs in the 17th-18th centuries
The Habsburg dynasty has been known since the 13th century, when its representatives owned Austria. And from the middle of the 15th century until the beginning of the 19th century, they completely retained the title of emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, being the most powerful monarchs of the continent.
History of the Habsburgs
The founder of the family lived in the X century. There is almost no information about him today. It is known that his descendant, Count Rudolph, acquired land in Austria already in the middle of the 13th century. Actually, southern Swabia became their cradle, where the early representatives of the dynasty had a family castle. The name of the castle - Habischtsburg (from German - "hawk castle") and gave the name of the dynasty. In 1273, Rudolf was elected king of the Germans and emperor. He conquered Austria and Styria from King Premysl Otakar of the Czech Republic, and his sons Rudolf and Albrecht became the first Habsburgs to rule in Austria. In 1298, Albrecht inherits from his father the title of emperor and German king. And later his son was elected to this throne. However, throughout the 14th century, the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of the Germans was still elective among the German princes, and it did not always go to the representatives of the dynasty. Only in 1438, when Albrecht II becomes emperor, did the Habsburgs finally appropriate this title for themselves. Subsequently, there was only one exception, when the elector of Bavaria achieved the kingship by force in the middle of the 18th century.
Rise of a dynasty
Since this period, the Habsburg dynasty has been gaining more and more power, reaching brilliant heights. Their successes were laid down by the successful policy of I, who ruled at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Actually, his main successes were successful marriages: his own, which brought him the Netherlands, and his son Philip, as a result of which the Habsburg dynasty took possession of Spain. About the grandson of Maximilian, they said that the Sun never sets over his possessions - his power was so widespread. He owned Germany, the Netherlands, parts of Spain and Italy, as well as some possessions in the New World. The Habsburg dynasty was at the height of its power.
However, even during the life of this monarch, the gigantic state was divided into parts. And after his death, it completely disintegrated, after which the representatives of the dynasty divided their possessions among themselves. Ferdinand I got Austria and Germany, Philip II - Spain and Italy. In the future, the Habsburgs, whose dynasty was divided into two branches, were no longer a single entity. In some periods, relatives even openly opposed each other. As was the case, for example, during
Europe. The victory of the reformers in it hit hard on the power of both branches. Thus, the Holy Emperor never again had his former influence, which was associated with the formation in Europe. And the Spanish Habsburgs completely lost their throne, ceding it to the Bourbons.
In the middle of the 18th century, the Austrian rulers Joseph II and Leopold II for some time managed to once again raise the prestige and power of the dynasty. This second heyday, when the Habsburgs again became influential in Europe, lasted for about a century. However, after the revolution of 1848, the dynasty loses its monopoly of power even in its own empire. Austria turns into a dual monarchy - Austria-Hungary. Further - already irreversible - the process of disintegration was delayed only thanks to the charisma and wisdom of the reign of Franz Joseph, who became the last real ruler of the state. The Habsburg dynasty (photo on the right) after the defeat in the First World War was completely expelled from the country, and on the ruins of the empire in 1919 a number of national independent states arose.
Asya Golverk, Sergey Khaimin
Compiled based on materials from the Encyclopedias Britannica, Larousse, Around the World, etc.
Roman era
Very little is known about the first inhabitants of Austria. Scant historical evidence suggests the existence of a pre-Celtic population. Around 400–300 BC militant Celtic tribes appeared with their own dialect, religious cults and traditions. Mixing with the ancient inhabitants, the Celts formed the kingdom of Norik.
At the beginning of the II century. BC. Roman power extended to the Danube. However, the Romans were forced to constantly fight against the nomadic Germanic barbarians who invaded from the north across the Danube, which served as the border of Roman civilization. The Romans built fortified military camps at Vindobona (Vienna) and at Carnunte, 48 km from the first; in the Hoher Markt district of Vienna, remains of Roman buildings have been preserved. In the region of the middle Danube, the Romans contributed to the development of cities, crafts, trade and the ore industry, built roads and buildings. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (died at Vindobona in 180 AD) composed part of his immortal Meditations at Carnuntum. The Romans implanted among the local population religious pagan rites, secular institutions and customs, the Latin language and literature. By the 4th c. is the Christianization of this region.
In the 5th and 6th centuries Germanic tribes flooded most Roman possessions in the western part of modern Austria. The eastern and southern parts of modern Austria were invaded by Turkic-speaking nomads - the Avars, along with them (or after them) the Slavic peoples migrated - the future Slovenes, Croats and Czechs, among whom the Avars disappeared. AT western regions missionaries (Irish, Franks, Angles) converted pagan Germans (Bavarians) to Christianity; The cities of Salzburg and Passau became the centers of Christian culture. Around 774, a cathedral was built in Salzburg, and by the end of the 8th century. the local archbishop was given authority over neighboring dioceses. Monasteries were built (for example, Kremsmünster), and the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity began from these islands of civilization.
The invasion of the Hungarians in the Eastern March
Charlemagne (742-814) defeated the Avars and began to encourage the German colonization of the Eastern March. German settlers received privileges: they were given land allotments, which were processed by slaves. Cities on the Middle Danube flourished again.
Frankish rule in Austria ended abruptly. The Carolingian Empire was ruthlessly devastated by the Hungarians. These warlike tribes were destined to have a lasting and profound influence on the life of the middle part of the Danube valley. In 907, the Hungarians captured the Eastern March and from here carried out bloody raids on Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine.
Otto I, German emperor and founder of the Holy Roman Empire (962), defeated a powerful Hungarian army in 955 on the Lech River near Augsburg. Pushed east, the Hungarians gradually settled downstream in the fertile Hungarian Plain (where their descendants still live) and adopted the Christian faith.
Board of the Babenbergs
The place of the expelled Hungarians was taken by German settlers. The Bavarian Eastern Mark, which at that time covered the area around Vienna, was transferred in 976 as a fief to the Babenberg family, whose family estates were located in the Main valley in Germany. In 996, the territory of the East March was first named Ostarriki.
One of the prominent representatives of the Babenberg dynasty was the macrograve Leopold III (reigned 1095–1136). The ruins of his castle on the Leopoldsberg mountain near Vienna have been preserved. Nearby is the monastery of Klosterneuburg and the majestic Cistercian abbey in Heiligenstadt, the burial place of the Austrian rulers. The monks in these monasteries cultivated the fields, taught the children, wrote chronicles and looked after the sick, greatly contributing to the enlightenment of the surrounding population.
German settlers completed the development of the Eastern Mark. The methods of cultivating the land and growing grapes were improved, and new villages were founded. Many castles were built along the Danube and inland, such as Dürnstein and Aggstein. During the period of the Crusades, the cities prospered, and the wealth of the rulers grew. In 1156, the emperor conferred the title of duke on Henry II, Margrave of Austria. The land of Styria, south of Austria, was inherited by the Babenbergs (1192), while parts of Upper Austria and Krotna were acquired in 1229.
Austria entered its heyday during the reign of Duke Leopold VI, who died in 1230, having become famous as a merciless fighter against heretics and Muslims. Monasteries were showered with generous gifts; the newly created monastic orders, the Franciscans and Dominicans, were cordially received in the duchy, and poets and singers were encouraged.
Vienna, long in decline, in 1146 became the residence of the duke; great benefit has been derived from the development of trade through crusades. In 1189, it was first mentioned as a civitas (city), in 1221 it received city rights and in 1244 confirmed them, having received formal city privileges that determined the rights and obligations of citizens, regulated the activities of foreign merchants and provided for the formation of a city council. In 1234, a more humane and enlightened law on their rights was issued for the Jewish residents than in other places, which remained in force until the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna almost 200 years later. AT early XIII in. the boundaries of the city were expanded, new fortifications arose.
The Babenberg dynasty died out in 1246, when Duke Frederick II died in battle with the Hungarians, leaving no heirs. The struggle for Austria, an economically and strategically important territory, began.
Beginning of the Habsburg dynasty
The Habsburgs are the most famous aristocratic family in Germany, who played exclusively important role in world history.
For several centuries, the Habsburgs from a low-influenced count family turned into the first family in Europe. The secret of the Habsburgs is unbelievable. Three times men from this family led the first bride of Europe to the altar. Plus, of course, the constant wars for the benefits resulting from these marriages.
And the expression "Austria (that is, the Habsburgs) are called to rule the world!" Was born! What is the history of the rise of the Habsburgs to world domination? And what led to the collapse of great hopes?
The ancestor of the Habsburgs is Guntram the Rich, Count of Lower Alsace, Breisgau and Aargau, who lived in the 10th century, although modern researchers have not found confirmation of his real existence. Coming from Alsace, the first Habsburgs settled in Northern Switzerland. As owners of the Aar valley and the Aargau district, they built their family castle there, after which they began to be called von Habsburg counts.
The origin of the name of the castle is interpreted in two ways - either “hawk castle”, or “castle at the ford, at the crossing”. Over time, the counts von Habsburg became the owners of almost all of northern Switzerland and a very strong and influential family in the southwestern.
Count Albrecht IV von Habsburg (died in 1241) divided the family estates with his brother Rudolf III - this was the first division of the lands of the Habsburg family (there will be several such divisions in the following centuries). At the origins of the power of the Habsburg Monarchy was the son of Albrecht IV - Count Rudolf IV.
The Pope handed over the vacant throne of the duchy to Margrave Hermann of Baden (reigned 1247-1250). However, the Austrian bishops and the feudal nobility elected the Bohemian king Přemysl II (Otakar) (1230–1278) (1230–1278) as duke, who reinforced his rights to the Austrian throne by marrying the sister of the last Babenberg. Přemysl captured Styria and received Carinthia and part of Carniola by marriage contract. Premysl sought the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, but on September 29, 1273, Count Rudolf of Habsburg (1218–1291), respected both for his political prudence and for his ability to avoid disputes with the papacy, was elected king. Přemysl refused to recognize his election, so Rudolph resorted to force and defeated his rival. In 1282 - one of the key dates in Austrian history - Rudolph declared the lands of Austria that belonged to him to be hereditary possession of the House of Habsburg
But Rudolf I turned out to be a successful owner of new lands. In 1278, he managed to defeat the Czech king and became the owner of the duchies of Austria and Styria - thus the cornerstone was laid in building the personal empire of the Habsburgs. The excessive strengthening of the Habsburgs prompted the princes to stop electing representatives of this family to the imperial throne for a long time.
In turn, the Habsburgs annexed Carinthia and Tyrol to their possessions. In 1306, for the first time, a member of the Habsburg family, Rudolf III, became the king of Bohemia (Czech Republic), but was unable to cope with the recalcitrant Czech nobility and died a year later.
The Duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Tyrol Rudolf IV (1339-1365) was the first Habsburg born in Vienna and the first Austrian of his kind. He became famous for the following: in 1358, Emperor Charles IV of the Luxembourg family, King of Bohemia, issued the so-called "Golden Bull", according to which the emperor was now elected by 7 elector princes (electors). The Austrian duke was not among these electors (the irony here is that the emperor punished his own son-in-law: Rudolf IV issued Privelegium Maius in retaliation, a collection of skillfully forged decrees of former emperors).
It was there that the mention of the new title of Rudolph - Archduke was contained. The new title put the ruler of Austria on the second level after the emperor in the hierarchy of German rulers. Emperor Charles IV was extremely hostile to the antics of Rudolph IV, he even forced the duke not to use the title “Archduke” for some reason, he helped Rudolph’s enemies in every possible way, incited the Swiss dissatisfied with his rule, but in the end the emperor capitulated. So under Rudolph IV The Habsburgs began to bear the title of archdukes (1359).
Rudolph also became famous for signing documents with his younger brothers, where they agreed that it was transferred to all the sons of the duke as an indivisible property, this rule was called the “Rudolph Rule”, so Duke Rudolph IV was the first of the Habsburgs to try to save family possessions from crushing , which means to consolidate the position of the Habsburg clan in Europe achieved with such difficulty!
Duke Rudolf IV (reigned 1358-1365) made plans to annex the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary to his possessions and dreamed of achieving complete independence from the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolph founded the University of Vienna (1365), financed the expansion of the Cathedral of St. Stephen and supported trade and crafts. He died suddenly, without realizing his ambitious plans.
However, after the death of the forger duke, it turned out that he had worked all his life in vain: in 1379, the younger brothers of the deceased Rudolph IV calmly divided Austria: Albrecht III became the duke of Austria proper, and Leopold III became the duke of Styria, Carinthia and Tyrol, this section known as the division into the Albertine and Leopoldin lines of the Habsburgs.
From the very beginning, the Habsburgs considered their lands to be private property. Despite the struggle for the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and family strife, the dukes from the house of Habsburg continued to expand the boundaries of their possessions. An attempt had already been made to annex the land of Vorarlberg in the southwest to it, but this was only completed by 1523. Tyrol was annexed to the possessions of the Habsburgs in 1363, as a result of which the Duchy of Austria came close to the Apennine Peninsula. In 1374, part of Istria was annexed to the northern tip of the Adriatic Sea, and after 8 years the port of Trieste voluntarily joined Austria in order to free itself from the rule of the Venetians. Representative (estate) assemblies were created, consisting of nobles, clergy and townspeople.
Economy of Austria during the Renaissance
In peaceful periods, trade flourished with neighboring principalities and even with distant Russia. Goods were transported to Hungary, the Czech Republic and Germany along the Danube; in terms of volume, this trade was comparable to trade along the great Rhine route. Trade developed with Venice and other northern Italian cities. Roads were improved, making it easier to transport goods.
Germany served as a profitable market for Austrian wines and grains, Hungary bought textiles. Iron household products were exported to Hungary. In turn, Austria bought Hungarian livestock and minerals. In the Salzkammergut (Lower Austrian Eastern Alps) a large amount of table salt was mined. Domestic needs for most products, except for clothing, were provided by domestic manufacturers. Craftsmen of the same specialty, united in a guild, often settled in certain urban areas, as evidenced by the names of streets in the old corners of Vienna. Wealthy members of the guilds not only controlled the affairs of their industry, but also participated in the management of the city.
Political successes of the Habsburgs
Friedrich III. With the election of Duke Albrecht V as German king in 1438 (under the name of Albrecht II), the prestige of the Habsburgs reached its apogee. By marrying the heiress to the royal throne of Bohemia and Hungary, Albrecht increased the possessions of the dynasty. However, his power in Bohemia remained nominal and soon both crowns were lost to the Habsburgs. The duke died on the way to the place of the battle with the Turks, and during the reign of his son Vladislav, the possessions of the Habsburgs were significantly reduced. After the death of Vladislav, the connection with the Czech Republic and Hungary was completely severed, and Austria itself was divided among the heirs.
In 1452, Albrecht V's uncle Frederick V (1415–1493) was crowned Holy Roman Emperor under the name Frederick III. In 1453 he became Archduke of Austria, and from that time until the formal liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (not counting a short period in the 18th century), the Habsburgs retained the imperial crown.
Despite the endless wars, as well as the rebellions of the nobles and residents of Vienna, Frederick III managed to expand his possessions by annexing part of Istria and the port of Rijeka (1471). Frederick believed that the Habsburg dynasty was destined to conquer the whole world. His motto was the formula "AEIOU" ( Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich untertan, "The whole land is subject to Austria"). He inscribed this abbreviation on books and ordered it to be carved on public buildings. Frederick married his son and heir Maximilian (1459–1519) to Mary of Burgundy. As a dowry, the Habsburgs got the Netherlands and lands in what is now France. During this period, rivalry began Austrian Habsburgs with the French kingdom, which lasted until the 18th century.
Maximilian I (king in 1486, emperor in 1508), sometimes considered the second collector of the Habsburg possessions, acquired, in addition to possessions in Burgundy, the regions of Horoitzia and Gradisca d'Isonzo and small territories in the southern parts of modern Austria. He made an agreement with the Czech-Hungarian king to transfer the Czech-Hungarian crown to Maximilian in the event that Vladislav II died without a male heir.
Thanks to skillful alliances, successful inheritances and advantageous marriages, the Habsburg family achieved impressive power. Maximilian found excellent matches for his son Philip and his grandson Ferdinand. The first married Juan, the heiress of Spain with its vast empire. The dominions of their son, Emperor Charles V, surpassed those of any other European monarch before or after him.
Maximilian arranged for Ferdinand to marry the heiress of Vladislav, King of Bohemia and Hungary. His marriage policy was motivated by dynastic ambitions, but also by a desire to turn Danubian Europe into a cohesive Christian bulwark against Islam. However, the apathy of the people in the face of the Muslim threat made this task difficult.
Along with minor reforms in management, Maximilian encouraged innovations in military area, which foreshadowed the creation of a regular standing army instead of a military aristocracy of warrior knights.
Expensive marriage contracts, financial turmoil and military spending emptied the state treasury, and Maximilian resorted to large loans, mainly from the wealthy Fugger magnates of Augsburg. In return, they received mining concessions in Tyrol and other areas. Funds were taken from the same source to bribe the votes of the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian was a typical Renaissance sovereign. He patronized literature and education, supported scholars and artists such as Konrad Peutinger, a humanist from Augsburg and a specialist in Roman antiquities, and the German artist Albrecht Dürer, who, in particular, illustrated books written by the emperor. Other Habsburg rulers and the aristocracy encouraged the fine arts and amassed rich collections of paintings and sculptures that later became the pride of Austria.
In 1519, Maximilian's grandson Charles was elected king, and in 1530 became Holy Roman Emperor under the name of Charles V. Charles ruled the empire, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Spain and the Spanish overseas possessions. In 1521 he made his brother, Archduke Ferdinand, ruler of the Danube lands of the Habsburgs, which included Austria proper, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Tyrol.
Accession of the Czech Republic and Hungary
In 1526 the troops of Suleiman the Magnificent invaded Hungary. Civil strife inside ruling class countries facilitated the victory of the Turks, and on August 29 the color of the Hungarian cavalry was destroyed on the Mohacs field, and the capital Buda capitulated. The young king Louis II, who fled after the defeat at Mohacs, died. After his death, the Czech Republic (with Moravia and Silesia) and Western Hungary went to the Habsburgs.
Until then, the inhabitants of the Habsburg dominions spoke almost exclusively German, except for the population of small Slavic enclaves. However, after the accession of Hungary and the Czech Republic, the Danube State became a very heterogeneous state in terms of population. This happened just at the time when mono-national states were taking shape in the west of Europe.
The Czech Republic and Hungary had their own brilliant past, their own national saints and heroes, traditions and languages. Each of these countries also had its own national estate and provincial diets, which were dominated by wealthy magnates and the clergy, but there were much fewer nobles and townspeople. royalty was more nominal than real. The Habsburg Empire included many peoples - Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Serbs, Germans, Ukrainians and Romanians.
The court in Vienna undertook a series of measures to integrate Bohemia and Hungary into the Habsburg ancestral domains. The central government departments were reorganized to meet the needs of an expanding power. A prominent role began to be played by the palace office and the secret council, which advised the emperor mainly on issues of international politics and legislation. The first steps were taken to replace the tradition of electing monarchs in both countries with Habsburg hereditary law.
Turkish invasion
Only the threat of Turkish conquest helped to rally Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic. The 200,000-strong army of Suleiman advanced along the wide valley of the Danube and in 1529 approached the walls of Vienna. A month later, the garrison and the inhabitants of Vienna forced the Turks to lift the siege and retreat to Hungary. But the wars between the Austrian and Ottoman Empires continued intermittently for two generations; and almost two centuries passed until the armies of the Habsburgs completely expelled the Turks from historical Hungary.
The Rise and Fall of Protestantism
The area of residence of the Hungarians became the center for the spread of reformed Christianity on the Danube. Many landlords and peasants in Hungary adopted Calvinism and Lutheranism. Luther's teachings attracted many German-speaking townspeople; in Transylvania, the Unitarian movement aroused wide sympathy. In the eastern part of the Hungarian proper lands, Calvinism prevailed, and Lutheranism became widespread among part of the Slovaks and Germans. In that part of Hungary which fell under Habsburg control, Protestantism ran into considerable resistance from the Catholics. The court in Vienna, which highly valued the importance of Catholicism in maintaining the absolute power of the king, proclaimed it the official religion of Hungary. Protestants were required to pay money for the maintenance of religious Catholic institutions and for a long time were not allowed to hold public office.
The Reformation spread surprisingly quickly in Austria itself. The newly invented printing allowed both opposing religious camps to publish and distribute books and pamphlets. Princes and priests often fought for power under religious banners. Big number believers in Austria left the Catholic Church; the ideas of the Reformation were proclaimed in the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna and even in the family chapel of the ruling dynasty. Anabaptist groups (such as the Mennonites) then spread to Tyrol and Moravia. By the middle of the XVI century. the clear majority of the Austrian population seemed to have embraced Protestantism in one form or another.
However, there were three powerful factors that not only restrained the spread of the Reformation, but also contributed to the return of a large part of the neophytes to the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church: the internal church reform proclaimed by the Council of Trent; the Society of Jesus (Jesuit order), whose members, as confessors, teachers and preachers, focused their activities on converting the families of large landowners to this faith, correctly calculating that their peasants would then follow the faith of their masters; and physical coercion carried out by the Viennese court. Conflicts erupted into Thirty Years' War(1618–1648), which began in Bohemia, where Protestantism was deeply rooted.
Between 1606 and 1609, Rudolf II guaranteed freedom of religion for Czech Protestants through a series of agreements. But when Ferdinand II (reigned 1619–1637) became emperor, Protestants in Bohemia felt their religious and civil rights threatened. The zealous Catholic and authoritarian ruler Ferdinand II, a prominent representative of the Counter-Reformation, ordered the suppression of Protestantism in Austria itself
Thirty Years' War
In 1619, the Czech Diet refused to recognize Ferdinand as emperor and elected Elector Frederick V, Count Palatine of the Rhine, as king. This demarche led to the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Rebels dispersed throughout critical issues, linked only hatred for the Habsburgs. With the help of mercenaries from Germany, the Habsburg army utterly defeated the Czech rebels in 1620 at the Battle of Bela Hora near Prague.
The Czech crown was once and for all assigned to the house of Habsburg, the Sejm was dispersed, and Catholicism was declared the only legitimate faith.
The estates of Czech Protestant aristocrats, which occupied almost half of the territory of the Czech Republic, were divided among the younger sons of the Catholic nobility of Europe, mostly of German origin. Until the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1918, the Czech aristocracy spoke predominantly German and was loyal to the ruling dynasty.
During the Thirty Years' War, the population of the Habsburg Empire suffered huge losses. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) put an end to the massacre, according to which the Holy Roman Empire, which included Germany and Italy, actually ceased to exist, and many princes who owned its lands were able to fulfill their old dream of independence from the power of the emperor. However, the Habsburgs still retained the imperial crown and influence over German state affairs.
Victory over the Turks
In the second half of the XVII century. Ottoman armies resumed the onslaught on Europe. The Austrians fought the Turks for control of the lower reaches of the Danube and Sava rivers. In 1683, a huge Turkish army, taking advantage of an uprising in Hungary, again besieged Vienna for two months, and again caused great damage to its suburbs. The city overflowed with refugees, artillery shelling caused damage to the Cathedral of St. Stephen and other architectural monuments.
The besieged city was saved by the Polish-German army under the command of the Polish king Jan Sobieski. On September 12, 1683, after a fierce skirmish, the Turks withdrew and never returned to the walls of Vienna.
From that moment on, the Turks began to gradually lose their positions, and the Habsburgs derived more and more new benefits from their victories. When, in 1687, most of Hungary, with Buda as its capital, was liberated from Turkish rule, the Hungarian Diet, in gratitude, recognized the hereditary right of the Habsburg male line to the Hungarian crown. However, at the same time, it was stipulated that before accession to the throne, the new king had to confirm all the “traditions, privileges and prerogatives” of the Hungarian nation.
The war against the Turks continued. Austrian troops recaptured almost all of Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania and most of Slovenia, which was officially secured by the Peace of Karlowitz (1699). Then the Habsburgs turned their eyes to the Balkans, and in 1717 the Austrian commander Prince Eugene of Savoy captured Belgrade and invaded Serbia. The Sultan was forced to cede to the Habsburgs a small Serbian region around Belgrade and a number of other small territories. After 20 years, the Balkan territory was again captured by the Turks; The Danube and the Sava became the border between the two great powers.
Hungary, which was under the rule of Vienna, was devastated, its population decreased. Vast tracts of land were given to nobles loyal to the Habsburgs. Hungarian peasants moved to free lands, and foreign settlers invited by the crown - Serbs, Romanians and, above all, German Catholics - settled in the southern regions of the country. It is estimated that in 1720 Hungarians made up less than 45% of the population of Hungary, and in the 18th century. their share continued to decline. Transylvania retained a special political status under the administration from Vienna.
Although the Hungarian constitutional privileges and local government were not affected, and the tax breaks of the aristocracy were confirmed, the Habsburg court was able to impose its will on the Hungarian ruling elite. The aristocracy, whose landholdings grew with their allegiance to the crown, remained loyal to the Habsburgs.
During periods of rebellion and strife in the 16th and 17th centuries. more than once it seemed that the multinational state of the Habsburgs was on the verge of imminent collapse. Nevertheless, the Viennese court continued to encourage the development of education and the arts. Important milestones in intellectual life were the founding of universities in Graz (1585), Salzburg (1623), Budapest (1635) and Innsbruck (1677).
Military successes
In Austria, a regular army was created, equipped with firearms. Although gunpowder was first used in war in the 14th century, it took 300 years for guns and artillery to become truly formidable weapons. Artillery pieces made of iron or bronze were so heavy that at least 10 horses or 40 oxen had to be harnessed to move them. To protect against bullets, armor was needed, burdensome for both people and horses. Fortress walls were made thicker in order to withstand artillery fire. The disregard for the infantry gradually disappeared, and the cavalry, although reduced in numbers, lost little of its former prestige. Military operations largely began to be reduced to the siege of fortified cities, which required a lot of manpower and equipment.
Prince Eugene of Savoy rebuilt the armed forces along the lines of the army of France, where he received his military education. Food was improved, troops were housed in barracks, veterans were given land reclaimed from the Turks. However, the reform was soon obstructed by aristocrats from the Austrian military command. The changes were not deep enough to allow Austria to win against Prussia in the 18th century. For generations, however, the Habsburgs' armed forces and bureaucracy provided the stronghold they needed to maintain the integrity of the multinational state.
Economic situation
The backbone of the Austrian economy was Agriculture, but at the same time there was an increase in manufacturing production and finance capital. In the XVI century. the country's industry several times experienced a crisis due to inflation caused by the import of precious metals into Europe from America. At this time, the crown no longer had to turn to usurers for financial assistance, now the state loan became the source of funds. In sufficient quantities for the market, iron was mined in Styria and silver in Tyrol; to a lesser extent, coal in Silesia.
architectural masterpieces
After the feeling of the Turkish threat disappeared, intensive construction began in the cities of the Habsburg empire. Masters from Italy trained local designers and builders of churches and palaces. Baroque buildings were erected in Prague, Salzburg and especially in Vienna - smart, elegant, with rich exterior and interior decoration. Luxuriously decorated facades, wide staircases and luxurious gardens became characteristic features of the city residences of the Austrian aristocracy. Among them stood out the magnificent Belvedere Palace with a park built by Prince Eugene of Savoy.
The ancient seat of the court in Vienna, the Hofburg, was enlarged and decorated. The chancellery of the court, the huge Karlskirche church, which took 20 years to build, and the imperial summer palace and park in Schönbrunn are just the most striking buildings in a city that shone with its architectural splendor. Churches and monasteries damaged or destroyed during the war were restored throughout the monarchy. The Benedictine monastery in Melk, perched on a cliff above the Danube, is a typical baroque example in rural Austria and a symbol of the triumph of the Counter-Reformation.
Rise of Vienna
Vienna, which finally became an archbishopric, was the center of Catholic Germany and the capital of the Habsburg state. Artists and merchants flocked to the city from all over Austria, from the Czech Republic and Hungary, from Spain and the Netherlands, from Italy and southern Germany.
The court and the aristocracy encouraged the development of theatre, fine arts and music. Along with popular theatrical performances, Italian-style opera flourished. The emperor himself wrote operas in which the archduchess played. The local folk music that made Vienna famous all over the world originated in the city's taverns, haunts for singers and musicians. During this period, the foundations were laid for what made the Habsburg residence the musical capital of Europe.
Austria in the 18th century
Throughout the 1700s, Austria experienced severe military trials, achieved new heights of power and prestige, and achieved significant cultural advances.
At first, the prospects for development did not seem bright at all. Luck turned away from Emperor Charles VI (reigned 1711-1740). With no male heirs, he feared that the multi-ethnic state after his death would plunge into internal conflicts or be dismembered by foreign powers. To avoid this, the court entered into negotiations with the landed diets and foreign states in order to achieve recognition as the heir to the throne of Charles's daughter, Maria Theresa.
These efforts were initially successful. The official document, known as the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, provided that all Habsburg possessions should remain indivisible for all time and be transferred by seniority. However, when approving this decision, the diets of the Czech Republic and the Hungarian lands made it clear that if the Habsburg dynasty fades away, they will be able to choose another ruling house.
Empress Maria Theresa
In accordance with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, Maria Theresa (reigned 1740–1780) ascended the Austrian throne (1740). A heavy burden of responsibility fell on the shoulders of the 23-year-old empress. King Frederick II of Prussia immediately laid claim to most of the prosperous province of Silesia, which was part of the Czech kingdom.
The Prussian monarch did not recognize the rights of Maria Theresa to the inheritance of Charles VI and announced his intention to free half of the Silesian population, who professed Protestantism, from Catholic Austria. The King of Prussia attacked Silesia without any formal pretext or declaration of war, contrary to accepted international norms. Thus began a long struggle between Prussia and Austria for dominance in Central Europe, which ended with the final military defeat of Austria in 1866. France and a number of small German principalities, seeking to expand their possessions, took part in the attack on the possessions of the Habsburgs.
Unprepared for war and worse armed, Austria easily succumbed to the onslaught of the enemy. At times it seemed that the monarchy was disintegrating. Stubborn and courageous, Maria Theresa took a decisive step, turning to her Hungarian subjects for help. In response to promises of real concessions, the Hungarian magnates demonstrated their loyalty, but their help was insufficient. In 1742, most of Silesia went to Prussia. Despite repeated attempts by Austria to regain the lost province, Prussia owned the land until the end of World War II.
In an effort to improve international position country, the empress entered into dynastic marriages of her children (those of the 16 who had reached maturity). So, Marie Antoinette became the bride of the heir to the throne of France, the future King Louis XVI.
Due to the turbulent political events in Europe, Austria made a number of territorial acquisitions. At the beginning of the century, the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) were annexed, which remained a kind of colony until 1797. Wealthy provinces in Italy were acquired: Tuscany, most of Lombardy, Naples, Parma and Sardinia (the last three were not held by Austria for long).
Largely contrary to the moral convictions of Maria Theresa, although in accordance with the wishes of her son Joseph, Austria joined Russia and Prussia in the first partition of Poland (1772) and received the principalities of Auschwitz and Zatorsky, the southern part of the Krakow and Sandomierz voivodships, Ruska (without the Kholm land ) and Belz Voivodeship. About a million people lived in this area, there were fertile lands and salt mines. 23 years later, another part of Poland came under Austrian rule, with its ancient capital Krakow. Claims were also made to the northern part of the Principality of Moldavia, southeast of Galicia. This area was controlled by the Turks; in 1775 it was incorporated into the Habsburg state under the name of Bukovina.
Domestic reforms
Measures have been taken to improve the mechanism government controlled in Austria and the Czech Republic, strengthening the unity and stability of the provinces, overcoming chronic financial deficits and improving the state of the economy as a whole. In all these areas, Prussia served as a model and an inspiring example. In Austria, they considered that modernization would increase military power states, confirm Austria's claim to great power status and prepare the way for the weakening of the power of King Frederick of Prussia.
The Austrian armed forces, public administration and tax system were completely restructured. The central place in the reorganization of state power was occupied by the State Council, which had advisory functions and consisted of specialists from each of the departments of internal affairs. A new supreme court was created and the judiciary was separated from the public administration system. In accordance with the trends characteristic of the Enlightenment, new codes of laws were issued. The foreign policy and military departments were radically updated.
Military spending increased, a centralized recruitment was introduced. The more complex organization of the armed forces required the involvement of more civilian workers. To increase the effectiveness of public administration and ensure centralization, the contingent of civil servants in Vienna and in the provinces was expanded; now they were drawn from the middle class. In the hereditary lands of the crown and in Bohemia, local councils lost a number of important functions, and crown officials were given a wide range of powers, ranging from supervision of serfs to jurisdiction in matters of police and education.
The reforms also affected the countryside. According to the so-called. corvée patents (1771-1778), the corvee of the peasants was limited to three days a week.
In the economic sphere, the development of manufactory production was encouraged. Despite the resistance of traditional guild associations, new, modern industrial enterprises were created. Hungary was to serve as a market for industrial products from Austria and as a breadbasket for the Austrian cities. A general income tax and a unified system of border and internal duties were introduced. In order to expand international trade, a small merchant fleet was created, and ports in Trieste and Rijeka were modernized. There were companies that carried out trade relations with South Asia.
Enlightened despotism
Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II, who became co-ruler with his mother after 1765, often entered into disputes with her on matters of public policy. In 1780 he took the reins of government into his own hands. The new emperor sought to strengthen the power of Austria and its unity, to improve the system of state administration. He was convinced that the personal power of the sovereign should be unlimited and that he should inculcate the spirit of a common homeland into the consciousness of the peoples inhabiting the country. Decrees were issued declaring German the official language, which made it possible to unify the sphere of public administration and speed up judicial procedures. The powers of the Hungarian Sejm were curtailed, and soon he ceased his activities altogether.
Demonstrating enlightenment and good will, Joseph II proclaimed the equality of all subjects before the court and in the collection of taxes. Print and theater censorship was temporarily relaxed. The amount of dues paid by peasants was now regulated by crown officials, and the amount of taxes levied depended on income from the land.
Although Joseph II declared himself the defender of Catholicism, he waged a vigorous struggle against the power of the Pope. In fact, he sought to turn the church in his possessions into an instrument of the state, independent of Rome. The clergy were deprived of their tithes and were forced to study in seminaries under state control, and the archbishops were required to officially take an oath of loyalty to the crown. Ecclesiastical courts were abolished, marriage began to be regarded as a civil contract, outside the competence of the church. The number of religious holidays was reduced, and the decoration of religious buildings was regulated by the state. Approximately one in three of the monasteries was closed.
Joseph II issued a decree on universal and compulsory schooling. Funds for education were to be allocated by the nobility and local authorities. Although this measure was not fully implemented, school attendance increased significantly.
Joseph II died untimely in 1790. His brother, Leopold II, well established as the ruler of Italian Tuscany, quickly restored the shaken order. Serfdom in Hungary was restored, and in Austria the peasant, although he remained personally free, fell into an even more difficult dependence on the landowner.
The Hungarian Diet, which had not convened under Joseph II, was reconvened and confirmed the old freedoms and constitutional rights of the kingdom. Leopold II also made a number of political concessions to the Czech Republic and was crowned as the Czech king. In order to enlist the support of the Czech educated class, in which a sense of national identity was awakening, a department of the Czech language was established at the University of Prague.
Achievements in the field of culture
By decree of Joseph II, the “Palace Theater” (founded by Maria Theresa in 1741) was renamed in 1776 into the “Court National Theater” (“Burgtheater”), which retained high level performance until the 20th century. Vienna was famous for its musical culture, the tone was set by the Italians. In 1729, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi) arrived in Vienna, taking the position of court poet and librettist, he wrote texts for the operas of the Neapolitan Niccolò Jommelli and Christoph von Gluck.
The great composers Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart worked in Vienna, representatives of the so-called. Viennese classical school. Melody from string quartet op. 76 no. 3 formed the basis of the Austrian national anthem (1797), and then the German anthem.
The era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars
Like all of Europe, Austria experienced the consequences French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. Thirst for territorial conquest, dynastic kinship with french queen Marie Antoinette, sister of Joseph II and Leopold II, fears that the ideas of the French Revolution would influence the various peoples of the monarchy, the growth of patriotism, especially among the German-speaking population - the combination of all these diverse tendencies and motives made Austria an implacable enemy of France.
Wars against France
Military operations against France began in 1792 and continued intermittently until the autumn of 1815. More than once during this time, the Austrian armies were defeated, twice Napoleon's grenadiers stormed the famous Vienna, which in terms of population (about 230 thousand people) in Europe was second only to London and Paris. The Habsburg army suffered great losses, the suffering and hardships of the inhabitants of large and small cities are comparable to the hardships experienced in the world wars of the 20th century. Galloping inflation, the collapse of the tax system and chaos in the economy brought the state to the brink of disaster.
More than once Napoleon dictated terms of peace to Austria. Emperor Franz I was forced to marry his daughter Maria Louise to Napoleon (1810), whom he had previously called "the French adventurer". The peasants of Tyrol, led by the innkeeper Andreas Gofer, revolted and resisted the Napoleonic troops. The Austrian troops inflicted a severe defeat on the French near Aspern near Vienna (1809), but were defeated by Napoleon a few days later at Wagram. The Austrian army was commanded by Archduke Karl, whose military glory rivaled that of Prince Eugene of Savoy: their equestrian statues adorn the Heldenplatz (“Heroes' Square”) in the center of Vienna. Austrian Field Marshal Karl Schwarzenberg commanded the allied forces that defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.
Austrian Empire
Franz I in 1804 appropriated the name of the Austrian Empire to his state. By the will of Napoleon, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, whose crown had actually been inherited in the Habsburg family for almost four centuries, ceased to exist (1806).
Congress of Vienna
The territorial changes in Europe made during the era of Napoleon also affected Austria. It is significant that the international congress, which laid the foundations for a peaceful order after the overthrow of Bonaparte, was convened in Vienna. For several months in 1814-1815, the capital of the Habsburgs was a meeting place for politicians of the highest rank of large and small European states. A widely branched network of Austrian spies followed the arriving high-ranking persons.
The Vienna debate was chaired by Count (later Prince) Clemens Metternich, Foreign Minister and later Chancellor of Austria. At the congress, he successfully provided the House of Habsburg safe position in Europe and prevented Russia from extending its influence to central part continent.
Austria was forced to abandon Belgium, but received substantial compensation for this. Dalmatia, the western part of Istria, the islands in the Adriatic that previously belonged to Venice, the former Venetian Republic itself and the neighboring Italian province of Lombardy passed under the scepter of Vienna. Representatives of the Habsburg family received the crowns of Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Austria had a strong influence in Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. As a result, the Apennine peninsula actually turned into an appendage of the Danubian monarchy. A significant part of Polish Galicia was returned to Austria, and in 1846 the small Republic of Krakow was annexed, the only free section of Poland saved by peacekeepers in 1815.
Opinions about the form of the future German statehood were sharply divided. Metternich managed to prevent the creation of a lasting alliance, and a loose confederation was formed - the German Confederation. It covered the German-speaking states of Europe and that part of Austria that was part of the abolished Holy Roman Empire. Austria received the post of permanent chairman of the confederation.
Franz I and Metternich
During the first half of XIX in. leading figure in public life Austria was Emperor Franz I. As Chancellor of the Empire, Metternich had significant political weight. After the excesses of the French Revolution, the horrors and turmoil caused by the Napoleonic Wars, he strove for order and inner harmony. The chancellor repeatedly advised to create a parliament from representatives of different peoples of Austria and to give real powers to the provincial diets, but the emperor did not heed his advice.
In the field of diplomacy, Metternich made a significant contribution to maintaining peace in Europe. When the opportunity presented itself, Austrian troops were sent to suppress local uprisings, creating for themselves, their country and its first minister, an odious reputation among the supporters of freedom and national unification.
Domestic politics was determined mainly by Emperor Franz I. State officials kept the entire field of education and students under tight control, prescribing what could be read and studied. The head of the censorship department, Count Josef Siedlnicki, banned literary works hostile to the absolutism of the emperor or religion, and organizations suspected of political heresy were persecuted. Journalists were forbidden even to use the word “constitution”.
Cultural development
The prestige of Vienna as a musical capital remained at its height thanks to Ludwig van Beethoven. Franz Schubert's works can be considered the pinnacle of song lyrics. Josef Lanner and Johann Strauss-father became famous for their waltzes.
The outstanding Austrian playwright of this period was Franz Grillparzer. Light, witty plays were written by Ferdinand Raimund and Johann Nestroy.
In the field of religion, enlightened religious tolerance prevailed. No one could be excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church without the consent of the emperor. The clergy oversaw education, and the Jesuits were allowed to resume their activities in the empire. Restrictions on Jews were eased and synagogues were built in Vienna for adherents of both Orthodox and Reformed Judaism. A number of families of Jewish bankers have achieved a prominent public position and recognition; Solomon Rothschild stood out among them, who was friendly with Metternich and in 1823 received the title of baron.
Unrest among national minorities
The Czech intelligentsia developed native language, literary and historical works were composed in which the medieval Czech Republic was glorified. Patriotic Czech journalists denounced the Austrian administration and restrictions on civil liberties. In Galicia, Polish patriots in 1846 proclaimed the independence of their people. However, the most active in the struggle for national freedom were the Hungarians, or rather the middle strata of the Hungarian nobles. Hungarian writers and scientists revived the golden pages of the past and awakened hopes for a glorious future. The recognized apostle of the cultural and national revival of Hungary was Count Istvan Szechenyi, who belonged to one of the proudest aristocratic families in the kingdom. A widely traveled cosmopolitan, he remained loyal to the Habsburgs but advocated reforms in government. Lawyer Lajos Kossuth took over the leadership of the national movement. In 1847, his supporters achieved a majority in the Hungarian Diet.
After the death of Franz I in 1835, the leadership of the Austrian government was entrusted to a regency council with the participation of Metternich, since the new emperor, Ferdinand I (1793–1875), proved incapable of governing. Censorship was softened, universities received more freedom.
The revolution in Paris in 1848 was echoed by performances in Vienna, the Czech Republic, Hungary and the Italian provinces. The Habsburg Empire was threatened with disintegration. Groups of students and artisans and the liberal bourgeoisie demanded that Prince Metternich resign from government posts and that a constitution be adopted in the country. The Habsburg court agreed. 75-year-old Metternich, who for two generations was a "rock of order", fled to England.
The Austrian Constituent Assembly abolished serfdom. This was the main achievement of the revolutionary storm. In October 1848, Vienna experienced a second wave of mass unrest. The street fighting waged by the reformers caused serious destruction in the cities. Imperial Army crushed the uprising. Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, having appropriated dictatorial powers, replaced the feebleminded Emperor Ferdinand I with his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph. A constitution was drafted that provided for the creation of a federal legislature with the participation of various national groups and the equality of nations. But this document never entered into force. Later, a single imperial constitution was proclaimed, but it was not put into effect either.
National Requirements
In the Czech Republic, the Czech-speaking and German-speaking opposition initially united to win concessions from the House of Habsburg. However, their paths diverged when Czech patriots demanded self-government for the Czech Republic and opposed unification into a single German state. Supporters of moderate views spoke out for the preservation of the Austrian Empire, transformed into a federation on the basis of the equality of peoples.
In June 1848, a congress of Slavic leaders of Austria and representatives of foreign Slavs met in Prague to discuss political problems. There was a clash of Czech patriots with the Germans. As a result, the city was occupied by the Austrian army, which was the beginning of the restoration of the power of the Habsburgs.
The uprising in Hungary developed along a more intricate plot. At the request of Kossuth, the Vienna court gave Hungary almost complete control over its internal affairs, while maintaining dynastic and military ties with Austria. The serfs were emancipated and broad civil liberties were promised. But the Hungarian politicians stubbornly denied elementary human rights to the small peoples of the kingdom, who in the aggregate were more numerous than the Hungarians. For Croats and Romanians, Hungarian chauvinism was even worse than Habsburg authoritarianism. These peoples, instigated by Vienna, entered into a struggle with the Hungarians, which was soon joined by the Austrian troops.
On April 14, 1849, Kossuth proclaimed the independence of Hungary. Since the Austrian government did not have sufficient military forces to suppress the uprising, it turned to the Russian Tsar Nicholas I for help. He responded immediately, and Russian troops dealt a mortal blow to the Hungarian uprising. The remnants of Hungarian autonomy were completely eliminated, Kossuth himself fled.
When it seemed that the Habsburg dynasty was on the verge of collapse, Lombardy and Venice rose in revolt, and the Venetian Republic was revived. However, the Austrian troops crushed the rebellion and restored Austrian dominance over the Italian provinces and the entire Apennine Peninsula.
The Vienna court also sought to prevent the unification German states to prevent Prussia from gaining a dominant position in German-speaking Europe. Austria emerged from the revolutionary upheavals weakened, but retained its integrity.
Reaction and reform
Prince Felix Schwarzenberg actually ruled Austria until his death in 1852, and then Franz Joseph assumed full power. Germanization was carried out of all the peoples of the empire who did not speak German. The Czech patriotic movement was suppressed, the Hungarians were pacified. In 1850, Hungary was united with Austria into a single customs union. Under the concordat of 1855, the Roman Catholic Church received the right to its own education system and press.
On the Apennine Peninsula, the movement for national unification was led by the skillful politician of the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), Count Camillo Cavour. His plans included the liberation of Lombardy and Venice. In accordance with a secret agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III, Cavour in 1859 provoked a war with Austria. The united Franco-Sardinian forces defeated Franz Joseph's troops and Austria was forced to give up Lombardy. In 1860, the pro-Austrian dynasties in the small states of Italy were overthrown, and a united Italian kingdom was formed under the leadership of Piedmont. In 1884, Austria, in alliance with Prussia, began a war against Denmark for control of the small territories of Schleswig and Holstein.
In 1866, a dispute over the division of Danish spoils led to a war between Austria and Prussia. Italy took the side of Prussia, and the Austrian Empire was defeated. However, the terms of the peace treaty dictated by Bismarck turned out to be quite tolerable. This was the subtle calculation of the Prussian Chancellor. The House of Habsburg had to renounce its historical role in German affairs, without ceding any territories to Prussia (except the lands taken from Denmark). On the other hand, although the Austrian troops defeated the Italians on land and at sea, Venice was transferred to Italy, a number of Italian regions remained under the control of the Habsburgs.
Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
The loss of territories and prestige necessitated a new form of relationship between Austria and Hungary. Various draft constitutions providing for the creation of a unified parliament were prepared without the participation of the Hungarians. Finally, in 1867, the famous “compromise” was worked out ( Ausgleich). The Austrian Empire, proclaimed in 1804, was transformed into a dualistic Austria-Hungary, with the rule of the Hungarians in Hungary and the Austrians the rest of the new state. In the field international relations both states were to act as a single entity, maintaining autonomy in internal affairs.
Constitutional reforms
One of the directions of the reorganization of public administration in the 1860s in the Austrian half of the dual monarchy was the further development of the constitution. The constitution guaranteed civil liberties and equality for all linguistic groups. A bicameral state parliament, the Reichsrat, was established. The members of the lower house were elected through indirect elections. The constitution provided broad powers for the legislature, which were to meet once a year. The Cabinet of Ministers was responsible to the lower house. Both chambers had equal legislative power. One of the paragraphs of the constitution (the famous Article XIV) gave the monarch the power to issue decrees between sessions of parliament that had the force of law.
Legislative assemblies of 17 Austrian lands (Landtags) received more powers, but the crown appointed governors who could override the decisions of the Landtags. Initially, it was the Landtags who elected the deputies of the lower house of the Reichsrat, but in 1873 direct elections were introduced in districts and curias (classes or qualification ranks of voters).
Political parties
The Austrian-German deputies were divided into rival political factions. The largest group was made up of adherents of the monarchy. In the 1880s, two new parties were organized - the Christian Social and the Social Democratic. The first of these spoke mainly on behalf of the Austrian-German peasants and petty bourgeoisie, and its leaders were loyal to the Habsburg dynasty and the Roman Catholic Church.
The Social Democrats declared their adherence to the teachings of Karl Marx, but advocated the implementation of political and social reforms by constitutional methods. Party leader Viktor Adler and national theorist Otto Bauer were at the head of the party. Disputes over national question weakened the movement, however, it led a successful campaign for universal suffrage to all adult males.
There was also a small but noisy faction of the Great Germans, which demanded the unification of areas with a German-speaking population with the German Empire. This trend in Austrian politics had a serious impact on the mindset of Adolf Hitler, who spent several years in Vienna.
National minorities
The Czechs demanded that the Czech Republic be given the same status in the monarchy as Hungary received, but they never managed to achieve this. The development of educational opportunities and economic prosperity gave greater confidence to the Czech middle class. In general, Czech patriots, such as Tomas Masaryk, sought internal self-government for the Czech Republic, without demanding the destruction of the empire and the creation of an independent Czech state. In the Sejm of the Czech Republic there was a struggle between Czech deputies and representatives of the Austrian-German elements. The Czech-German enmity from time to time paralyzed the work of the parliament in Vienna. The Czechs won concessions in the field of language, access to public service and in the field of education, and yet no constitutional formula was adopted that could satisfy the claims of the Czechs and at the same time be acceptable to the Austro-Germans.
The Poles in Galicia received significant degree autonomy, which fully satisfied them. This province became the object of envy and admiration of the Polish patriots who lived in the Russian and Prussian-German parts of Poland. Among the large Ukrainian minority in Galicia, unrest continued due to discrimination and repression by the Poles, and a small stratum of Ukrainian intellectuals fought for the rights of their compatriots. One of the Ukrainian factions spoke out for political unification with the Ukrainians of the Russian Empire.
Of all the Austrian peoples, the southern Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs) caused the greatest concern of the Vienna court. The number of representatives of this national group increased in 1908, when Austria-Hungary annexed the former Turkish province of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The South Slavs in Austria varied greatly in their views. Some of them sought to unite with the Kingdom of Serbia, others were satisfied with the existing situation, others preferred the creation of a South Slavic state within the framework of the Habsburg Monarchy.
This last alternative meant the formation of a state covering areas with a South Slavic population, both Hungary and Austria, with the same status as the Austrian Empire or the Kingdom of Hungary. This proposal met with some support in Austria, but was negatively received by almost all Hungarian politicians. Broader projects were also proposed to reorganize the monarchy into a federal union of peoples, but the concept of the Habsburg “United States” was never put into practice.
There was no unity among the Italian minority of Austria, who lived in South Tyrol, Trieste and its environs. Some Italian-speaking residents tacitly agreed to the rule of Vienna, while militant separatists called for unification with Italy.
Partly to appease national sentiments, partly in response to strong pressure from the Social Democrats, in 1907 universal adult male suffrage was introduced in elections to the Austrian parliament (Reichsrat). However, political unrest in the multinational empire intensified. In the spring of 1914, the work of the Reichsrat was adjourned, and the parliament did not meet for three years.
World War I
The news of the beginning of the war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of the offensive of the Russian army rallied the Austrians, even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda inspired the will to win and to a large extent quenched inter-ethnic conflicts. The unity of the state was ensured by a tough military dictatorship, the dissatisfied were forced to submit. Only in the Czech Republic the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely inefficiently.
Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the spirit of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings were converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased the fervor of war, especially among the Slovenes. When the territorial claims of Romania to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the side of the Entente.
It was at the very moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a man with limited abilities, removed the people on whom his predecessor relied. In 1917 Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded the reformation of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, others insisted on complete secession. Patriotic sentiments forced the Czechs to desert the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramař was sentenced to death on charges of high treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917, the emperor declared an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation reduced his authority among the militant Austro-Germans: the monarch was reproached for being too soft.
Even before the accession of Charles to the throne, the Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. Pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Viktor Adler, assassinated Austrian Prime Minister Count Karl Stürgk in October 1916. At the trial, Adler made a sharp criticism of the government. Sentenced to a long prison term, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.
End of the Habsburg dynasty
A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary, and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian city dwellers to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, the workers of the military factories went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, in which the participants raised a red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the instigators.
Separatist sentiments grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czechoslovaks (led by Tomasz Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees campaigned in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the United States recognized these émigré groups as the de facto government. In October 1918, the national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of the lands and territories. The promise of Emperor Charles to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of the principles of federalism hastened the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians set up a provisional government for German Austria, while the Social Democrats campaigned for a republic. Charles I abdicated on November 11, 1918. The next day the Republic of Austria was proclaimed.
The ancestor of the Habsburgs was, apparently, Guntram the Rich (d. c. 950) from Upper Alsace. The dynasty got its name from the name of the family castle of Habsburg, built in 1027 in Switzerland. From 1090 the Habsburgs were counts, from 1135 landgraves on the Upper Rhine and in Central Switzerland. In 1273, a representative of this family, Prince Rudolf I, was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire for the first time. Thus was born one of the most significant and famous monarchical dynasties of Europe.
One of the most powerful royal dynasties in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and the New Age. Representatives of the dynasty are known as the rulers of Austria, which later transformed into the multinational Austrian and Austro-Hungarian empires, which were one of the leading European powers, as well as the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whose throne the Habsburgs occupied from 1438 to 1806.
Habsburgs - German kings and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian sovereigns:
Rudolf I (1273-1291), Albrecht I (1298-1308), Frederick of Austria (1314-1330), Albrecht II (1438-1439), Frederick III (1440-1493), Maximilian I (1493-1519), Charles V (1519-1556).
Spanish branch:
Charles I (1516-1556), Philip II (1556-1598), Philip III (1598-1621), Philip IV (1621-1665), Charles II (1665-1700).
Austrian branch:
Ferdinand I (1556-1664), Maximilian II (1564-1576), Rudolf II (1576-1612), Matthias (1612-1619), Ferdinand II (1619-1637), Ferdinand III (1637-1657), Leopold I ( 1658-1705), Joseph I (1705-1711), Charles VI (1711-1740), Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria (1740-1780), married to Franz Stefan of Lorraine (1737-1765) and Emperor (1745-1765)
Since 1765, the Habsburg-Lorraine house has arisen:
Joseph II (1765-1790), Leopold II (1790-1792), Franz II (1792-1806, Austrian emperor from 1804 to 1835), Ferdinand I (1835-1848), Franz Joseph I (1848-1916), Karl (1916-1918).
Rudolf I (1273-1291) assigned the Duchies of Austria and Styria to the Habsburgs. In the XIV century. the possessions of the family expanded at the expense of the lands of Cariitia, Krayna, Tyrol. 15th century The Habsburgs are already one of the most influential dynasties, whose representatives constantly become emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. At the end of the XV century. Maximilian I of Habsburg, having entered into an extremely advantageous marriage with Mary of Burgundy, annexes the Netherlands to his house. The Habsburg empire reached enormous proportions under Charles V. Under his rule were Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, part of Hungary, the Netherlands, part of Italy, Spain and its colonies in America.
Charles V
Charles V (1500-1558) was the son of Philip the Handsome of Habsburg and Joanna of Spain. Thus, he inherited the Austrian and Spanish possessions from his parents. In 1519 he was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The power that arose on the basis of the medieval dynastic principle united countries located in different parts of Europe, whose interests sometimes contradicted each other. The emperor, constantly at war with the "infidels" - the Turks and "heretics", did not have time to deal with the affairs of individual lands. Campaigns demanded huge expenses and caused widespread discontent.
This allegorical painting by P. P. Rubens depicts Emperor Charles V at the height of his power. He is the "ruler of the world." Indeed, under Charles V, the Habsburg Empire was huge, but, as history has shown, not viable.
The subjects of Spain complained about the constant absence of the king, the neglect of their interests, the decline of the economy due to exorbitant taxes, and also that the Netherlands received all the advantages in trade. The latter, in turn, complained that all the money from the country was flowing to Spain. The nobility of both countries showed dissatisfaction with the administration of governors and foreign ministers. The reign of Charles V was overshadowed by a series of rebellions in different lands: in 1520, the cities and the nobility of Spain opposed him (the uprising of the comuneros), at the same time the Reformation began in Germany. Dreaming of creating a universal “all-Christian” empire, Charles V acted as an active opponent of the new heresy.
Whose power, that and faith
In 1517, the envoy of the Pope, Johann Tetzel, arrived in Germany with a heap of indulgences and began to sell them in churches. This angered Martin Luther, a doctor of theology on the Wittenberg campus. According to tradition, on December 31, 1517, he nailed “95 theses against indulgences” on the door of the Wittenberg castle church to start a scientific debate on this subject, as was customary among theologians and university teachers.
One of the best portraits of Charles V by Titian. The emperor appears here as a formidable warrior, which corresponds to the truth. Throughout his conscious life, Karl was constantly at war with someone.
The theses stated that the pope had no power over the souls in Purgatory, had no right to grant indulgences, since true faith and repentance in the soul were more important than the formal remission of sins received from the priest.
Rome saw this as an attack on the authority of the pope and threatened the theologian with excommunication. However, Luther did not give up the truth he believed in. In 1520, he publicly burned one of the copies of the bull demanding that he renounce "heresy." Thus began his long confrontation with Rome, which led to the Reformation in Germany.
In March 1521, princes, representatives of the nobility and cities gathered in Worms for the Reichstag. It was represented by Charles V, who intended to put an end to disputes over faith that threatened the peace of the state. He summoned Luther to the Reichstag, guaranteeing him safety with a special safe-conduct, in the hope that the obstinate theologian would bow to the authority of the emperor. The imposing assembly did cause Luther to be embarrassed, but not to yield to pressure. “I stand on this and cannot do otherwise,” he declared, arousing the hatred of Charles V.
Martin Luther is the sworn enemy of Charles V. Who dreamed of defeating a new “heresy” and creating a universal “all-Christian” empire.
Luther's ideas quickly spread throughout the German lands and neighboring countries. His views were supported not only by the burghers and peasants, but also by the nobility, princes and monarchs. Emperor Charles V could not accept the fact that in Germany the princes were breaking with Catholicism and introducing Lutheranism. In 1529 he tried to stop the secularization of their dominions. In response, a number of princes and cities protested (hence the term "Protestants", which began to be called the supporters of the Reformation, first in Germany, and then throughout Europe).
The confrontation between German Catholics and Protestants resulted in two Schmalkaldic Wars (1546-1548; 1552-1555) culminating in the Peace of Augsburg (1555). According to him, the emperor recognized the right of princes to choose the faith for their subjects. The principle “whose power, that is faith” triumphed.
Philip II
In 1555, Charles V renounces the imperial crown and the Spanish throne, which testified to the unviability of a huge multinational empire, the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs were transferred to Charles V's brother Ferdinand I; Spain and its possessions passed to the son of the abdicated emperor, Philip II (1555-1598). Poor health, gloomy and withdrawn, Philip inherited the characteristic features of the Habsburgs - a protruding long chin and a half-open mouth with a protruding lower lip, which intensified the feeling of his pain and expression. He was not a warrior like his father, although he defended Catholicism just as zealously and persecuted "heretics." Philip II considered his main political task to keep the Netherlands under the rule of the Habsburgs.
Duke of Alba - Spanish viceroy in the Netherlands
To pacify the recalcitrant Netherlands, Philip II sent the Duke of Alba. Deciding to behead the rebellion, he put its leaders, the earls of Egmont and Horn, on trial. Alba established a Council of Rebellions, called the Council of Blood, which, under his chairmanship, condemned 8,000 people to death. However, the cruelty of the duke only aroused in the Netherlands hatred of foreigners and a desire to free them from the rule of the Habsburgs.
The Netherlands has always been a jewel in their crown: lying on the lower reaches of the Meuse, the Scheldt and the Rhine, one of the most densely populated and prosperous regions of Europe. It was these lands that gave the largest income to the treasury of the Habsburg Empire. Charles V received from there about 2 million guilders a year, while Spain gave him no more than 500 thousand. However, by the middle of the 16th century. and this northwestern outskirts began to cause concern to Charles.
Philip II inherited only the Spanish throne from his father. The Austrian lands were ceded to the brother of Charles V, Ferdinand I. This is how the Spanish and Austrian branches of the Habsburgs arose.
Lutheranism, later Calvinism, spread latently in the Netherlands. Philip II tried to crack down on the increasingly asserted "heresy". He planted the Inquisition in the Netherlands and issued special legislation - the so-called posters against heretics. Protestants were hunted down, put on trial and tortured, and their property confiscated. A religious conflict that had been brewing for a long time erupted in 1566. Citizens, common people, peasants, inflamed by the sermons of Calvinist pastors, began to sack Catholic churches, destroying icons and other “papal trash”.
Charles V bequeathed to his son Philip to build a pantheon for the Spanish Habsburgs. They became the majestic palace-tomb of Escorial.
Escorial
Monastery, palace and residence of King Philip II of Spain. Located an hour from Madrid at the foot of the Sierra de Guadarrama. The architectural complex Escorial evokes a variety of feelings: it is called the "eighth wonder of the world", and "monotonous symphony in stone" and "architectural nightmare".
In the cities, with the money of the church, detachments were armed to protect themselves from the Spaniards. The country unfolded guerrilla war, which was led by forest and sea gezes. Peasants, sailors, fishermen, artisans went to our detachments.
The national liberation uprising entered into new phase in 1572 ships of sea gases seized the Dutch port of Bril. The Spaniards were expelled from everywhere. With great difficulty, the Spanish army kept the southern Netherlands in obedience. In 1579, the northern provinces of the Netherlands, as well as central Flanders and Brabant, signed an agreement (Union of Utrecht) in the city of Utrecht to continue the struggle for complete separation from Spain. In 1581 they deposed Philip II.
The Spanish king failed to keep England in the orbit of his influence (although he was married to Mary Tudor). The attempt to invade the British Isles by the Great Armada ended in complete failure. Upon learning of the death of his fleet, Philip II silently retired to the chapel of the Escorial, the majestic palace-tomb built by him. It seemed as if God himself had turned his back on "the most catholic of kings."
The Habsburgs are the most powerful dynasty in Europe updated: October 11, 2017 by: website
Coat of arms of the Counts of Habsburg
In a golden field, a scarlet lion, armed and crowned with azure.
Habsburgs
The Habsburgs are one of the most powerful royal dynasties in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and the New Age.
The ancestor of the Habsburgs was Count Guntram the Rich, whose possessions lay in Northern Switzerland and Alsace. His grandson Radbot built the Habsburg castle near the river Are, which gave the dynasty its name. The name of the castle, according to legend, was originally Habichtsburg ( Habichtsburg), "Hawk Castle", in honor of the hawk that landed on the newly rebuilt walls of the fortress. According to another version, the name comes from the old German hub- ford: the fortress was supposed to guard the crossing over the river Are. (The castle was lost by the Habsburgs in the 15th century; the territory on which it was located became part of the Swiss Confederation). The descendants of Radbot annexed to their possessions a number of possessions in Alsace (Sundgau) and most of northern Switzerland, becoming by the middle of the 13th century one of the largest feudal families in the southwestern outskirts of Germany. The first hereditary title of the family was the title of Count of Habsburg.
Albrecht IV and Rudolf III (descendants of Radbot in the sixth generation) divided the patrimonial possessions: the first got the western part, including Aargau and Sundgau, and the second land in eastern Switzerland. The descendants of Albrecht IV were considered the main line, and the heirs of Rudolph III began to be called the title of Count of Habsburg-Laufenburg. Representatives of the Laufenburg line did not play significant role in German politics and remained, like many other German aristocratic families, a regional feudal home. Their possessions included the eastern part of Aargau, Thurgau, Klettgau, Kyburg and a number of fiefs in Burgundy. This line ended in 1460.
The entry of the Habsburgs into the European arena is associated with the name of the son of Count Albrecht IV (1218-1291). He annexed the vast principality of Kyburg to the possessions of the Habsburgs, and in 1273 he was elected by the German princes as king of Germany under the name. Having become king, he tried to strengthen the central authority in the Holy Roman Empire, but his main success was the victory over the Czech king in 1278, as a result of which the duchies of Austria and Styria were under control.
In 1282, the king transferred these possessions to his children and. Thus the Habsburgs became the rulers of a vast and rich Danubian state, which quickly overshadowed their ancestral possessions in Switzerland, Swabia and Alsace.
The new monarch could not get along with the Protestants, whose rebellion resulted in the Thirty Years' War, which radically changed the balance of power in Europe. fighting graduated from the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which strengthened its positions and hurt the interests of the Habsburgs (in particular, they lost all possessions in Alsace).
In 1659 french king dealt a new blow to the prestige of the Habsburgs - the Pyrenean Peace left the western part of the Spanish Netherlands, including the County of Artois, to the French. By this time, it became obvious that they won the confrontation with the Habsburgs for superiority in Europe.
In the 19th century, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine broke up into the following branches:
- Imperial- it includes all the offspring of the first Austrian emperor. Its representatives after the Second World War returned to, abandoning the noble prefix "background". This branch is now headed by Karl of Habsburg-Lorraine, the grandson of the last Emperor of Austria.
- Tuscan- descendants, brother, who received Tuscany in return for the lost Lorraine. After the Risorgimento, the Tuscan Habsburgs returned to Vienna. Now it is the most numerous of the branches of the Habsburgs.
- Teshenskaya- descendants of Karl Ludwig, younger brother. Now this branch is represented by several lines.
- Hungarian- she is represented by a childless brother, Joseph, palatine of Hungary.
- Modena(Austrian Este) - descendants of Ferdinand Karl, sixth son of the emperor. This branch died out in 1876. In 1875, the title of Duke of Este was transferred to Franz Ferdinand, and after his assassination in 1914 in Sarajevo - to Robert, the second son, and on the maternal side - a descendant of the original Modena Este. The current head of this line, Carl Otto Lorenz, is married to the Belgian Princess Astrid and lives in Belgium.
In addition to the five main branches, there are two morganatic branches of the Habsburgs:
- Hohenbergs- descendants of the unequal marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand with Sophia Chotek. The Hohenbergs, although they are the eldest among the living Habsburgs, do not claim primacy in the dynasty. Now this branch is headed by Georg Hohenberg, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, former Austrian ambassador to the Vatican.
- Merany- descendants from the marriage of Johann Baptist, younger son, with the postmaster's daughter Anna Plekhl.
Representatives of the Habsburg dynasty
King of Germany, Duke of Austria and Styria
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia
, King of Germany, King of Hungary (Albert), King of the Czech Republic (Albrecht), Duke of Austria (Albrecht V)
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Count of Tyrol
, Duke of Austria
, Archduke of Austria
, Duke of Western Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, Count of Tyrol
, Duke of Swabia
, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, King of Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Archduke of Austria
, Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia (Charles III), King of Hungary (Charles IV)
, King of Spain
, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, King of Germany, King of Spain (Aragon, Leon, Castile, Valencia), Count of Barcelona (Charles I), King of Sicily (Charles II), Duke of Brabant (Charles), Count of Holland (Charles II), Archduke of Austria (Charles I)
Habsburg Empire
The German Habsburg dynasty was one of the most powerful in Europe. Her reign, which lasted more than six centuries, covered both the Middle Ages and the New Age. From 1438 to 1806, with a short break in 1742-1745, the Habsburgs were Holy Roman Emperors. The most prominent representative of this dynasty is Franz Joseph I, who became the penultimate Austrian emperor. He held the throne longer than any other Habsburg monarch - 68 years. Shortly before his death, foreseeing sad fate Austro-Hungarian Empire, he uttered a significant phrase: "If the monarchy is destined to perish, then let it at least die with honor." But in 1848, when Franz Joseph became Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, her death was still far away.
Moreover, in 1814-1815 Vienna became the center of the world. It was here, after the overthrow of Bonaparte, that the famous Congress of Vienna was convened, which brought together politicians of the highest rank from all European states. When dividing the "European pie", thanks to the efforts of the wise Minister of Foreign Affairs Metternich, the then Emperor of Austria Franz I received a considerable piece. Dalmatia, the western part of Istria, the islands in the Adriatic, Venice and Lombardy went to the empire. The Habsburgs became monarchs in Tuscany, Parma and Modena. The Apennine peninsula completely "grown" to Austria, and she also became the permanent chairman of the German Confederation - the unification of German states under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs.
However, while England, France and Prussia were developing dynamically, the Habsburg empire, like the Romanov empire, was in a state of stagnation. Emperor Franz played a sad role in this, having received from Napoleon offensive nickname Wretched. Sometimes it was also called "the tiger in the nightgown". He was the eldest son of Emperor Leopold. Among his younger brothers were the talented commander Karl, the energetic business executive, the governor of Hungary, Joseph, and the famous natural scientist Johann, who was distinguished by the most liberal convictions. But, alas, none of them had the right to the throne. Franz was the least gifted of all the sixteen children of Emperor Leopold. Being a limited person, he preferred to engage in state affairs but a thousand bureaucratic little things. He shuddered at any word that evoked associations with change. social order. An example of this is the comical situation described by his doctor. One day, Franz caught a cold, and after the examination, the court physician hurried to reassure him: “Don't worry, Your Majesty. It's just a cold, and it does not inspire me with any fears. Besides, you have a good constitution.” To this, the frightened emperor exclaimed: “Never say that word to me. I have no constitution and never will!
The emperor deliberately limited industry so that there would be fewer proletarians in the capital, and therefore fewer revolutionary dangers. When presented with a plan for the development of the railway, he took it in his hands with frank disgust and said: “No, no. I will not do anything. No matter how the revolution comes to us along these roads. He managed to consider the problems of his empire as ... advantages. His approach to the multinational composition of the state was also original. The emperor told the French ambassador: “I am sending Hungarian officials to Italy, and Italian ones to Hungary. Each nation looks after its neighbor. No one understands the neighbor, and as a result, everyone hates each other. Out of this hatred, order and universal peace are born.
In general, Franz was a good person and took his public duties seriously. But at the same time, he was completely deprived of a promising vision for the development of his empire. Natural timidity and suspicion made him an opponent of any undertakings. "Tiger in a nightgown" postponed any reforms indefinitely. For example, Metternich advised him to create a parliament of representatives of different peoples of Austria and give real powers to the diets. Instead, censorship was tightened in the country, and the press was banned from using the word "constitution". In addition, the Austrian troops served as "pan-European watchdogs, pacifying nationalist and separatist unrest. It was this policy of the emperor that ultimately led the country to revolution. But Franz did not understand this and believed that the burden of government was entrusted to him by the Lord as a condition for being on the throne.
The emperor's death in 1835 changed little in the empire, as he was succeeded on the throne by his weak-minded son Ferdinand, who suffered from epileptic seizures. Others ruled for him, including Metternich, who headed the regency council. The Habsburg state was derisively called "an absolute monarchy without a monarch" at the time. But there was more freedom, and it swept over Austria, almost "washing away" the Habsburgs. After the Paris Revolution of 1848, uprisings broke out across Europe, including in Austria. It was at this difficult historical moment that the future Emperor Franz Joseph appeared on the political arena. He was born on August 18, 1830, near Vienna, in Schonbrunn Castle (according to other sources, in Laxenburg). His father, Archduke Franz Karl, was a rather insignificant and ordinary figure, about whom it is customary to say "neither fish nor fowl." Being the younger brother of Emperor Ferdinand, he himself was not eager for the throne.
Franz Joseph was little like his father. Most of his qualities, as well as the throne, he inherited from his mother, the Bavarian Princess Sofia. This ambitious woman was very resolute about power: if she was not destined to become the wife of the emperor, then she would become his mother. Endowed with intelligence and great energy, she was considered at court "the only man in imperial family". She had four sons, but since the middle of them became a religious fanatic, and the youngest was known as a brawler and a homosexual, she placed all her hopes on the elders - Franz Joseph and Maximilian.
Franz Joseph grew up as a lonely child, his only friends were his younger brothers. Trying to give him a good education, his mother loaded him with schoolwork without measure: if at the age of nine the boy spent 37 hours a week on lessons, then later this figure increased to 50 hours. Rare hours free from study, he devoted to playing soldiers. His mother gave them to him at the age of four, and the boy managed not to break or lose any of them. Perhaps this was the beginning of his passion for military affairs, besides, great attention was paid to military sciences in his education. At the age of 13, the teenager had already received the rank of colonel of the dragoon regiment. But it was rather symbolic, corresponding to his position at court, and Franz Joseph truly served in the military, starting from the rank and file. This left a certain imprint on his character: all his life he retained a love for order, discipline, uniform, strict observance of subordination.
But, of course, military science was not the only subject in the training of Franz Joseph. He studied history, literature, mathematics, chemistry and astronomy. Biographers later noted that, while still a young man, he was aware of the responsibility and role that awaited him in the future, and showed remarkable abilities, especially in languages. In addition to French, English and Latin, the young duke knew Hungarian very well, he was fluent in Polish, Czech and Italian. After all, the far-sighted mother, with the help of the all-powerful dictator and chancellor Metternich, was preparing him to manage a multinational empire! And yet, being a supporter of absolutism and the police regime, this outstanding politician in his own way taught Franz Joseph the basics of statehood and law. And as the future will show, these lessons were not in vain.
By nature, the future emperor was a pedant, strictly adhering to the rules of court etiquette. Innate self-confidence and pride made him older than his years. Franz Joseph believed that the main duty of every member of his family was to be a Habsburg. He believed and wanted everyone to recognize that the Habsburg dynasty was called by the Almighty to rule Europe. At the same time, by nature, Franz Joseph was endowed with a sociable character, a cheerful disposition, and preferred simplicity in life and in relations with people. But the country, like the whole of Europe, was then going through a far from simple situation, which not only prevented the young offspring of the Habsburg dynasty from completing his education, but also completely turned his whole life upside down.
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