What was the structure of society in medieval India. India in the Middle Ages
Expand the content of the features of the economic and political systems, the spiritual life of the Arab-Muslim civilization.
Isl.civ. originated in the Arabian Peninsula. In 630, the Arab Caliphate arises at this place (until 1258)
Islamic world Middle East and North Africa (Arabs), Iran (Persians), Central Asia (Turkic-speaking peoples)
Economic signs:
The supreme ruler is the chief owner of land and property;
Increasing importance of cities;
Development of private trade and entrepreneurship, which are limited by the ban on usury;
Duty to pay tax for the benefit of the poor.
Political signs:
Power is concentrated in one hands (Khalif)
Politics and religion do not compete
Spiritual Signs:
Arabic alphabet
Development features:
1) Statehood appeared on the basis of a newly born religion (religion originated in 622). Religions were born everywhere after the rise of the state. Religion in the Arab-Muslim civilization was immediately adapted to the needs of the emerging state. This religion was very specific.
2) The Islamization of the peoples proceeded rapidly. Most were in solidarity with the Muslim Arabs and saw them as their liberators.
3) From the point of view of Islam, a reasonable economic policy was pursued (ushr, kharaj)
4) they did not persecute either Jews or Christians, they persecuted Gentiles.
5) There was Arabization. The Arabs settled in the occupied lands and married representatives of this population.
6) Religion and politics did not compete.
7) The owner of the land was the state (formally, the land belonged to Allah, but on his behalf, the Caliph disposed of the land.
8) There were slaves, but only captives.
Reasons for the collapse:
1) The Cordoba Caliphate was created on the Iberian Peninsula, which did not accept the Abbasids.
2) Huge territory, different mentality and traditions.
3) In 1055 Baghdad was taken by the Turks. Under the Turks, the caliph seizes secular power and remains with spiritual power.
4) in 1258, the Mongol-Tatars captured Baghdad, executed the high priest and the Arab Caliphate ceased to exist.
The caliphate as an institution of the spiritual leadership of the Arabs lasted until 1517.
Conclusion: natural stage historical development, in which statehood arose on the basis of a newly born religion.
The division into varnas according to their main occupations and duties is priests (brahmins), warriors and rulers (kshatriyas) and pastoralists (vaishyas).
The duties of each varna were written down in the laws of Manu. This is a collection that established the rules of conduct.
The basis of society was not a guest, but a communal caste system. Caste is an association of people according to their specialty.
The richest were the rulers, Hindu temples, monasteries.
Buddhism in India did not particularly take root, the spiritual component of India is Hinduism
The land belongs to the state, the ruler grants to the official, but the land is not included in his property. In the later period of the Middle Ages, the keepers of the tombs (sheikhs), poets, officials and merchants disposed of the land.
On the territory of medieval India there were several dozen large and small states that were at enmity with each other
From 1206-1526, the Delhi Sultanate existed in India.
In 1526, the commander Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire.
Conclusion: in medieval India there was no single guest, but the originality was preserved.
General history. History of the Middle Ages. 6th grade Abramov Andrey Vyacheslavovich
§ 34. Medieval India
§ 34. Medieval India
India is located on the Hindustan Peninsula. In the north of the country rise the high mountains of the Himalayas, from which two great rivers originate - the Indus and the Ganges. From the west and east, Hindustan is washed by the sea. The only way for a foreign army to get into India is to pass from the northwest along a narrow passage between the mountains and the desert. Therefore, all the numerous invasions into this country began from here. India can be conditionally divided into two parts - North and South. Since ancient times, North India has been inhabited by the descendants of the Aryans. In the south lived people who spoke Dravidian languages. Significant differences between these parts of India persist to this day.
Cultivation of rice. Indian drawing
The climate of India favored agriculture. It is always warm here, and the land is fertile. Indian farmers grew wheat, rice, barley, legumes, cotton, sugar cane, and spices. The coconut palm was highly valued in coastal areas. Indians were good pastoralists. In their farms they bred cows, buffaloes, camels, goats, horses. They managed to tame even the largest land animal - the elephant.
Elephant. Indian sculpture
In India, since ancient times, there has been big number cities. The skilled artisans who lived in them owned many professions. Blacksmiths, casters, jewelers, goldsmiths, gunsmiths were famous far beyond the borders of the country. The Indians learned how to make beautiful fabrics from cotton, which were so thin that a woman's wedding dress could easily be threaded through a wedding ring.
A feature of Indian society was its division into four groups (estates) - varnas: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants) and Shudras ( dependent people). They originated in antiquity after the conquest of India by the Aryans. In the Middle Ages, the structure of society became more complicated, the development of the economy led to the emergence of new occupations for people. Varna gradually began to break up into smaller castes. Castes of officials, doctors, and teachers arose among the Brahmins. Not all kshatriyas were now engaged in military affairs - landowners appeared among them. In total, there were several thousand castes in India. There was a disparity between them. Castes of priests, rulers, warriors, representatives of the top of the peasant community were considered the highest. The middle position was occupied by communal farmers, merchants, and artisans. Servants and slaves belonged to the lower castes.
Castes appeared below the Shudras. They were called "untouchables". They included slaves, as well as people from tribes living in the conditions of a primitive system. The "untouchables" performed the dirtiest work - they were cleaners, butchers, tanners. They were forbidden to touch people from other castes, enter temples, have land. The villages of the "untouchables" were located at a distance from the villages of representatives of the "pure" castes. They could leave the house only after dark, so that their gaze would not defile the neighbors from the higher castes.
The transition from one caste to another was impossible, and it was impossible to marry if the bride and groom were from different castes. Castes were isolated from each other, their members had, as a rule, one occupation, passing on its secrets by inheritance. Relations between castes were determined by ancient customs and religion. Rule breakers were punished. The caste system hindered the economic development of India, as it led to the disunity of the people and prevented people from the lower castes from showing their talents.
Remember how the ancient Indians explained the appearance of varnas.
In the Middle Ages in India, there were several dozen small and major states who were at war with each other. Their rulers bore the titles of rajas (princes) and maharajas (kings). The power of the rajas relied on the army, which consisted of representatives of the warrior caste. In addition to infantry and cavalry, Indian rulers used war elephants during the war. The huge thick-skinned animal was not afraid of arrows and spears. On his back were warriors who smashed enemies from a height. Elephant legs were also a formidable weapon, breaking chariots and trampling enemy foot soldiers.
Battle scene. Medieval miniature
As in other countries of the East, all land in India belonged to the state, and the Raja disposed of it. For the duration of his service, he granted his officials the right to collect taxes from certain villages. The land itself did not become the property of the official. He could not inherit either his position or the rights granted to him. However, over time, officials and soldiers began to seize ownership of land with peasants.
How did the position of the Indian nobility differ from the position of the Western European feudal lords?
The power of the Rajas was not unlimited. Since ancient times, rural communities have enjoyed great rights. They consisted of one or more villages, the inhabitants of which were often relatives. Farming was a business that only a large family could cope with - several generations of relatives. The land was the hereditary possession of the community members, and the community managed the meadows, forests and rivers jointly. The community members cleared the jungle together, fought with wild animals. However, there was no equality in the Indian community. The position of a person depended on his belonging to a higher or lower caste. The peasants elected the council of the community and the elders. They distributed land among families, collected taxes and paid taxes to the government on behalf of the entire village, judged fellow villagers. Artisans and merchants living in the cities also had their own associations headed by elders.
Court scene. medieval relief
In antiquity and the Middle Ages, India was often the victim of foreign conquerors who were attracted by rumors about the fabulous wealth and fertility of this country. In the 5th century, tribes of nomadic Huns invaded here. In North and Central India, the Huns managed to create their own states. Over time, the former conquerors merged with the local population, adopting its language and religion.
Mahmud's troops storm the city. Medieval drawing
The relationship of the Indians with the Muslims who invaded the country in the 11th century was completely different. Taking advantage of the strife between the Indian states, they devastated northern India. These raids were led by the ruler of the state of Ghazni Mahmud. He justified his predatory campaigns in India as a matter of sacred struggle for Islam, since the majority of Indians adhered to pagan beliefs. In the 13th century, all of northern India came under the rule of Muslim sultans. The city of Delhi became the capital of the state that arose here, and it itself was called the Delhi Sultanate. Its rulers had unlimited power, they could, at their own discretion, dispose of the life and property of their subjects.
The lands taken from the rajas were given to the Muslim nobility, who passed them on by inheritance. The Sultans of Delhi tried in this way to ensure the loyalty of their close associates. However, they failed to consolidate the state. Numerous rebellions of the nobility and conspiracies weakened the Sultanate. He was shaken by uprisings of Indians who did not want to obey foreigners and accept Islam.
The Muslim rulers ordered the destruction of thousands of Indian temples and the construction of mosques in their place. One day, the Sultan brought images of Indian gods and statues of rajas from a destroyed temple and buried them at the gates of a mosque in Delhi so that Muslims would trample them on their way to prayer. Some Indian rulers, wishing to preserve their power and wealth, converted to Islam, but most of their subjects remained faithful to the former gods.
India in the 12th-15th centuries
Where were the conquests of Muslims directed? How did the territory of the Delhi Sultanate change in the 14th-15th centuries compared to the 13th century?
Buddhism, which once had a large following, lost its influence in India in the Middle Ages. His place was taken Hinduism. Hindus (as the followers of Hinduism were called) worshiped many gods, the main of which were Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The Hindus believed that after death, the soul of a person moves into another living being. If a person led a righteous life, his soul should be embodied in a representative of a higher caste, if he sinned, a lower one, or even in some animal. Therefore, Hinduism taught that one should not harm any living creature on Earth - after all, the soul of a deceased person may have been embodied in it.
God Shiva. Indian bronze sculpture. 11th-12th centuries
India was famous not only for its treasures, but also for its developed culture. The Indians created beautiful works of art. They depicted their gods, rulers, heroes of legends. The walls of the temples of Ajanta carved into the rock are filled with paintings depicting the solemn departure of the raja with his retinue, battles with many war elephants, riders on rearing horses, and fleeing warriors with huge shields. The Indians built their temples from stone or carved from a whole rock, giving them intricate shapes. Each sacred building was decorated with sculptures.
Murals of Ajanta
Summing up
In medieval India did not work out united state and strong rulership. It was often subjected to foreign invasions, and in the 11th century the north of India was conquered by Muslims. India has been influenced different peoples and cultures, but retained its originality.
castes - closed groups of people united by a certain occupation, customs; occupying a certain position in society.Hinduism - ancient pagan religion in India.
“One of the most original civilizations of the East was Indian. Its contribution to the general culture of mankind is truly enormous.”(Russian historian G. M. Bongard-Levin)
1. Name the occupations of the inhabitants of India.
2. What are varnas and castes? What effect did the caste system have on Indian life?
3. What role did the community play in Indian life?
4. What conquerors did India have to face? How did they affect Indian life?
5. Why was the power of the Delhi sultans weak?
6. What religions existed in India? How did they influence Indian culture?
Head the paragraphs and draw up a detailed plan of the paragraph (for the rules for drawing up the plan, see: task 1 to § 5).
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The medieval political structure of India is characterized by constant instability of power, both in the north and in the south of the country. The emerging dynasties and states were short-lived and frankly weak. Having existed for a certain period of time, they broke up into separate regions and principalities, which continued a fierce struggle for spheres of influence. Political changes did not affect the internal structure of society: here, as before, the state dominated, having the right to dispose of all the country's resources and carrying out a centralized collection of taxes.
The socio-economic development of India in the Middle Ages was characterized by the growth of feudal estates. The richest among the feudal lords, along with the rulers, were Hindu temples and monasteries. If initially only uncultivated lands complained to them and with the indispensable consent of the community that owned them, then from the 8th century. more and more often, not only lands are transferred, but also villages, the inhabitants of which were obliged to bear a natural service in favor of the recipient. However, at this time, the Indian community was still relatively independent, large in size and self-governing. A full-fledged community member hereditarily owned his field.
Near the palaces of the feudal lords, where artisans settled, serving the needs of the court and the landowner's troops, new cities arose. The development of urban life was facilitated by the increased exchange between cities and the emergence of groupings of artisans according to castes. As in Western Europe, in the Indian city, the development of handicrafts and trade was accompanied by the struggle of citizens against the feudal lords, who imposed new taxes on artisans and merchants. Moreover, the value of the tax was the higher, the lower was the class position of the castes to which the artisans and merchants belonged.
AT early XIII in. in northern India, a major Muslim state - Delhi Sultanate(1206-1526), the dominance of Muslim commanders from the Central Asian Turks is finally taking shape. The political and administrative organization of the state is typically Islamic. Sunni Islam becomes the state religion official language- Persian. The troops of the sultans make aggressive campaigns in Central and South India, and the conquered rulers are forced to recognize themselves as vassals of Delhi and pay tribute to the sultan.
The turning point in the history of the Delhi Sultanate was the invasion of Northern India in 1398 by the troops of the Central Asian ruler Timur(Tamerlane). A new Sayyid dynasty was founded here. Representatives of this dynasty already ruled as governors on behalf of the Timurids. During the existence of the Delhi Sultanate, Europeans began to penetrate India. In 1498, under the command of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese first reached the coast of Western India. The Portuguese monopoly on maritime trade undermined India's trade relations with the countries of the East, isolated the interior of the country and delayed their development.
The system of economic relations undergoes changes in the Muslim era. The state land fund is growing at the expense of the possessions of the conquered Indian feudal families. Its main part was distributed in a conditional service award - “ikta” (small plots) and “mukta” (large “feedings”). Their holders - iktadars and muktadars - collected taxes from granted villages in favor of the treasury, part of which went to support the family of the holder, who supplied a soldier to the state army. Mosques, owners of property for charitable purposes, keepers of the tombs of sheikhs, poets, officials and merchants were private landowners who managed the estate without state intervention.
In 1526, the Timurid commander Babur laid the foundation for Mughal Empire that lasted nearly two hundred years. Islam was declared the state religion. In the Mughal era, India enters the stage of developed feudal relations, the flowering of which went parallel to the strengthening of the central power of the state. The importance of the main financial department of the empire (sofa), which is obliged to monitor the use of all suitable lands, has increased. The share of the state was declared a third of the harvest. All the conquered territories entered the state land fund. “Jagirs” were heard from it - conditional military awards, which continued to be considered state property.
The collapse of the Mughal Empire coincided with the beginning of active European colonization of India and the adjacent regions of Asia. Colonial expansion, which resulted in the breakdown of the traditional structure of Indian society, ended the Middle Ages in the history of India.
Thus, medieval India personifies the synthesis of various socio-political foundations, religious traditions, and ethnic cultures. Having melted all this many beginnings within itself, by the end of the era, it appeared before the Europeans as a country of fabulous splendor, attracting wealth, exoticism, and secrets. Inside it, however, began processes similar to European ones, inherent in the New Age. The internal market was formed, international relations developed, social contradictions deepened. But for India, a typical Asian power, the despotic state was a strong deterrent to capitalization. With its weakening, the country became an easy prey for European colonizers, whose activities interrupted the natural course of historical development.
Even in ancient times in India there was a division of society into four varnas (estates). it Brahmins(priests) kshatriyas(warriors, rulers) vaishyas(farmers, herdsmen, merchants) and sudras(artisans, servants, slaves).
At the beginning of our era, significant changes are observed in the organization of varnas. Each varna began to be divided into higher and lower castes (in ancient Indian "jati" - birth, lineage). The most disenfranchised lower caste were the so-called "untouchables", who were despised. They performed the hardest and dirtiest work: they were servants, cleaned out garbage, slaughtered cattle, etc. Some backward tribes also belonged to this caste. During the Gupta period, dozens of castes already existed.
Belonging to a certain caste was determined by the origin of a person, the ability to hold on, as well as clothing, hairstyle, a symbolic mark on the forehead, food culture. Members of a particular caste characteristic type dwellings. No one had the right to arbitrarily move from one caste to another. Marriages between members of different castes were generally prohibited. However, there was no condemnation in society when a man from a higher caste took a wife from a lower one.
The specificity of Indian society since ancient times was the presence of a rural community in it. It was based on several tens or hundreds of families of communal farmers who owned allotments and had inheritance rights to them. The community supervised irrigation works, organized the necessary mutual assistance and defense. The resolutions of the community were often carved on stone slabs embedded in the walls of temples. Gradually, artisans began to stand out among its members: blacksmiths, carpenters, potters, masons, weavers, copper workers, etc. They served the community and received from it everything necessary for life.
The community was headed by a headman and several of his assistants. Council was of great public importance. That is, the Indian rural community existed as a self-governing unit that provided itself with everything necessary. This led to an almost complete absence in medieval India of internal trade between the city and the countryside, which hampered the development of society throughout the country.
Record of 918 about a rural community
We, the members of the assembly... of the village... made such a decision on the election of committees, starting from this year, annually, namely: "annual committee", "committee of gardens" and "committee of reservoirs".
[In the village] there are 30 clans. The members of each shall assemble and write on the special tickets for the drawing of lots the names of those (inhabitants) who have more than a quarter of the field of land that is taxed, live in houses erected on their own plots; between the ages of 30 and 60 ... smart in business: bodily and spiritually clean; have not performed communal duties for three years and are not close relatives of elders who have performed communal duties before.material from the site
[Then these tickets] are collected in each quarter, and the boy, who still cannot distinguish the signs, takes them out one after another so that one person from each quarter is elected. Thus elected, 12 people make up the "annual committee". Before that, it is also necessary to draw out tickets [with the names of members] of the “gardens committee”, and let 12 people make up the “gardens committee”. [People listed] on the remaining six tickets form a "reservoir committee".
The three committees... let them carry out their duties for a full 360 days...
Caste - a closed social group whose members are connected by origin, occupation and social position.
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In the history of India, as already mentioned, it is very difficult to draw a line between ancient history and the Middle Ages. When serious changes took place in Europe associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism, India continued to develop according to its own scenario. Many small states fought among themselves, while the foundations of life for the bulk of the population remained unshakable.
Since ancient times, Indian society has been divided into four large groups- varnas. The higher varnas (Brahmins and Kshatriyas) continued to rule and fight, and below (Vaishyas and Shudras) they worked in the fields and in workshops. In the Middle Ages, changes took place in this ancient division. Varnas began to be divided into smaller groups of people who were united by profession or gender Thus, for example, pharmacists, doctors, teachers, etc. stood out among the Brahmins, Warriors, officials, etc., among the Kshatriyas. had its special characters, rituals, decorations, rules of conduct. One could look for a bride or groom only in one's own caste, and raise children only according to the traditions and customs of the caste. Like the varnas, castes were divided into lower and higher. There was also a special caste of "untouchables".
Representatives of the higher castes could not even be near the lower ones, much less wash food or water from their hands. It was considered higher that even the shadow of the "Untouchables" could "desecrate". Only representatives of the higher ones could read and listen to sacred texts. Those who violated these customs and traditions were severely punished.
From the notes of the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang (7th century)
Butchers, fishermen, scavengers, medicine men, laundresses, itinerant performers, gravediggers, executioners and the like live outside the city. On the streets, these people either do not appear at all, or keep to the left side until they reach the right place. Their dwellings are surrounded by walls and located outside the city.
Despite the existence of caste division, representatives of various castes united in communities, were arranged as small self-sufficient states, which acted as a single entity in state power. Communities were the backbone of Indian society. They provided him with internal stability. While state power was weak and limited to collecting taxes from the communities.
A system of mutual services has developed between the various castes in the community - the exchange of products and services. Almost all issues were resolved by the community itself: they chose the council, judges, payment of taxes, allocated people for public works. Those who violated the rules of life in the community could be punished. Worse than punishment is expulsion from the community.
There were several religions in medieval India. Based on the ancient religion in the 1st millennium AD. Hinduism was formed. In the first place came the worship of three gods: Cherry, Shiva and Brahmi. Temples were built in their honor and rich sacrifices were made.
Hindus believed in the transmigration of souls after death. If a person did not do anything during his lifetime. What violated caste traditions, he could be reborn in the next life in the highest caste. If he retreated, then he was reborn into a lower or animal, plant, stone.
Hindus deified animals. Especially cows. They were forbidden to be killed. Hindus also worshiped the sacred river Ganges.
The second religion of India was Buddhism, which arose here in the VI century. BC. The Buddha taught that the whole life of a person is hardness and suffering, and therefore his soul must be freed from everything earthly and strive for higher peace. He urged to forget about riches. Pleasure, to speak only the truth and not to kill living beings.
From the 5th century Buddhism in India is in decline, but is rapidly spreading in China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, countries of Southeast Asia. Buddhism has become another world religion along with Christianity and Islam.
With the advent of Muslim conquerors, Islam entered India. It has acquired the greatest distribution in the north of the peninsula.
In addition to the mentioned religions, hundreds of local cults were spread in India.