Romania country history. Creation of a unified Romanian state
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Formation of the state of Romania
The influence of the "Russian party" in Moldova and Wallachia greatly decreased, the eyes of the supporters of the unification of the two Romanian principalities (unionists) again turned to France, its emperor Napoleon III. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856. the principalities were first occupied by Russian troops, and then by Austrian and Turkish. According to the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia lost its protectorate over this territory, lost the right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea, and lost South Bessarabia, annexed to Moldova "under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte."
The main issue for the principalities remained the problem of unification, which would facilitate the struggle for independence, as well as the formation of a single market, monetary system, and legislation. The struggle for the unification of the Danubian Principalities has become an acute issue of international relations. The Ottoman Empire opposed this process, Britain and Austria sympathized with it, seeking to strengthen their influence in the region. Russia, France, Prussia and Sardinia supported the unification. The diplomatic confrontation ended with the signing in Paris in August 1858 of a compromise "Convention regarding the structure of the Danubian Principalities", henceforth bearing the name of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The convention provided for the introduction of almost powerless general government bodies, all local power remained concentrated in the hands of the princes and the ruling elite of the principalities. Introduced new system elections with a high property qualification. Out of 5 million people, only 4 thousand voters could participate in the voting process. In January 1859, Alexander Jon Cuza was elected to the throne in both principalities, which paved the way for the unification of the country into a single state.
In 1861, the guarantor powers agreed to the unification of the Danubian principalities, in January 1862 a single National Assembly was convened and a nationwide government was created. The Danubian principalities united, the new state was called "Romania". It began the process of reform. Cuza and his first minister, M. Kogalniceanu, dissolved the National Assembly, secularized the monastic lands, which accounted for about a quarter of the arable land in the country, and an agrarian reform law was passed that provided for the abolition of serfdom. For a large ransom, the peasants received land. The activities of the reformers embittered the big landlords, and they did not satisfy the peasants either. The result was the overthrow of Cuza from the throne in February 1866. political forces, whose bloc was called the "Monstrous Coalition" for the seemingly unnatural alliance of former irreconcilable opponents - liberals and conservatives.
Charles (Karol) I of the Hohenzollern dynasty became the new prince of Romania. A new constitution was adopted, which reflected the principle of separation of the branches of power, declared the responsibility of the government to parliament, as well as various civil liberties. True, in relation to the Romanian reality, all this remained only a declaration. Charles I supported the Germans, which caused discontent, especially during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. Opposition speeches were suppressed. In 1875, a trade agreement with Austria-Hungary, unfavorable for the Romanian bourgeoisie, was concluded, reducing and even partially abolishing duties on certain Austrian goods imported into Romania. In 1877, an agreement was signed on the passage of Russian troops through Romanian territory in the event of a Russian-Turkish war, which soon began. In 1877 independence was proclaimed by the Romanian Parliament. The country took part in hostilities against the Ottoman Empire, in the siege and capture of the fortress of Plevna. By decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Romania was recognized as an independent state, having received Northern Dobruja instead of Southern Bessarabia, returned to Russia (without part of the mouth of the Danube, left behind Romania). In 1881 Romania was proclaimed a kingdom. The liberals came to power, broke off the unfavorable trade agreement with Austria-Hungary, introduced high customs tariffs in 1886, and adopted in 1887 a law on the protection of national industry. The acceleration of industrial development (oil production, food and light industry) contributed to the breaking of traditional relations in the countryside. The situation of the workers and peasants remained disastrous, which led to railroad strikes and a major peasant uprising in 1888.
Holidays in Romania compared to many EU countries is considered not very expensive. Prices for most services, goods and food are 50% lower than in Western Europe.
In every city, purchases can be made in huge supermarkets, markets, as well as in numerous small private shops, where the owner himself often stands behind the counter.
Among Romanian souvenirs, the most popular among tourists are:
- handmade leather products;
- silver jewelry;
- embroidery;
- clay and porcelain products;
- colorful warm blankets;
- wool sweaters;
- silk blouses and dresses;
- all kinds of "Dracula" souvenirs (from mugs and T-shirts to aspen stakes).
Credit cards are accepted in all major hotels, restaurants, gas stations and supermarkets, but you should always have cash with you.
Transport
Traveling in Romania, you can use road, rail, river and air transport.
The quality of roads in Romania has improved significantly since last years. In mountainous regions, the quality of coverage is slightly worse than on the flat territory of the country, which is primarily due to heavy rainfall in the Carpathians, so certain sections of mountain roads are constantly being repaired. For travel on national roads, you must pay a road tax - rovignette.
Romania has a large rail network, but this mode of transport is not very popular with tourists and the public due to the limited speed of movement (the average train speed is approximately 43 km/h). Most of the trains are outdated, with little comfort.
River transport is represented by ferries carrying passengers and cargo across the Danube. There is also (as a type of ecological tourism) travel by boat or small ship on the Danube.
Those who value time spent on the road should use air transport. There are 17 airports in Romania, including 5 international ones. Air transportation in the country is well developed. From Bucharest you can get to all the largest cities in the country. On the most popular destinations, planes fly 4-5 times a day. This type of transport is very popular with local residents. Aircraft in excellent condition, with polite qualified personnel.
Urban public transport well organized in all large and medium cities of Romania (cost 1–2 lei, or 25–50 euro cents). Recently, double-decker buses have appeared in Bucharest, plying along the tourist route inside the city. The capital also has the only metro in the country. Taxis are metered. If they are not available, then the cost of the trip should be agreed in advance (most taxi drivers have basic knowledge of English).
Connection
Phone calls abroad can be made both from specialized pay phones (they work with cards that can be purchased at kiosks of printed materials), from public telephone offices at post offices, and from hotel rooms, but this will be 10–20% more expensive.
Mobile communication in Romania is provided by 4 GSM operators - Connex Vodafon, Orange, Cosmte and DigiMobil - and one CDMA operator - Zapp. Today, the coverage area includes almost the entire territory of the country, with the exception of remote, hard-to-reach mountainous areas. Orange and Vodafone are leaders in terms of coverage, occupying 98-99% of the area of Romania.
Access to Internet resources is provided in Romania by more than 200 providers. Most hotels and hostels offer free Wi-Fi.
Safety
Recent studies of the criminal situation in different countries world have shown that Romania occupies a leading position in terms of security among European countries. In the northern and northeastern regions, near the Ukrainian and Moldovan borders, the situation is slightly worse than in the rest of the country: there are gypsy beggars, there are pickpockets. Here you should be careful with your valuables - keep money, mobile phones, cameras with you.
There are no gypsies in the resort areas at all, public order is monitored by city police patrols.
Business
Membership in the European Union has led Romania to implement a series of free market reforms that have resulted in the liberalization of foreign trade, the modernization of the tax and banking systems, and the active development of the private sector.
Today, investing in the Romanian economy is considered promising and profitable.
The fixed income tax rate is 16%, and for small enterprises with no more than 10 employees and a total annual income not exceeding 100,000 € - 3%.
The cities and resorts of Romania are attracting more and more attention, acting as objects of business tourism. Affordability and the availability of modern, well-equipped conference rooms make Romania an attractive place for business seminars, meetings, exhibitions and conferences of various levels.
Real estate
The unique nature, favorable climate and the proximity of world-famous medical resorts attract many who want to buy real estate in Romania.
Here, foreigners have the same rights to purchase real estate as locals. There are minor restrictions due to international treaties, as well as restrictions on the purchase of agricultural and strategic land, national park land, as well as real estate objects of historical and cultural value.
Foreigners are most interested in real estate on the Black Sea coast, in the capital and in ski resorts. Here, the minimum cost per 1 m² is about 800 €.
To avoid any misunderstandings during your stay in Romania and enjoy your vacation, tourists should follow some rules of conduct adopted in the country. The basic rule, as in many European countries, is a ban on smoking in public places and transport, including railways.
Fans of photographic art should remember that in Romania bridges and ports are strategic objects, so they should never be photographed.
In restaurants and cafes, it is customary to leave a tip in the amount of 10% of the cost of the check.
Used as a disinfectant for tap water chemical substances especially chlorine. Such water, of course, cannot be poisoned, but it is unsuitable for drinking, and can also cause allergic reactions on sensitive skin when washing. But water in mountain springs and wells in the Carpathians is not only safe and tasty, but also healthy.
Visa Information
To visit Romania, citizens of Russia and other CIS countries will need a visa that does not give the right to enter the Schengen countries, despite the fact that Romania is a member of the European Union.
There are 3 types of visas: transit (B), short-term for a period of less than 90 days (C) and multiple long-term (D). To obtain a visa to the embassy, you must provide a passport valid for at least 3 months from the end of the trip to Romania, plus photocopies of the pages of the passport with the personal data of the owner, photographs (2 pcs.), A completed application form, medical insurance and a certificate of employment indicating salary and position. The consular fee is 35 € for processing within 5-10 days, 70 € for an urgent visa.
The Romanian Embassy in Moscow is located at 119285, Moscow, st. Mosfilmovskaya, 64 (tel.: (+7 495) 143-04-24; 143-04-27).
Consulates:
St. Petersburg, Gorokhovaya st., 4 (tel.: (+7 812) 312-61-41, 335-08-44 344019,
Rostov-on-Don, st. 7th Line, 18/39 (tel: (+7 863) 253-08-61, 230-29-15, 227-59-25). If you have a Schengen visa, you can make transit trips through the territory of Romania for 5 days without issuing a transit Romanian visa.
culture
Over the centuries, Romanians have been exposed to various cultures, each of which has contributed to the formation of modern Romanian culture. The influence of the ancient Romans was replaced after a few centuries by the influence of the culture of the Slavs, Greeks, Turks and Hungarians. In the Middle Ages, Romanians were strongly influenced by Byzantium, especially in terms of church rituals, architecture, iconography and frescoes. In the 16th and 17th centuries many works of church literature were written in Romanian. Modern Romanian culture is a synthesis of these medieval influences, ancient folklore and music (which was important for maintaining ethnic unity) and various foreign influences.
Romanian literature and art reached their maturity at the end of the 19th century. Among the outstanding writers of that time were M. Eminescu, the talented storyteller I. Creanga, the playwright I. L. Caragiale, literary critics T. Maiorescu and C. Dobrodzhanu-Gherea. The most famous artists were the portrait painter T.Aman, the landscape painters N.Grigorescu and I.Andreascu, as well as the painter S.Lucian.
The best writers of the interwar period are the poet T. Arghezi and the novelists M. Sadoveanu, L. Rebryanu and C. Petrescu.
Post-war Romanian literature is still influenced by the writers who became famous during the interwar period. Patriotic, democratic and pro-peasant inclinations in literature were developed already before the First World War by the literary movement "Semenatorul" ("The Sower"). These writers argued that the development of art should be ideologically driven, and easily adapted to the philosophy and goals of the communist regime. The non-communist T. Arghezi was recognized by the authorities as the most outstanding Romanian poet, and M. Sadoveanu, without any effort, was able to become the patriarch of post-war Romanian literature. Argesi, known even before the Second World War for his deeply original poems, began to write optimistic poems about peasant uprisings. Sadoveanu, an imaginative writer and creator of a broad historical panorama, added to his historical novels new works on the awakening of the proletariat; his Return tells of the achievements of the communist regime. However, after 1965, the regime also began to patronize nationalist writers.
Among the post-war writers, one should note such poets as M. Benyuk, E. Zhebelianu, V. Porumbaku, A. Toma, C. Teodorescu, M. Dragomir, D. Deshliu. The novelists E. Kamilar, A. Zhar, Z. Stanku gained fame; playwrights - A. Baranga, R. Boureanu, M. Davidoglu, L. Demetrius and M. Banush (also a poetess). A feature of post-war literature was the publication of books and magazines in the languages of national minorities, especially in Hungarian. Among the Hungarian writers, I. Horvath and I. Astalos are the most famous.
Before World War I in Romanian fine arts there were several notable works. In the interwar period, one can hardly note any outstanding achievements in this area, with the exception of the work of artists who were under strong Western, mainly French, influence. These include such artists as S. Petrescu, G. Petrashka, C. Ressu, J. Steriade, Iser. The most famous artists of the communist period were P. Atanasiou, Sh. Barabas, L. Agricola, G. Lazar.
In music, most state prizes were awarded to such works as the National Festival of Sabina Dragoy. In the 1960s and 1970s, the regime began to encourage the revival of the Romanian classics, including the works of D. Enescu, and the imitation of classical Romanian and modern Western works.
Story
Ancient Romania was inhabited by Thracian tribes. In the 1st century BC. Greece founded the state of Dacia to defend itself against Rome. Dacia passed to Rome in 106 AD, becoming a province of the Roman Empire. As a result of attacks from the Goths in 271, Emperor Aurelius recalled the Roman legionnaires back to the south of the Danube, but the Wallachian peasants remained in Dacia, forming the Romanian people. By the 10th century, small Romanian lands had formed, and their unification led to the creation of the principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania. From the 10th century, the Magyars came to Transylvania, and by the 12th century it became an autonomous principality under the rule of the Hungarian authorities. In the 14th century, Hungarian troops unsuccessfully tried to capture Wallachia and Moldavia.
During the XIV-XV centuries, Wallachia and Moldavia resisted the expansion Ottoman Empire. During the struggle, Prince Vlad Tepes of Wallachia (known as the "Impaler" because he rarely ate without a writhing, impaled Turk) became a hero, later associated with Dracula. In the XVI century, Transylvania passed to the Ottoman Empire, at the same time, Wallachia and Moldavia submitted to the Turks, but retained their autonomous position. In 1600, all three Romanian provinces were united by Prince Mihai Vitazul of Wallachia after he joined forces with the ruling princes of Moldavia and Transylvania against the Turks. The unification lasted only a year, then Mihai was defeated by the combined Habsburg-Transylvanian troops, after which he was captured and beheaded. Transylvania passed to the Habsburg Empire, while Wallachia and Moldavia remained Turkish suzerainties almost until the end of the 19th century. In 1775, the northern part of Moldavia, Bukovina, was annexed by Austria-Hungary. Further, in 1812, the eastern territory, Bessarabia, passed to Russia. After the Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829), the Ottoman possession of the principalities ended.
After 1848, Transylvania fell under the rule of Austria-Hungary and "Magyarization" began. In 1859 Alexandru Ioan Cuza was crowned on the thrones of Moldavia and Wallachia, who created a new state, which was named Romania in 1862. Charles I succeeded to the throne in 1866 and in 1877 Dobruya became part of Romania. In 1881, Romania became known as a kingdom, and Charles I became its king. He died at the start of the First World War. His nephew Ferdinand I inherited the throne and entered the war in 1916 on the side of the "Triple Agreement" (Entente). His goal was the liberation of Transylvania from Austria-Hungary. In 1918, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania became part of Romania.
Numerous political parties appeared in Romania after the First World War, including the Legion of the Archangel Michael, better known as the fascist "Iron Guard". The party, led by Cornelius Codreanu, dominated the political arena by 1935. Charles II, who inherited the throne after the death of his father Ferdinand I, declared the state a royal dictatorship in 1938 and liquidated all political parties. In 1939, he pacified the Iron Guard, which he had previously supported, by executing Codreana and other legionnaires. In 1940, the USSR occupied Bessarabia, and Romania was forced to transfer northern Transylvania to Hungary on the orders of Germany and Italy. Southern Dobruya was transferred to Bulgaria. Based on all this, numerous rallies broke out, so the king called Generalissimo Ion Antonescu to pacify discontent. Antonescu forced Charles to abdicate, handing over power to Charles's 19-year-old son Michael, and then introduced a fascist dictatorship, proclaiming himself ruler. In 1941 he joined Hitler's anti-Soviet war. When approaching Soviet army to the Romanian border in 1944, Romania went over to the side of Russia.
The Soviet handover of Transylvania to Romania helped the communists, supported by Moscow, win the elections in 1946. A year later, King Michael was forced to abdicate and the Romanian People's Republic was formed. A period of state intimidation began, when pre-war leaders, prominent intellectuals and suspicious dissidents were rounded up and sent to prison camps. In the late 1950s, Romania began to move away from Moscow, seeking an independent foreign policy under the leadership of Gheorghe Georgiou-Dej (1952-1965) and Nicolae Ceausescu (1965-1989). Ceausescu denounced the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968, which earned him respect and economic aid from the West. Most of his great projects (the construction of the "deadly" Danube-Black Sea Canal, the pompous and expensive House of Nations in Bucharest). His secret militia suppressed the population and had a huge network of informants.
The rise to power of Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s meant that the US no longer needed Romania and removed its status as "the most beloved nation." Ceausescu decided to export the Romanian food supply in order to pay off the country's huge debt. While Ceausescu and his wife Elena (his first deputy prime minister) lived in luxury, the people struggled to survive as the rationing of bread, eggs, flour, butter, salt, sugar, beef, potatoes was mocking, and by the mid-1980s there was no meat at all. In 1987, riots began in Brasov, which were brutally suppressed. After regime after regime began to crumble in Eastern Europe, on December 15, 1989, the priest Lazlo Tox preached against Ceausescu in a church in the city of Timisoara. That same evening, a group of people gathered at his house to protest the decision of the Reformed Church of Romania to remove Toks from office. The clashes between the protesters, the police and the army continued for 4 days. On December 19, the army joined the protesters. On December 21, Bucharest workers loudly protested against Ceausescu during a mass rally and street clashes between protesters, police and the army. The next day, the Ceausescu family tried to flee Romania, but was arrested, convicted by an anonymous court, and shot on Christmas Day.
It is now believed that the members of the National Salvation Front who seized power after Ceausescu's death planned his overthrow months before December 1989, but premature rallies forced them to act earlier. A provisional government came to power, headed by Ion Iliescu.
In 1992, Iliescu and the National Salvation Front were re-elected, but uncontrolled inflation, unemployment, suspicion of government corruption led to the fact that in 1996 Iliescu was replaced by Emil Constantinescu, leader of the Romanian Democratic Convention. Iliescu returned to power in December 2000 as president. Romanians probably thought Iliescu was the better of two evils compared to the extremist Cornelius Vadim Tudor of the right-wing Romanian Party.
Economy
One of the largest sectors of the economy is oil production, Rompetrol occupies a significant market share, but oil reserves are insignificant and its production is constantly decreasing.
Since the mid-2000s, Romania's oil consumption has been roughly double its own production, and this ratio also applies to oil imports and exports.
Romania has reserves and production natural gas However, in recent years the country has been forced to import gas to meet its needs.
The distribution of the labor force is about 30% in agriculture, 23% in industry, 47% in the service sector (2006).
The main partners in foreign trade are Germany, Italy, France (2006).
Policy
The bicameral parliament consists of the Senate (Senate, 137 seats) and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor, 332 seats).
Senators are elected by proportional representation.
The 314 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by proportional representation with a 5% threshold for political parties and an 8% threshold for blocs, with the remaining seats reserved for representatives of national minorities.
The term of office of MPs is 4 years.
According to the constitution adopted by the parliament in November 1991 and approved in December of the same year at a national referendum, Romania is a national, unitary, legal, democratic and social state with a republican form of government. The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 4 years. It has broad powers in political issues comparable to the rights of the President of the French Republic.
Romania is a country located in the southeastern part of Europe with Bucharest as its capital. In Romania, the head of state is the president, and the Senate and Assembly of Deputies is a bicameral parliament, that is, the upper and lower houses are traditionally represented. Thus, the form of government in Romania is a parliamentary republic. The name of the country is interesting, which comes from the Latin word romanus, that is, Roman. Currently, Romania is a member of the United Nations (since 1955), a member of NATO since 2004, and a member of the European Community since 2007.
However, the country is not covered by the Schengen agreement, that is, Romanian visas on the territory of the Schengen member countries are not valid. The territory of Romania itself is 238.4 thousand square meters. km, at the moment it is 78th place in the world on a territorial basis. Time in Romania is one hour behind Moscow.
The country's borders are as follows: in the northeast, Romania borders on its most friendly neighbor - Moldova, in the south, the borders run along the Danube River with Bulgaria. From the east, Romania has cordons with Ukraine, and the western borders "related" Romania to Hungary and Serbia. From the south, Romania is washed by the Black Sea, which creates all the conditions for the development of the resort segment.
The number of inhabitants of Romania, religion
A huge number of nationalities live in Romania, which this country has sheltered since ancient times. In total, in Romania, according to the results of the last census, there are 21.5 million people, of which about 90% are Romanians and 6.6% are Hungarians, there are gypsies, Germans, many Ukrainians, Serbs, Turks and Slovaks in the country. Recently, Romania has created a favorable regime for those who want to settle in the country permanently and come from Moldova and Western Ukraine. When proving their family ties, the procedure for obtaining a Romanian passport for candidates, and therefore obtaining Romanian citizenship, is greatly simplified. Religion among the peoples of Romania was distributed as follows: about 87% - Orthodox Christians, 7.5% - Protestants, a small number of Muslims - about 1% and 4.7% Catholics.
Briefly about the Romanian state: the history of creation
The history of the creation of Romania is quite colorful, multifaceted, because this country participated in various political confrontations, its borders changed, and political preferences sometimes changed to radically opposite ones. Thus, the map of Romania was redrawn, and new territories arose.
The state of Romania itself appeared on the political world map during the unification of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, Transylvania in those years was part of Hungary. The date of gaining independence is considered to be May 9, 1877, during the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war. Until 1914, life in the country developed relatively calmly and the characteristics of Romania of this period were the most favorable, the cultural level increased significantly, cities began to be built, industry and agriculture developed.
First World War was marked for Romania by some significant events. Entering the war on the side of the Entente, the Romanian army was completely defeated by the troops of Austria-Hungary, however, the revolution in Russia, Germany, the collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires brought Transylvania to Romania, as well as the ethnic region - Bessarabia, where not only Romanians lived, but and Ukrainians.
In 1938, the dictatorship of the king was established, and parliament was dissolved. During World War II, Romania became an ally of Nazi Germany, but after the defeat in the war, a zone of influence of the USSR was established on the territory of the country. Since 1947, Romania has been proclaimed a people's republic, but has always been distinguished by an independent disposition. In particular, she opposed Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia, sharply took a negative position and against ignoring Israel after the six-day war.
In 1965, Ceausescu came to power in the country, who ruled the country until the end of the 80s. Romania at that time was considered one of the poorest countries in the socialist camp. After the overthrow of the dictatorship of Ceausescu and his wife, the execution of the latter, the first free presidential elections were held in the country in 1990. And on January 1, 2007, the country solemnly entered the European Commonwealth, thus ahead of many candidates - the former Soviet republics.
State symbols of the country
political preferences sometimes changed to radically opposite ones. Thus, the map of Romania was redrawn, and new territories arose.
The coat of arms of Romania was solemnly adopted by the state parliament in 1992, here red, yellow, blue colors represent the colors of the flag. The emblem itself is represented by a golden eagle, which is against the background of national colors and holds a cross in its beak.
The national anthem of Romania with the characteristic name "Wake up, Romanian" was officially adopted in the country in 1989, this main song of the country to the words of the famous Romanian poet Andrei Mureshan, who lived in the 19th century, was for some time (from 1991 to 1994) and the official anthem of fraternal Moldova .
Come to Romania
Modern Romania is a rapidly developing state that is gaining momentum, which arouses interest with its special development path, originality, success in cultural life and sports. Romania has great prospects as a tourist power, having gradually recovered from the global crisis, the Romanian tourism business will be able to compete with its Western European neighbors.
Romania is friendly to tourists from our country, on the website of the Romanian Embassy you can study the necessary information for those who want to visit Romania for various purposes. The capital of Romania and the amazing villages of the province, the beautiful Carpathians and Dracula's castle, ski resorts and beaches, various cities of Romania and picturesque villages are waiting for you. In addition, the proximity of the location of this Eastern European country makes visiting Romania a great pastime.
ROMANIA, officially called the Socialist Republic of Romania until 1990, is an independent state in southeastern Europe. The population, which believes that they are descended from the Romanized Thracian people - the Dacians, retained the language of the Romance group despite the fact that they lived in a region with a predominance of Slavic languages. Romania borders Ukraine in the north, Moldova in the northeast, Hungary and Yugoslavia in the west, and Bulgaria in the south.The modern state of Romania was recognized as completely independent at the Berlin Congress in 1878. The historical core of the country consisted of Wallachia and Moldavia, which in 1859 united under the rule of the ruler. The country also included northern Bessarabia and Northern Dobruja, while southern Bessarabia was transferred to Russia by the Berlin Congress, and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. As a result of the Balkan Wars, on the eve of the First World War, Romania received Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria. The First World War, which led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, as well as the Russian and Ottoman empires, allowed Romania to annex additional territories: the southern part of Bessarabia from Russia, Bukovina from Austria; Transylvania, Krishanu-Maramures and part of the Banat from Hungary (the rest of the Banat went to Yugoslavia). The vicissitudes of the Second World War and post-war agreements led to the fact that the southern part of Dobruja was returned to Bulgaria, and Northern Bukovina and all of Bessarabia went to the Soviet Union.
Early history. The history of the Romanian people begins in the second century AD, when the legions of the Roman emperor Trajan settled down in the territory where the Thracian tribes of the Dacians lived. The formation of the Romanian people took place through the merging of the Romans and the local population in a territory that almost coincides with the territory of present-day Romania. However, this merger was not completed, since at the end of the third century, in view of the impending threat of the invasion of the barbarians, the Roman legions were withdrawn back. Few Roman socio-cultural institutions have survived, although Christianity, introduced by the Romans, began to embrace more and more people in the second century AD. The departure of the Romans left the Romanians, a partially Christianized Daco-Roman people, face to face with the invasion of the barbarians.
The next millennium is the darkest page in Romanian history. In the 6th c. settled in what is now Romania Slavic tribes. In the 7th and 8th centuries. Bulgarians migrated here, who settled south of the Danube. At the end of the 9th c. many parts of what is now Romania were taken over by the Hungarians. During the second half of the 13th c. they established their suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, which became semi-autonomous provinces. Some historians claim that during these invasions, the indigenous Daco-Roman population was completely destroyed. Others believe that part of the Daco-Romans survived and are the ancestors of modern Romanians.
Turkish dominance. The next period of Romanian history began with the creation of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. respectively. The society of that time had characteristic feudal features: the prince was surrounded by courtiers and nobles who owned the land; distribution of small parts of the boyar estates to the military petty nobles was carried out; serfdom developed rapidly.
From 1415 until the creation of the Phanariot regime in 1711, Wallachia and Moldavia were ruled by law by local princes, but in fact by Turks and boyars. The boyars wove intrigues with the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) in order to keep the Wallachian and Moldavian thrones for members of their families. Whenever, however, an outstanding military or political leader appeared, such as Mihai the Brave in Wallachia (1593-1601) or Peter Rares in Moldavia (1527-1546), the conflicting parties temporarily reconciled and acted together against the Turks, supporting the ruler. But at the same time, the boyars were also responsible for most of the political chaos that manifested itself in the change of 112 princes in Moldavia and Wallachia in the 16th and 17th centuries.
At the very beginning of the 18th century. Greek merchants from Constantinople, who were called Phanariots, replaced the princes and boyars and began to rule the principalities, establishing control over all economic resources. Princely posts were auctioned off in Constantinople to the highest bidders, usually Phanariotes. The reign of the Phanariotes is regarded by most historians as the most disastrous period in the history of the country. Probably the most characteristic of this period of 1711-1821 was the extremely large turnover of Phanariot princes - in both principalities, the posts of princes were occupied by about a hundred rulers.
The conquest of national independence. The next important stage in Romanian history began in 1821, when the Romanian princes again returned to the Moldavian and Wallachian thrones, and ended in 1878 with the achievement of state independence. Russian interests in the Romanian principalities were revealed even under Peter the Great, the first tsar, who tried to establish active contacts with the Romanian princes against the Turks at the beginning of the 18th century. Towards the end of this century, Russian influence increased even more after Catherine the Great formulated the doctrine that Russia was the main protector of Orthodox Christians living in the territory of the Ottoman Empire, and was especially interested in protecting the Romanian principalities. Supported by anti-Greek members of the Romanian nobility, she viewed the Romanian principalities as a natural sphere of Russian influence.
Russia became the first defender of the national, anti-Fanariot revolution, which culminated in the restoration of the power of the Romanian princes in 1821. This revolution was led by Tudor Vladimirescu, an officer in the Russian army, a Romanian by nationality. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1826–1828, Russia received a protectorate over the Romanian principalities under the Treaty of Andrianopol (1829). The ensuing Russian occupation (1828–1834) had serious consequences. During the reign of the talented and enlightened Count Pavel Kiselev, the foundations of the new Romanian state were laid. The first constitutional meetings, called sofas, became the beginnings of future ministries. Was created education system, road construction began. Moderate industrialization and the creation of a fairly active system of foreign trade in grain, timber and honey led to the growth of a small middle class and ensured the continued dominance of the boyars. In 1848–1849, Russian troops suppressed nationalist uprisings in the principalities and the revolutionary spirit that had developed here under the previous Russian occupation, thanks in part to Kiselyov's liberalism.
revolutionary movement in Romania was mainly a product of French liberal ideas adopted by young boyars who returned to the country after studying in France. Despite the unsuccessful outcome of the revolutions and the opposition of the Russian occupation authorities, who remained here until the Crimean War (1853-1856), the desire for independence dominated among young intellectuals and politicians. Their efforts, as well as the participation of Russia and France at the end of the Crimean War, finally led to the creation in 1859 of the autonomous United Principalities, or Romania.
Prince Alexandru Ion Cuza, leader of the boyars, was elected in 1859 as the first ruler of the joint administration of both provinces. The path to independence lay through internal reforms, primarily the agrarian reform and the emancipation of the serfs in 1864. The boyars overthrew Cuza even before he had time to implement his program, and in 1866 elected the prince of Romania, the German prince Karl Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was crowned in 1881. Romania gained its final freedom from the Turks in 1878, when at the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), European countries recognized Romania's unilateral declaration of independence of May 10, 1877.
Independence and territorial expansion. Some important steps were taken between 1878 and 1918, during the reign of Carol I (1866-1914). Mainly thanks to the efforts of Karol, Romania has embarked on a path of rapid economic development: the most important industries were created, built railways, modern economic institutions have been created, mainly on the basis of German capital. During his reign, the first constitution was adopted (1866), political parties and state institutions were created, including a bicameral parliament.
During this period, the first signs of the imperialist ambitions of Romania appeared. After the Berlin Congress of 1878, King Carol I, with the support of the conservatives, maintained a pro-German and pro-Austrian orientation, and in 1883 Romania became a member of the Triple Alliance. Its territorial claims became apparent during the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, after which Romania acquired part of Dobruja.
After the Balkan Wars, a split emerged between the pro-German policy of the monarchy and the pro-French nationalist sentiments of the majority of the population. The cabinet forced the aging king to keep Romania neutral at the start of World War I. Karol died in 1914, and his nephew ascended the throne under the name of King Ferdinand I. In 1916, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente. This move paid off at the end of the war: the old kingdom was greatly expanded through the acquisition of Transylvania, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Banat.
Romania's difficulties in the interwar period were due to the heterogeneous nature of its population. The acquisition of minorities such as Jews and Hungarians led to the rise of Calvinism and the growth of traditional Romanian anti-Semitism, which was reflected in the creation of the fascist Iron Guard party.
However, the annexation of the provinces had its positive aspects. In the 1920s, the institution of parliamentarism strengthened, and the number and activity of political parties increased. New industries emerged and trade expanded. However, economic progress was interrupted by an agrarian crisis that began in the late 1920s and reached its peak in the 1930s. The agrarian crisis was caused by the unsuccessful agrarian reform of 1917, which deprived many peasants of their land, and the low competitiveness of Romanian grain on the world market.
Ferdinand's son, crowned Prince Karol, was deprived of the right to the throne and left the country in 1925. A year before Ferdinand's death, in 1926, a regency was created to rule the country on behalf of Karol's infant son, Mihai, until he came of age. Karol returned to the country in 1930, received the throne and was crowned as King Carol II with the support of Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu, leader of the National Tsaranist (People's Peasant) Party, who achieved agreement between all major political parties.
Fearing the capture of Transylvania by Hungary, which was supported by Germany, Carol II signed a trade agreement with Germany, which gave the latter many advantages and the possibility of significant influence on Romania. The elections of December 1937 showed the political rise of the Iron Guard; the moderate National Liberal Party was defeated. The fascist nature of the government of a coalition of far-right parties led by Octavian Gog, leader of the ultra-nationalist and anti-Semitic National Christian Party, forced the king to decide to remove the prime minister, dissolve parliament and declare a royal dictatorship in April 1938. Karol also tried to ban the Iron Guard and maintain neutrality regarding to the Soviet Union and Germany.
After the conclusion of the Soviet-German alliance in 1939, Romania lost Bessarabia and Bukovina, transferring them to the Soviet Union after the Soviet ultimatum in June 1940. In August 1940, almost half of Transylvania was transferred to Hungary, and in September 1940 southern Dobruja was transferred to Bulgaria. The loss of these territories forced Karol to abdicate in favor of his son Mihai in September 1940. General Ion Antonescu formed a new cabinet, proclaimed himself the leader of the Romanians and became an ally of Germany.
In August 1944, after the entry of Soviet troops into the country, King Mihai announced the withdrawal of Romania from the war on the side of Germany and its accession to the Allies. Nevertheless, Romania was occupied by the Soviet Union, and in 1947 a communist dictatorship was established here.
The governments of Generals Constantine Sanatescu and Nicolae Radescu, who were replaced in August 1944 - March 1945, were unable to resist the subversive activities of the communists and opened the way for the government of Petr Groza, created at the behest of Moscow in March 1945. In December 1947, King Mihai was forced to abdicate, and was proclaimed Romanian People's Republic.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Romania was a satellite of the Soviet Union. Decisions were made in Moscow and implemented in Bucharest by the Communist Party, led by the Romanian Stalinists. The social and economic order were rebuilt according to Soviet designs. In 1949, the collectivization of agriculture began, and economic planning was introduced. The foreign policy of Romania was also regulated by the Soviet Union. In 1952, the first secretary of the Communist Party, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, became Prime Minister of Romania.
The death of Stalin in 1953, the coming to power of N.S. Khrushchev and the easing of tension in relations between the Soviet Union and the West seriously influenced further events. Khrushchev's determination to remove the Stalinists from power in the satellite countries of Eastern Europe forced Georgiou-Deja to seek protection from the Romanian nationalists. In the 1950s, Romania declared its right to "its own road to socialism". Economic and political efforts in this direction allowed Georgiou-Dejo in 1964 to officially declare the country's independence from the Soviet Union on all matters relating to its sovereignty. his successor, general secretary party of Nicolae Ceausescu, confirmed the course for independence. Romania used the Sino-Soviet conflict that began in 1961 to declare its neutrality in cases of conflict between communist countries. It did not join other Warsaw Pact countries during the occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
Ceausescu regime. Economic growth continued throughout the 1970s. However, food shortages emerged in the early 1980s, followed by power outages as a result of oil depletion.
Ceausescu's "personality cult" that arose in the 1970s reached its peak after his 65th birthday in 1983, when he began to be called the "genius of the Carpathians" and so on. The political opposition united against the plan he announced in 1988 to demolish 7,000 villages and relocate their inhabitants to 550 "agro-industrial centers" consisting of residential neighborhoods and factories.
In March 1989, six oppositionists sent an open letter to Ceausescu, accusing him of human rights violations, violating the constitution, and destroying the economy. The President replied that Gorbachev-style perestroika was not needed and continued to press his plan of "systematization."
In December 1989, an uprising broke out in the city of Timisoara to protest the deportation of a Hungarian pastor, which ended in the death of hundreds of people when Ceausescu ordered the army to fire on the crowd. The next day, protests began in most cities, and five days later, on December 22, 1989, the Ceausescu couple were forced to flee by helicopter from the headquarters of the RCP. Soon they were captured and, after a quick trial, they were executed (December 25). Power was immediately transferred to the six authors of an open letter in March 1989 and other ex-communists who united in the National Salvation Front (FNS). In May 1990, the Federal Tax Service successfully won the elections, a government was created under the leadership of Petre Roman. Ion Iliescu won the presidential election. In June 1990, thousands of miners marched on Bucharest, probably instigated by agents of the secret police "Securitate", beating demonstrators and passers-by, they smashed the offices of opposition parties and newspapers. After that, the government banned the continuation of the protests and took measures to liberalize the economy.
The beginning of 1998 in Romania was marked by an internal political crisis, the source of which was the desire of the Democratic Party to once again play the role of "kingmaker" in the hope that its leader, Petru Roman, would succeed in taking the post of prime minister. Despite the political maneuverings of Prime Minister Viktor Ciorba, who was oriented towards the continuation of the course of reforms, he had to give up his post in early April to Radu Vasile, also a representative of the NCDC, who did not abandon any of the points of his predecessor's program; he gave a number of key ministerial posts to representatives of the DP. The new prime minister - a man of pragmatic orientation and common sense - advocated a more balanced relationship between Romania and the countries of not only Western, but also Central Europe. However, such replacements did not accelerate the course of reforms, and the standard of living of the population did not increase; in fact, in the 10 years since the abolition of communist rule, the country has not advanced along the path of economic development.
Dealing with worsening economic hardships (gross national product decreased by 6.6% in 1997 compared to 1996, and by 5.2% in 1998 compared to 1997; unemployment increased, life expectancy decreased), complex negotiations with the IMF (country exceeded its foreign exchange reserves, and recommendations to increase tax collection turned out to be unrealistic), a line to strengthen the ruling coalition, even despite the withdrawal of the Hungarian national parties from it (this ethnic minority in the amount of 1.7 million people demanded the opening of their university in Cluj; the activities of the Szeklers intensified - Magyarized descendants of the Turkic people, who number 700,000 people), increased activity nationalist-oriented forces (which was also expressed in the struggle to open the archives of the Securitate - internal security forces - for reprisals with the help of lustration against political opponents, primarily representatives of the PSDR, as well as in support of manifestations of extremism), - all this contributed to the activation of the miners' movement, not supported by other social forces. Ex-communists and nationalists were unable to strengthen their positions; since the former were held responsible for curbing the pace of the country's economic development and striving to preserve the remnants of totalitarianism, the popularity of the latter increased dramatically.
In January and February 1999, the fifth and sixth "miners' trips" to Bucharest took place under the leadership of Miron Cosma, who claims to be the Romanian Lech Walesa; the first was successful for them and the government made concessions, the second ended with an effective blocking of the strikers internal troops. In June 1998, Kosma was sentenced to an 18-month prison term, and by a February 1999 sentence, to an 18-year one (however, he was never arrested). Thus, the protocol signed in January 1999 by the mining leaders and Prime Minister Radu Vasile at the Cozia Monastery was in jeopardy.
Known in the grotto of Stynka Ripiceni (on the right bank of the Prut), the lower layers of which belong to the Aurignacian and Solutrean times.
Already in the Eneolithic era (c. 4000 BC), the first Indo-Europeans (Cernavoda Culture), who were familiar with horse breeding, penetrated the territory of Romania from the east.
At the end of the Bronze - Early Iron Age (4th century BC), the Hallstatt culture spread here, dominated by the Celts, and with which the beginning of the formation of the Thracian community is associated. In the later La Tène culture, the Thracians played the role of a cultural component equal in rights with the Celts.
ancient era
A new unification and strengthening of Dacia occurred during the reign of Decebalus (- AD). Decebalus tried to organize a strong kingdom with a capital in Sarmizegetus and waged three wars with Rome (-, -, - AD). The first, with the emperor Domitian, proved to be relatively successful, the second ended with the defeat of the Dacians by the emperor Trajan, and the third, also with Trajan, with the complete conquest of Dacia by the Romans, the capture of Sarmizegetusa and the suicide of Decebalus. On the territory of Dacia, the Roman province "Dacia" was organized. The center of the latter was the city of Ulpia Trayana, which under Adrian also received the name of Sarmizegetus, but was built 50 km from the old center. Napoca (now Cluj) stood out from other cities of Roman Dacia. Dacia remained a Roman province until 271, when the emperor Aurelian, unable to defend it from the onslaught of the Goths and Sarmatians, left it, evacuating the population of cities across the Danube. Middle AgesSlavs lived on the territory of modern Romania in the Middle Ages, whose principality in the future Ugrovlachia is mentioned in the sources in the 6th century; Proto-Bulgarians, Avars, Kutrigurs also penetrated here. The Ipoteshti-Kyndesht culture of the early Slavs (V-VII centuries) was formed by the Ants - carriers of the Penkov culture, together with the local Romanized population and the Slavs of the Prague-Korchak group that seeped into the region of the lower Danube. In the 9th century, part of this territory became part of the Slavic state of Great Moravia, then the Hungarians and Pechenegs settled. In the 10th century, part of the territory of ancient Dacia fell under the rule of the Old Russian state, then the Polovtsians, the Principality of Galicia; Mongol-Tatars and Vlachs in the XIII century. The events of 1600 are reported differently by Moldavian sources. The Moldavian chronicler Miron Kostin noted that the detachments of the Muntean governor Mihai captured the capital of the Moldavian principality Suceava for several days, then laid siege to Khotyn, where the Moldavian governor Yeremia-voda fortified, but soon retreated, as the Polish regiments headed by the hetman Konetspolsky and Chancellor Zamoyski. Soon, the Moldavian-Polish troops ousted the detachments of Mihai from Moldavia, who was killed in the same year. In 1699, 1718 and 1739 different parts of what is now Romania, such as Wallachian Oltenia in 1718, were divided between Austria and the Ottoman Empire. In 1775, Bukovina (the northern part of the Moldavian principality) was annexed to Austria, and in 1812 the lands between the Prut and the Dniester became part of the Russian Empire. A significant part of the medieval history of Romania is set forth in the writings of Constantin Kapitanul (Filipescu), a Romanian chronicler of the 17th century. Unification of the Danubian PrincipalitiesAs in many European countries, a national liberation movement unfolded in the Danubian principalities in the 19th century, with the goal of uniting the Romanian principalities and creating a strong independent national state. The revolution of 1848 also captured the Danubian Principalities, but was crushed there by a joint Turkish-Russian intervention. On February 5, 1859, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who had been elected to the throne of Moldavia a few weeks before, was elected Prince of Wallachia. In 1861, it was officially recognized by the Ottoman Porte, which had previously strongly opposed the unification of the principalities. As a result, the creation under Ottoman sovereignty of the United Principality of Wallachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, which Cuza led with the title of Domnitor. The new ruler decided to carry out agrarian reforms. They did not suit the boyars, as they provided for the reduction of their land holdings. In 1864, Cuza carried out a coup d'etat, expelling the boyars dissatisfied with his rule from the National Assembly, and taking full power into his own hands. The boyar opposition responded by forming the Monstrous Coalition, which in turn organized a palace coup. On the night of February 11, 1866, a group of officers broke into Cuza's bedroom, which forced the ruler to abdicate and leave the country. Carol I of the German dynasty of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was elected as the new Domnitor. Independence and formation of the Kingdom of RomaniaIn the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78. Romania actually fought on the side of Russia. On May 9 (21), 1877, the parliament proclaimed the complete independence of Romania. According to the decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Romania received international recognition as an independent state. Under the same treaty, Russia again occupied the southern regions of Bessarabia, however, in return, Romania received Northern Dobruja with Constance, which still belonged to Turkey. In 1881 Romania was proclaimed a kingdom. Kingdom of RomaniaRomania in World War IThe beginning of the war found Romania in a very difficult position. Caught between the warring parties, she had little chance of maintaining neutrality. True, by that time it had not yet been finally decided which side to take. Both the Entente and the Central Powers promised Romania, if they entered the war on their side, to transfer to it enemy territories inhabited by ethnic Romanians, and the country fully understood the need to participate in the war to unite the nation. But, given the very weak equipment of the Romanian army in relation to the great powers, the government decided to remain neutral for the first time. Until 1916, the breathing space granted was used to secure economic, military and diplomatic conditions for the outbreak of hostilities. By this time, due to the entry into the war of Bulgaria and Turkey, Romania was completely surrounded by the warring countries, which made it very difficult for foreign trade, including the import of weapons and ammunition. As a result, by the middle of the year, the government finally decided to enter the war on the side of the Entente, whose members recognized the rights of Romania to the territories of Austria-Hungary inhabited by Romanians, although Russia's position on this matter for military and political reasons did not inspire optimism. Rapprochement with the Third ReichInvolvement in World War IIBuilding socialismThe value of property exported by Romania from the USSR during the occupation of Soviet territories amounted to 950 billion lei. A third of this amount, after the entry of the Red Army into Romania, was decided to be considered paid in the form of requisitions and in other forms. Of the remaining 600 billion lei, half was “forgiven”, and Romania was charged with paying reparations for 300 billion lei.
Ceausescu uncontrollably took loans from Western countries, which quickly brought the Romanian economy to the brink of collapse. In an attempt to rectify the situation in the country, a referendum was held on a legislative ban on attracting foreign loans, and since 1980, the payment of debts on loans has become the main priority of the Romanian economy. As a result, by 1989 - in fact, a few months before the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime - Romania managed to pay off almost all Western creditors. By this time, Romania, according to some estimates, became perhaps the poorest country in the Eastern Bloc. RevolutionOn December 16, 1989, unrest began in Timisoara, troops were brought into the city. The next day, the unrest spread to Bucharest, where the authorities tried to arrange a rally in their support. Ceausescu fled the city in a helicopter, but was later caught in the city |
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