Parsons subsystems of society. The general theory of social action of Comrade Parsons
In each system, Parsons identifies four main functions: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, preservation of the existing order (latent function). Thus, the system must adapt to the environment, achieve the goal, have internal unity and be able to maintain this state, reproduce the structure and relieve tension in the system.
Thanks to the allocation of these four functions, it turned out to be possible to analyze systems of any level in terms of functional subsystems. Yes, actually high level the so-called system of human action stands out - a self-organizing system, the specificity of which, in contrast to the system of physical or biological action, is expressed in the presence, firstly, of symbolism (language, values, etc.), and, secondly, of normativity, and and, finally, in irrationality and independence from environmental conditions. In this system of human action, Parsons distinguishes four subsystems: the organism - a subsystem that provides the function of adaptation and gives the system physical and energy resources for interacting with the environment; a person who provides goal achievement; a social system that is responsible for integrating the actions of many individuals; a cultural system (essentially, by this term one should mean an ethnic system), which contains values, beliefs, knowledge, etc.
At the level of the social system, Parsons, in turn, also identifies four subsystems, each of which performs one of the four main functions: economic, designed to ensure the adaptation of the system to the environment, political, the purpose of which is to achieve the goal, the societal community (a single team that obeys a certain accepted normative order), which ensures internal unity, and a system for maintaining institutional cultural (ethnic) patterns (that is, not all culture belongs to the social system), which is responsible for legitimizing the normative order and maintaining a state of unity.
Thus, each subsystem specializes in performing a certain function, and the results of its activities can be used by another, wider system - according to the principle of a nesting doll. Moreover, each subsystem depends on other subsystems; they share the results of their activities.
What then is a society according to Parsons? Society is "a type of social system (among the entire universe of social systems) which, as a system, achieves the highest level of self-sufficiency in relation to the environment." Parsons explains self-sufficiency as a function of a balanced combination of control mechanisms over society's relations with the environment and the degree of its internal integration. It consists in the ability of society to institutionalize some elements of culture that are set from the outside - by the system of culture; grant a wide range of roles to individuals, as well as control the economic complex and territory.
Structural functionalism, considering society, emphasizes that any system strives for balance, since it is inherent in the agreement of elements; it always acts on deviations in such a way as to correct them and return to an equilibrium state. Any dysfunctions are overcome by the system, and each element contributes something to maintaining its stability.
The system method in the analysis of society allows you to study society in the form of a stable social structure, in which a person is guided by a rigidly set pattern of behavior that is established by the team. And in this regard, the structural-functional direction of sociology is probably one of the most significant. It is closely related to mathematical modeling and allows you to identify many patterns in the social system. The only thing that causes criticism from other directions is the exclusion from consideration individual person having his own choice and personal position. A person really turns into an average run-in pebble, he is just a part of the system. That's why systems approach and mathematical modeling is sometimes supplemented in sociology with conclusions made by other directions (interactionism, phenomenology, existential direction).
A similar approach, in which functions are divorced from the structure and properties of objects, is characteristic of the entire functionalist movement. Nicholas Luhmann, who also used a systematic approach, went even further than Parsons. According to his theory, systems are no longer formed by actions, but by communication, and, as a result of this approach, a person has even lost the right to unity. "A person can be considered ... a unity, but only for himself or for an observer, but he is not a system as such." Society was even more unlucky: "People are not part of society (system), they are only part of it environment, hence society ceases to be any kind of organized action, interaction, etc. ". According to the researcher of Luman's work, the Bulgarian scientist Tsatsov: "The absolutization of function in relation to structure ... is the radicalization of functionalism."
Obviously, with this approach, Luhmann needed not only a new definition scientific theory, but also new language, which gives very interesting linguistic impressions and creates an image of an infinitely complex "not for the average mind" theory. At the same time, it is useful to recall the well-known aphorism: "He who thinks clearly - he clearly states."
In contrast to Luhmann's representations, Parsons' theory retains more links to classical systems theory. His general system action consists of a personal system, a behavioral system, a cultural system and a social system (Fig. 1.).
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T. Parsons in his book "The System of Modern Societies" considers historical processes that led to modern society: "pre-modern foundations of modern society", "early Christianity", "the institutional legacy of Rome", " medieval society"," differentiation of the European system ", etc., religion, politics, revolutions (industrial and democratic), etc., etc. It would be logical to assume that Parsons will explain the causes of social changes using his system of actions, but it only uses historical knowledge and sometimes some of its own terms, such as "societal society".
For example, this is how he describes the democratic revolution: “The democratic revolution was part of the process of differentiation of the political subsystem and societal society. Like any process of differentiation, it gave rise to integration problems and, where successful, new integration mechanisms. In European societies, the central point of these problems was the presence in a societal society of a certain degree of popular support for the state and government. And further about the contradictions of monarchies, about the high level of national self-consciousness, about the slogans of the revolution, equality, the aristocracy in England, etc. etc., but nowhere is there an explanation of the causes of differentiation or ways to solve integration problems or any processes in general from the point of view of the system of action. Moreover, in the entire historical retrospective he has developed, the phrase "system of action" is not mentioned even once (!), just like "social action". From which it is difficult not to conclude that Parsons' "system of action" is incapable of explaining the dynamics of social processes.
However, not only did general systems theory change beyond recognition in the work of some sociologists, the same fate befell the theory of evolution. Really, modern biology has a universal theory of evolution that can explain the evolution of all organic life on Earth. And since man as a species is a product of organic evolution, it is possible that the key mechanisms of social evolution are in his biological nature and are subject to general evolutionary laws.
Talcott Parsons (1902 - 1979) is a famous American sociologist who founded structural functionalism and social systems theory.
The study of social systems by T. Parsons is based on the general theory of social action. The main ideas related to the theory of social action are described in his works "The Structure of Social Action" (1937), "Toward a General Theory of Action" (1951) and "Workbooks on the Theory of Action" (1953).
When developing the theory of social action, T. Parsons relied on the works of such scientists as Marshall, Max Weber, V. Pareto and E. Durkheim. A feature of this theory is that the unit of study is taken not by society as a whole, not by a person, not by culture, but by a separate human action. Social action is something limited by time and space, it is a point that is the center at which the interactions of such large areas as "Personality", "Society" and "Culture" intersect. In the "Personality" there are not only needs, interests that determine each action, but also a host of other characteristics: values, attitudes, personality traits - its advantages and disadvantages - a way of thinking, a sphere of knowledge and everything that can influence the action indirectly. In the field of "Society" are relationships with other people that matter for this action, as well as many different relationships of a person with other people. Taken together, they indirectly affect every action taken in a particular society. The sphere of "Culture" includes standards and values that determine how an action should be performed, as well as how other actions should be performed, how relations between members should be built. this society and even what qualities and properties of a person are considered adequate in a particular society. This design of three spheres is immersed in the external environment, which includes natural conditions, other societies, physical nature personalities and more. And all these areas interact with each other.
Tasks pursued by the general theory of action of T. Parsons:
1. Determining the features of the structure of social action;
2. Development of action variables related to the value orientations of the subjects of action;
3. Finding the requirements for the system of action from the side external environment and from the internal needs of the development of the system itself;
4. Establishment of mechanisms of interchange between the main subsystems of action;
5. Application of the theory of action to the consideration of social evolution.
The structure of an elementary action, according to T. Parsons, includes the following elements:
1) actor or "actor" - an individual or group;
2) the goal pursued by the actor;
3) a situation that implies conditions and means of action;
4) the values and norms that guide the actor (in other words, the normative orientation of the action).
In the later works of T. Parsons, the action is revealed not through the conditions and means, but through the objects that make it up. These objects are divided into social and non-social. The first, that is, social objects, are other actors (individuals or groups). The second, that is, non-social objects, are cultural and physical phenomena, which do not interact with the actor.
T. Parsons called his theory of action voluntaristic, that is, one where in choosing a strategy of behavior important role plays the factor of free will. This factor is associated with the problem of motivation. T. Parsons' motivation focuses on improving the balance between satisfaction and dissatisfaction actor. Cognitive (cognitive) motivation is aimed at meeting the needs for knowledge, and emotional (cathectic) is manifested in a positive or negative attitude towards another person. Motivational mechanisms aim to accommodate actions individual people to the existing social order. They link the relationship between man and society.
In the course of studying the structure of action, T. Parsons concludes that elementary actions cannot be perceived outside the social and cultural context. The concept of social action dominates here. Social action, according to T. Parsons, is a system of interaction that includes many actors who have a certain status and perform roles defined by norms. This is understood as one of the main systems of human action - the social system.
In addition to the social system, T. Parsons distinguishes the personality system, the culture system and the biological system, which was discussed above. The personal system is the adoption by a person of personal goals and decisions. The cultural system indicates general norms and values and exercises control over their implementation. The biological (or behavioral) system determines human behavior on the part of natural factors (environmental properties, heredity). These systems of action, according to T. Parsons, are open. To sustain their existence, they must satisfy four necessary conditions or prerequisites: adaptation, goal setting, integration and latency. Thus, each system at a lower level is represented by four subsystems created to continue the normal functioning of these systems:
1. Adaptation - each system must adapt to its environment;
2. Goal-setting - each system must have the means to achieve goals and use the resources of the system in the process of achieving these goals;
3. Integration - each system must maintain its unity, suppressing any deviations;
4. Latency - each system should strive to maintain internal order.
Relations between systems and subsystems within them are considered by T. Parsons in the form of an exchange of information, that is, as a certain amount of symbols, causing change in the receiving system and the system transmitting this information. Thanks to the exchange of information, on the one hand, the mutual penetration of one system into another is supported, and on the other hand, the system's own independence is affirmed.
Each of the main systems is controlled by one of the four subsystems, which has the largest information potential and consumes the least amount of energy. In other words, each of the systems has an energy potential, which depends on the subsystem that has a greater impact on it with less energy. The energy potential determines what place it will occupy among other systems and what effect it will have on other subsystems. Among the systems of action, the system of a biological organism has the greatest energy potential. It creates conditions for the course of action and, at the same time, has the least control effect on it. The system with the lowest energy potential - the cultural one, on the contrary, has a higher controlling effect.
Action, according to T. Parsons, has a consciously rational, purposeful, selective character. It is influenced by four relatively independent systems of action, each of which performs a specific function. However, with this approach, the field of choice is too wide. T. Parsons tries to overcome this uncertainty of choice by introducing several coordinate axes that define the multidimensional space of choice of the actor. Each axis is represented by extreme values that form pairs of variables, and in reality, according to T. Parsons, we can only talk about the degree of deviation of the choice in one direction or another. The following are the extreme values of the coordinate axis of T. Parsons:
1. Universalism -- particularism. The object is considered either as something unique, or in terms of common norms and values. This alternative pair characterizes the criteria used when making a decision in a particular situation, showing which standards are used - subjective (one person) or agreed (several people, groups, societies).
2. Emotionality - emotional neutrality. The degree of emotional coloring of the interaction, the number, intensity of feelings shown by the actor ("actor") in a certain situation.
3. Achievement - attribution. Evaluation of an object as such, or in terms of its potential use. This pair describes another set of criteria for making a specific decision: from evaluating a person based on his natural properties - race, gender, age, etc. - to evaluating him in terms of the quality of his role performance. It shows whether the "actor" builds his relations with other persons on the basis of their achievements, or on the basis of qualities attributed to them, not related to the roles they play.
4. Diffuseness - specificity. These criteria explain the versatility and one-sidedness of interaction with the object; an indicator of the degree of involvement in a particular interaction, which determines the level of duties of the actor ("actor"): from narrow - specific, to broad (vague) - diffuse.
The theory of social action by T. Parsons has a number of controversial issues. Among them, three fundamental points can be distinguished: the analogy with the organism taken to an extreme, the identification of human activity and the behavior of the system, as well as interpretative formulations of the main provisions.
Alvin Gouldner believed that system integration can include many shades - from perfect dependence to the relative freedom of parts relative to each other. All these authors, unlike T. Parsons, consider the functioning and development of individual elements of the system to a greater extent than the system as such. Pointing out that Parsons' grandiose concept did little to comprehend empiricism, Merton considered it premature to attempt such comprehensive constructions. Therefore, he argued that functionalism should become a method of constructing concepts based on approximation to specific facts, created by generalizing empirical positions and containing concepts that can describe and interpret reality through operational definitions. Only after the creation of such theories will it be possible to synthesize them into a system similar to the Parsonian one, using the functional method as a means of bringing them closer together. Thus, if the strategy of T. Parsons consisted in a gradual transition from the most abstract concepts to a fixed reality, then R. Merton offers the opposite path - from reality to general concepts. The strategy of T. Parsons is deduction, knowledge of the "single" and "private" on the basis of the "universal"; R. Merton's strategy is induction, bringing to the "universal" from the "single" and concrete.
Another “application point” of criticism was the provision implicitly introduced by T. Parsons on the similarity of the process of an individual’s activity and the behavior of a social system, leading, according to researchers, to “logically unfair teleology” - attributing the goal-setting function to systems in describing the course of social processes and their interpretations.
The illegality of such an "attribution" is expressed in the fact that the explanation of the existence of something by the function that it performs makes the idea of causality meaningless, since the function is not feasible until this something becomes existing. Therefore, it appears to perform a function. And if the function is the cause of existence, then the effect, existence, must precede the cause, the function; as a result, the causal relationship is reversed.
The problems of functional interpretation were perhaps most clearly revealed by C. R. Mills, who showed that by choosing individual passages of Parson's works and translating them into “ordinary” language, adding clarity, we do not lose a single valuable idea, but, on the contrary, gain A New Look on things. He believes that "it would be possible to turn the 555 pages of The Social System into about 150 pages of simple English text. It would not lead to significant changes." The reason for the judgment was great importance, which T. Parsons attached to the level and purity of abstract theorizing. It is only necessary to translate all concepts into a single terminological language, divide them into levels, and then bring them into a logically consistent system.
Conclusion: T. Parsons' theory of social action is based on a systematic approach that divides human action into four systems: biological, social, cultural and personal. These systems perform four functions: adaptation, goal setting, latency, and integration. Social action has a number of extreme meanings, which contain a multidimensional space of choice of the actor.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons Talcott (1902–1979). Prominent American sociologist-theorist, student P.A. Sorokin, creator of the theory of social action and the system-functional direction in modern sociology. Parsons put forward the task of constructing a general sociological theory and made a serious attempt to solve it. He paid attention to the problem of stability and survival of society as a social system. His main works are The Structure of Social Action (1937), The Social System (1951), Towards a General Theory of Action (1952), The Social System and the Evolution of Action Theory (1977), The Theory of Action and the Conditions of Human Existence ” (1978) and others.
A. Akmalova, V. M. Kapitsyn, A. V. Mironov, V. K. Mokshin. Dictionary-reference book on sociology. Educational edition. 2011.
Parsons Talcott (1902-1979), American sociologist, head of the functional school. The name of Parsons is associated with the search for a "general theory" in modern Western sociology. The role of such a theory of social action is claimed by the theory set forth by him in the essay “The Structure of Social Action” (1937), “Essays on Pure and Applied Sociological Theory” (1949), “The Social System” (1952) and others. Using the method of structural-functional analysis, Parsons constructs a model of a social system, the initial cell of which is the act of interaction between individuals. The mechanism by which consistency is established in their actions and the fulfillment of the roles assigned to them by society is, from the point of view of Parsons, the assimilation of generally accepted norms, standards of behavior, turning them into internal motives of activity. The main factors that determine people's behavior (and, consequently, the nature of the social whole) are ideal factors (primarily the normative-value structure of social consciousness). Considering equilibrium as the most important sign of the normal state of the social system, Parsons pays great attention to the processes of regulation, means social control behind this state (activities of political and legal bodies, reactions to the actions of people from others, etc.), designed to protect society from unwanted conflicts, abrupt changes, etc. In the works “Structure and progress in modern society” (1959), Evolutionary Universals in Society (1964), Societies. Historical and Comparative Aspects (1966) Parsons tries to use some of the ideas of evolutionism, to include an analysis of their changes in the description of social systems. At the same time, he meant by changes mainly the internal differentiation of the system, which enhances its adaptive ability (fitness), and not its transformation into a fundamentally different system.
Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991, p. 333.
Parsons Talcott (1902 - 1979) - American sociologist, founder of the school structural functionalism and action theory. Since 1927 - teacher of economics, since 1931 - teacher, then head. department social relations Faculty of Sociology, created by P.A. Sorokin, at Harvard University. Proceedings: "The Structure of Social Action" (1937), "An Essay on Sociological Theory" (1949), "The Social System" (1951), "Structure and Process in Modern Society" (1960), "Theory of Sociology and modern society"(1967), "Politics and Social Structure" (1969), "The System of Modern Societies" (1971), etc. He was engaged in the creation of a general sociological theory, which was supposed to systematically combine the empirical and theoretical material of the entire complex of social sciences. Developed structural-functional analysis - one of the main methods of political research. According to Parsons, society is a relatively stable, well-integrated and stable structure; each element of society (subsystem) performs its function. He formulated four main functional requirements for a social system that ensure its survival: adaptation, goal achievement, integration and maintenance of the model. The adaptation function is provided by the economic subsystem; goal achievement function - political subsystem; function integration– legal institutions and customs; the function of maintaining the model is the belief system, morality and agents of socialization (family, educational institutions, etc.).
Book materials used: political thought Newest time. Personalities, ideas, concepts: A quick guide / Comp. Mikhailova E.M. - Cheboksary: CHKI RUK, 2010, p. 26.
Parsons (Parsons) Talkot (December 13, 1902, Colorado Springs - May 8, 1979, Munich) - American sociologist, head of the school of structural functionalism. Educated at the London School of Economics and Heidelberg University. From 1927 he taught at Harvard University, from 1944 - professor, and from 1946 - head of the department of social relations at Harvard University. When developing his general logical-deductive theoretical system of human reality, he relied on the ideas of E. Durkheim, V. Pareto, M. Weber, as well as the English economist A. Marshall. Parsons saw the specifics of social action in its symbolic nature (as evidenced by the use of such regulatory mechanisms as language, values, etc.), in its normativity (depending on generally accepted norms and values), and finally, in its voluntarism (some irrationality, dependence on subjective view of the situation). The starting points for the theory of social action are the concepts of "actor", "situation", "orientation of the actor to the situation". Considering the motivational structure of social action, Parsons singled out a cognitive (cognitive) orientation, including the ability to distinguish individual objects in the world around them by their properties, place, etc., cathectic orientation, the ability to identify objects that have a positive value for the subject in terms of satisfying him needs, evaluative orientation - the ability to make a further selection of objects in terms of their priority. In addition, to characterize social action, the ability of the subject to set a goal and strive to achieve it, as well as to foresee what changes in the situation can lead to, is important. Introducing the concept of expectation, Parsons indicated the fact that social action is oriented towards the expectations of other partners in the situation and depends on them. Finally, the value orientation, set by culture, regulates the action depending on the objectively existing "external symbols" - values or norms. Thus, Parsons distinguished in social action relatively autonomous spheres of personality with its needs and culture.
Developing the general methodological principles of sociology in the spirit of systemic and functional approaches, Parsons considered the main problem of maintaining social equilibrium (a concept borrowed from Pareto), maintaining social order, a given stable state. Social conflicts, revolutions, and other upheavals are manifestations of the diseased state of society. From the standpoint of functionalism, Parsons considered each social phenomenon in terms of its role in maintaining stability and balance in society and formulated a set of functional problems, the solution of which is necessary to preserve the integrity of the social system. Among them are problems: adapting the system to external objects, achieving goals, integrating society and reproducing the structure and maintaining cultural patterns, as well as relieving stress.
At the level of the social system, the function of adaptation is provided by the economic subsystem, the function of goal achievement is the political one, the function of integration is provided by legal institutions, and the reproduction of the structure is provided by culture (the system of beliefs, morality, the organs of socialization of the individual).
Structural-functional analysis of Parsons was focused on hl.o. on the study of the mechanisms of functioning of society. Turning to the problem at the end of life community development, Parsons considered it in the spirit of evolutionary theory, based on the principle of functional differentiation. The appearance of something qualitatively new in the course of social development was essentially denied.
Theoretical and methodological concepts of Parsons have had a significant impact on modern Western sociology and continue to develop and refine. At the same time, conservatism and the excessive complexity of its concept have become the object of criticism of radical sociologists.
E.V. Osipova
New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010, vol. III, N - S, p. 204-205.
Parsons (Parsons) Talcott (December 13, 1902, Colorado Springs, Colorado - May 8, 1979, Munich), an American theoretical sociologist, one of the main representatives of the structural-functional trend in bourgeois sociology.
Parsons relied on the works of M. Weber, E. Durkheim, A. Marshall, V. Pareto, and also used modern systemic, cybernetic and symbolic-semiotic representations. Parsons defended the need to build a general analytical logical-deductive theory of human action as the basis for solving particular empirical problems. Human action, according to Parsons, is a self-organizing system, the specifics of which, in contrast to systems of physical and biological action, he saw, firstly, in symbolism, i.e., in the presence of such symbolic mechanisms of regulation as language, values, etc. d.; secondly, in normativity, i.e., depending on individual action from generally accepted values and norms; finally, in voluntarism, i.e., in a certain irrationality and independence from the cognizable conditions of the environment and at the same time dependence on subjective "definitions of the situation." Based on this, Parsons built an abstract formalized model of the action system, including cultural, social, personal and organismic subsystems that are in mutual exchange relations. One of the main components of Parsons' concept is the so-called invariant set of functional problems: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, structure reproduction and stress relief, the solution of which is provided by specialized subsystems. So, within the social system, the function of adaptation is provided by the economic subsystem, the function of goal achievement is provided by the political subsystem, the function of integration is provided by legal institutions and customs, the function of reproduction of the structure is provided by the system of beliefs, morality and socialization bodies (including the family and educational institutions).
The system of concepts introduced by Parsons had a significant impact on American sociology, including empirical research. At the same time, his theory is criticized by empirically oriented or radically thinking bourgeois sociologists for its intellectual complexity and conservatism (C. R. Mills). Marxist sociologists criticize Parsons' theory for formalism, non-historicity, idealistic orientation, underestimation of the significance of social conflicts and contradictions, apologetic attitudes, show the inconsistency of the claims of his concept of structural functionalism to the role of a comprehensive sociological and anthropological theory.
Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983.
Compositions: Family. Socialization and interaction process, L., 1956; Toward a general theory of action, Camb., 1959 (with E. A. Shils); The sosial system, Glencoe (111.), 19592; The structure of social action, N. Y., 19612; Economy and society, L., 1964 (with N. Smelser); Social structure and personality, N. Y., 1964; Societies: evolutionary and comparative perspectives, Englewood Cliffs (N. J.), 1966; Sociological theory and modern society, N. Y.-L., 1967; Some problems of general theory in sociology, in: Theoretical sociology, ed. by B. J. Tiryakian, N. Y., 1970; The evolution of societies, Englewood Cliffs (N. A.), 1977; Social system and the evolution oi action theory, N. Y.-L., 1977; in Russian lane, -General Theoretical. problems of sociology, in the book: Sociology today, M., 1965; Information Bulletin Scientific. Council on Problems of Concrete Social Research of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, No. 6, c. 1-2, M., 1968; No. 38, M., 1969; "Introduction" and "Conclusion" ("General Review"), in the book: Amer. sociology, trans. from English, M., 1972.
Literature: Zdravomyslov A.G., The problem of interest in sociology. theory, L., 1964; Criticism of modern bourgeois theoretical sociology, M., 1977; The history of the bourgeois sociology of the first half. 20th century, M., 1979, ch. fourteen; The social theories of Talcott Parsons, ed. by M. Black, N. Y., 1961; Gouldner A. W., The coming crisis of western sociology, N. Y.-L., 1970.
Read further:
Philosophers, lovers of wisdom (biographical index).
Historical Persons of the United States (Biographical Index).
Compositions:
General theoretical problems of sociology. - In the book: Sociology today. M., 1965;
The system of modern societies. M., 1997;
The Structure of Social Action. N.Y., 1937;
The social system. N.Y., 1951;
Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs (N.J.), 1966;
Action Theory and the Human Condition. N.Y., 1978.
Literature:
Zdravomyslov A.G., The problem of interest in sociology. theory, L., 1964;
Criticism of modern bourgeois theoretical sociology, M., 1977;
The history of the bourgeois sociology of the first half. 20th century, M., 1979, ch. fourteen;
The social theories of Talcott Parsons, ed. by M. Black, N. Y., 1961;
Gouldner A. W., The coming crisis of western sociology, N. Y.-L., 1970.
Introduction
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was born in New England to a pastor's family.
At the beginning, he showed interest in biology, but later turned to political economy and sociology. While studying in England, at the London School of Economics, he became acquainted with the cultural-anthropological functionalism of Malinovsky
Of particular importance for the development of Parsons' thinking was the fact that Malinovsky already perceived culture as a system of actions. Functionalism sets itself the task of a comprehensive explanation of biological, physiological and cultural phenomena and their multilateral relationships.
Parsons opposed naturalistic positivism and the influence of Spencer, which meant not abandoning the natural science-oriented method, but rather deepening and justifying it.
T. Parsons was interested in social problems, and not only theoretical concepts, so he dealt with problems: health care, the education system, family, socialization, the problem of power and influence, religion, racial.
In this paper, we will briefly consider the theory that Parsons himself called - "the synthesis of three directions" - the British social anthropology of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown, Durkheim's sociology and Weber's theory of action.
1. Theory of action
General theory actions should serve as the basis for the codification of social
scientific knowledge, a guide for research and a basis for the socialization of the social sciences.
The general theory of action is a conceptual framework, a coherent scheme of concepts, starting from the actions of people. Consider the fundamental concepts of Parsons theory.
Action - purposeful, normatively regulated and motivated behavior in situations, which consists of the surrounding world (objects) and the situation (actors and objects).
organism – biophysical foundations of behavior as activities that are associated with objects outside the body = behavioral organism.
Doer – as Ego – Alter, as an empirical system of actions = personality system, part of the social system.
Situation - part outside world, significant for the actor being analyzed at this moment; part of the world from the Ego's perspective.
Orientation to the situation - the significance of the situation for the actor for his plans and standards.
Motivational Orientation - those aspects of the actor's orientation to the situation that are associated with the expectation of reward and deprivation depending on the needs of the actor: cognitive, cathectic, evaluative way of motivational orientation.
Value Orientation - aspects of the actor's orientation in situations that are characterized by compliance with norms and standards; three ways of orientation: cognitive, aesthetic, moral and value orientation.
social system - a system of actions with one or more actors (individuals or collectives), and for each actor the situation is determined by the existence of other actors and interdependent actions occur that "concentrate" depending on how great the agreement is regarding common goals, values, normative and cognitive expectations.
Personality system - a system consisting of a set of actions of an individual actor, and the actions of an individual are determined by the structure of his needs and the organization of goals and values.
Culture system - the organization of values, norms and symbols that determine the actions of actors; it is not an empirical system, like a person or a social system, but a kind of abstraction of their elements; cultural patterns are made up of interrelated elements that form value systems, belief systems, and symbol systems. They are institutionalized in social systems and internalized in personality systems.
Personality, social system and cultural system is the perspective and object of sociological analysis.
At the center of this is the orientation of actors = experiential systems of action, which can be individuals and groups, in a situation that involves a large number of participants.
The conceptual scheme deals with the connections between " constituent parts"actions in an interactive situation, emerging structures and processes. For actors, the situation consists of "objects of orientation", which can be divided into:
1. Social objects.
2. Physical objects. They represent the means and conditions for action, social facilities may be individuals or groups.
3. Cultural objects. They are symbolic elements of cultural tradition: ideas and belief systems, symbols, value representations that have regularity and constancy.
Actions include a motivational component, i.e. the actor always relates the situation to his own needs and goals. The agent wants to receive a "reward" in the situation.
The motive for the theory of action is not of paramount importance. Much more significant is the experience of the actor in defining situations, in organizing his actions. This experience determines that the actor does not just react, but develops a system of expectations regarding the elements of the situation.
However, in social situations, the possible reactions of other participants in the situation - groups and individuals, must be taken into account, and they must be taken into account when choosing their own alternatives for action.
Signs and symbols that carry a certain meaning play an important role in social interaction; they become means of communication between actors in a given situation. The experience of social action thus includes cultural symbolism.
A specific system of social action is an integrated system of elements of action in relation to a situation, i.e. motivational and cultural elements are brought into order, the structure of which is formed by the personality systems of the individuals involved, the system of culture that permeates their actions, and the social system of interactive processes between actors.
In the terminology of the theory of action, personality is defined as an organized system of orientation of an individual in his actions. Along with the "motivated orientation" is the "value orientation" which arises through the internalization of "models of culture", and which is directly related to the elements of the cultural system.
1.1. Role concepts of personality
Parsons distinguishes between five "type action variables", i.e. pair concepts that define polar types of orientation in situations between which the actor must choose. They are an expression of the fact that action combines individual orientation with cultural meaning connections. In a social interactive situation, they represent the definition of mutual role expectations and serve to describe the value orientation of actors.
1. Affectiveness - neutrality . Here we are talking about the problem of control over affects, about the dilemma whether the agent should follow the impulses or not. Alternatives are formulated in different ways, depending on whether the starting point is a cultural system, a person or a social system.
Affectivity/neutrality in a cultural system indicates a normative pattern that prescribes immediate pleasure or affect control. In the personality system, this means the predisposition of the individual in a certain situation to give in to his feelings or control them. In a social system, this denotes the corresponding role expectations.
2. Self-Oriented - Team Oriented . This denotes the dilemma between self-interest and obligations to the group / society, between personal and public interests. It is defined as a norm and as a role expectation in certain situations.
3. Universalism - particularism . We are talking about the problem of whether generally accepted norms, standards of needs and role expectations are manifested in certain situations, or whether they rely on a special relationship between subject and object.
4. Achieved - attributed . In every situation there is an alternative as to whether the qualities of the object or its "accomplishments" should be given more importance, i.e. should it matter what he actually is or what he does. Norms, needs, or role expectations, depending on the situation, can be focused on qualities or achievements.
5. Specificity - diffuseness. Here the question arises whether, in a certain situation, the agent deals at once with only specific aspects of the object, or whether "open-mindedly" gives the object the opportunity to act and, depending on the need, reacts to this. Norms, needs and role expectations in certain situations can immediately reduce the importance of the object or increase it. Each action situation contains these five alternatives, the actor must make a choice between them, and his decision leads to a certain organization of these typical action variables.
Parsons formulated the components of social action as part of a system; they themselves also have systemic properties, i.e. personality, culture and interactive structure are not inseparable units, but organized values with an internal structure, which, however, is important only as long as exchange processes exist between its elements and parts of the structure of other systems. Structural elements are formed as subsystems of higher systems, i.e. personality systems, culture systems and social action systems.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) - an outstanding American sociologist, the author of the theory of structural functionalism. His books: "The Social System", "Sociological Theory and Modern Society", "The Structure of Social Action". Society, according to Parsons, is a complex system of social elements that are in a state of active interaction. The interaction of social elements is directed by the system of values. The nature of values is inexperienced. Social dynamics is driven by morality. The relationship of the structural units that make up society is based on the functions that ensure the survival of society: adaptation (the problem of rational organization and distribution of resources), goal orientation, integration (the problem of maintaining the internal unity of the system), maintaining the model (the problem of motivating human activity, harmonizing motives with the goals of society). Each function is provided by the corresponding institutions, which are grouped by the systems of society. Parsons singled out the principles of orderliness of society: 1) utilitarianism, according to which a person strives for his own benefit, acts rationally and expects a reward; 2) positivism - the totality causation, which determine the activity of a person in a certain situation; 3) idealism - human activity is considered from the point of view of value-normative regulation. Parsons singled out an elementary social action, for the explanation of which he resorted to the theory of psychoanalysis. The main elements of social action: situation, conditions of activity, actor, goals, norms, rules of conduct, ways to achieve goals. All these elements are included in the system and each performs its function. Dimensions of social action: social, cultural, personal. Human behavior is determined by typical standard variables. These are certain pairs of norms, which Parsons called patterns within which behavior changes. For example, orientation to oneself or a group. The social system performs the following functions: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, preservation of the structural pattern. The main provisions of the functional approach of Parsons: 1) social systems are focused on stability; 2) social systems are integrated; 3) social systems are based on consent; four) social life includes the need for social control and individual responsibilities; 5) the basis of social life are norms and values; 6) social life depends on cooperation, interaction, solidarity. Not every behavior is a social action. Social action must be purposeful and has a subjective meaning. The one who acts must have knowledge of the conditions in which the goal is realized, the objects with which he is dealing; feel the need to achieve goals and respond emotionally to their activities. Parsons paid attention to the study of social tension, religious values, and social modernization. His work has had a great influence on modern sociology.