And the existence of a feudal monarchy. Types of cultural variability, in addition to development, are
The ideology of absolutism in Russia can be defined as patriarchal. The head of state (king, emperor) is presented as the “father of the nation”, “father of the people”, who loves and knows well what his children want. He has the right to educate, teach and punish them. Hence the desire to control everything, even the smallest manifestations of public and private life: decrees of the first quarter of the 18th century. they prescribed to the population when to turn off the lights, what dances to dance at assemblies, in what coffins to bury, to shave or not to shave their beards, etc.
The idea of absolute monarchy appeared in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. and is closely intertwined with the country's economic transformation projects.
One of the first theoretical justifications for establishing absolute enlightened monarchy given by Simeon of Polotsk, who wrote his "Rod of Government" to the Church Council (1666-1667) . In the treatise, the royal person rises to the level of the “king-sun”, royal power a divine origin is attributed, any criticism or condemnation of it is rejected. The king is directly identified with his state.
Another ideologue of absolute monarchy, Y. Krizhanich, in his treatise Politics criticizes the theory of "Moscow is the third Rome", seeing in it, as in the erection of the origin of Russian tsars to Augustus Caesar, admiration for foreign models.
Krizhanich proposes a number of economic, social and political-legal reforms necessary for Russia. The author comes to the conclusion about the divine nature of the very person of the bearer of supreme power.
Of the three (correct) forms of government - absolute monarchy, boyar rule and posad rule (republic) - he singles out the first as the best.
All state administration should be concentrated in the hands of the supreme ruler. No councils and diets can meet without his instructions, no elders, judges, governors or chiefs can be appointed in cities without his knowledge. The ideal of the monarch Krizhanich calls Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
Krizhanich favors a hereditary monarchy and proposes to legislate the succession to the throne by women and foreigners. Inheritance is preferable to choice, which is always associated with unrest and conspiracies.
The legal status of all estates in the country should be regulated by law, their rights and obligations in relation to society should be defined.
The ideology of absolute monarchy was most consistently developed by I.T. Pososhkov, who in 1724 proposed a draft reform addressed to the imperial name, affecting all aspects of the state-legal life of the country (“The Book of Poverty and Wealth”). Pososhnikov associated the economic recovery with the establishment of a strict rule of law.
The author of the project proposed the creation of a new "Judicial Book", a single set of laws, the adoption of which was assigned to the all-zemstvo council, composed of spiritual ranks, "scholars from citizenship and from low ranks." It was proposed to take foreign (and even Turkish) legislation as sources for the Book. The sovereign himself must approve the Book, retaining in it only those provisions that he approves.
Pososhkov proposed to appoint judges from people of low ranks, and exclude high-born nobles from judges. Judgment must be recorded, the trial must be speedy, the grounds for the detention of the defendants must be checked by judges.
In the localities, it was proposed to strengthen police control over order (through sotsk, fifty and ten), to put taxation in order, abandoning petty and detailed requisitions.
According to Pososhkov, the landowners are the sovereign's servants granted by the land, and the peasants are workers temporarily transferred by the state to the nobles, a special form of remuneration for noble service. Like other authors, Pososhkov viewed serfdom as a temporary rather than permanent measure.
Two types of absolutism
The state that arose at the beginning of the 18th century is called policemen not only because it was during this period that the professional police was created, but also because the state sought to interfere in all the little things of life, regulating them.
In certain periods of existence of an absolute monarchy, its ideology became ideology of enlightenment: legal forms emerged , reminiscent of Western European (French, English), attempts were made to create the legal foundations of statehood (“right-wing state”), a constitution, and cultural enlightenment.
These trends were determined not only by the personality of this or that monarch (Catherine II, Alexander I), but also by the socio-economic and
political situation. Part of the nobility abandoned traditional and conservative methods of management and politics, looking for more flexible forms. This was facilitated by the cultural and industrial development of the country.
"Enlightened absolutism" arose during periods when the old (police and patriarchal) methods of government became ineffective. However, at any moment a return to the old methods could be carried out (the liberal period of the reign of Catherine II ended after Pugachev's peasant war).
The system of power established in the era of absolutism is characterized by fairly frequent palace coups, carried out by the noble aristocracy and palace guard. Did this mean a weakening and crisis of the system of absolute monarchy? Apparently not. The ease with which the change of monarchs took place testifies to the fact that in the established and strengthened system of the absolutist monarchy, the personality of the monarch no longer had special significance. Everything was decided by the very mechanism of power, in which each member of society and the state was only a “cog”.
For political ideology absolutism is characterized by the desire for a clear classification of social groups and individuals: the personality is dissolved in such concepts as "soldier", "prisoner", "official", etc. The state, with the help of legal norms, seeks to regulate the activities of each citizen. Absolutism is characterized by another characteristic - abundance of written legal acts, taken on every occasion. The state apparatus as a whole, its individual parts act according to the prescription of special regulations, the hierarchy of which closes the General Regulations.
In the field economic ideology the philosophy of mercantilism becomes dominant, orienting the economy towards an excess of exports over imports, accumulation, frugality and state protectionism.
Economic base of absolutism
The area of origin of capitalist elements (without the manifestation of which the establishment of absolutism is impossible) in Russia became manufacturing production(state and private), corvée landowner production, waste industries and peasant trade (merchant trade, of course, also remained an area of capital accumulation). In the XVIII century. in Russia there were about 200 manufactories (state, merchant, owner's), which employed up to 50 thousand workers. However, there was no free labor market: ascribed peasants, otkhodniks and fugitives were employed in the manufactories.
Peasants
Despite the resistance of the nobility and the bureaucracy, the peasantry as an economic factor played an increasingly important role. Along with this, serf labor prevailed over free labor.
This was facilitated by the fact that strong state industry sector based on the labor of serfs. Peasant duties (corvee days) were not regulated by law, which increased arbitrariness. The exploitation of unplowed peasants (artisans, otkhodniks) was not profitable for the landlords, so they prevented the non-agricultural economic activities of the peasants. The migration of peasants was severely limited: the fertile southern lands were mastered by landlords and runaway peasants; individual farming did not develop there (this was prevented by the legal equalization of single-palace residents with state peasants).
The obligation to pay a per capita tax and a quitrent tax, in addition to the property (serfs), from 1719 was extended to black-haired peasants, single-palace residents, Ukrainians, Tatars and yasak people, and from 724 to all those who fell into the census books. All this mass of peasants belonged to the state.
By this time, it has already all-Russian market, the center of trade relations of which Moscow remained. Traded merchants, landowners and peasants. Characteristic attitude of the legislator to trading peasants- along with the establishment of permits and benefits for them, the law has constantly tended to restrict these activities. In 1711, privileges were established for peasants trading in cities, but already in 1722 village traders were forbidden to trade in cities. In 1731, the peasants were forbidden to trade in ports, produce industrial goods and take contracts. In 1723, restrictions were set for recording peasants in the settlement . Since 1726, the issuance of passports to otkhodnik peasants began. Peasants were not allowed to sign up as volunteers for the army (1727) and take an oath (1741). In 1745, a Decree was issued allowing peasants to trade in the villages, and in 1748 they received the right to join the merchant class.
black-haired peasants, those who lived in a community retained the right of ownership to arable land, mowing and lands that they cultivated; could sell them, pawn, give as a dowry. They paid the state a cash quitrent and performed duties in kind. The peasants of the non-Russian population of the Volga and Ural regions, in addition, paid yasak (tribute in kind) to the state. a special group of government
the peasants were single-dvortsy (who did not fall into the nobility-gentry, came from Moscow service people). They paid poll and quitrent taxes; from 1713 they served in the landmilitia, which performed police functions until 1783.
State peasants they had the right to move to other classes, change their place of residence, participate in state meetings, and were often exempted from taxes. At the same time, their lands remained the object of encroachment on the part of the landlords. The distribution of state lands to private owners was suspended in 1778 (in the process of boundary reorganization) and in 1796, when it was forbidden to sell state lands.
privately owned peasants in the 18th century constituted the majority of the peasant population. The palace peasants living on the palace lands were in the administration of the palace office (since 1775 - state chambers). From among the palace peasants to early XVIII in. Sovereign peasants were allocated, in 1797 transferred to the jurisdiction of the Department of Appanages.
The largest group was landlord peasants. The sources of enslavement included birth, registration by revision, the fixing of illegitimate foundlings by educators, prisoners of war of non-Christian origin (until 1770) and participants in anti-government uprisings. Serfdom could arise under contracts of sale, exchange, donation (until 1783).
The termination of the serfdom was associated with the serving of recruitment duty (the wife and children of the recruit were also released), exile of the serf to Siberia, leave under a leave of absence or a spiritual testament, ransom, seizure of the landowner's estate to the treasury, return of the serf from captivity, flight to remote outskirts and recording in state volosts, factories and factories (since 1759). A peasant who reported on his landowner, who concealed serf souls during the census, received the right to find a new master for himself or to become a soldier
The position of the fortresses. The decree of 1769 emphasized that the lands on which the possessing peasants lived belonged not to them, but to their owners. The feudal labor of the peasants was expressed in corvée (starting from the 19th century, it was limited to three days a week), “month” (when the peasant worked all week for the master, receiving a monthly provision for this) and dues in cash.
A large number of serfs are the yard people of the landowner, who were supported by the community. Part of the landowning peasants was released for quitrent or rented out (for a period of up to five years). Ever since the end of the 17th century. landlords were given the right to sell.
Peasants without land, mortgage them, donate them, bequeath them, exchange them for property, pay them off for debts. The decrees of 1717 and 1720, which allowed the recruitment of hired people, further intensified human trafficking.
landlords could move serfs from one state to another (from yards to plowlands), from one village to another - for this, starting from 1775, it was required to submit an application to the upper zemstvo court and pay a tax for the year. The landowners allowed the marriages of serfs (the Decree of 1724 on the prohibition of forced marriage was not actually applied), those who married without the permission of the landowner were considered fugitives. Certain amounts were allocated for the purchase of suitors from other estates.
Purchase of real estate the serf could exercise only in the name of the landowner. Those who had a shop or a factory paid a land tax to the landowner. Peasant property was inherited only through the male line and in agreement with the landowner. Peasants could acquire populated lands in the name of the landowner (from the 60s of the 18th century).
Registration of serfs in the guild(since 1748) was carried out according to a holiday certificate issued by the master. Since 1785, peasant trade was limited to products of their own production. Since 1774, the absence of a peasant from his place of residence was allowed only if he had a passport issued by the governor.
The Senate Decree of 1758 gave landlords the right to fine peasants, subject them to corporal punishment (sticks and rods), and imprisonment in patrimonial prisons. Since 1760, the landowners received the right through the local authorities send peasants to Siberia, from 1765 - to hard labor for any period. Peasants could be sent to penitentiary houses and recruits.
The return of fugitive peasants (by decrees of 1661 and 1662) was accompanied by a fine for the landowners who accepted them - several peasants were taken from him. For the peasants themselves, escape was punished with a whip or hard labor. Malicious harborers of the fugitives (landlords and clerks) were punished by confiscation of property.
Economic" peasants. For the ability to manage monastic peasants, number of which at the end of the XVII century. was significant, a struggle broke out between the Synod and the College of Economy, which took place only in 1764. All church and monastery peasants were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy and began to be called "economic" peasants.
Unlike privately owned, they could not be subjected to arbitrary resettlement, but, like the first, they were recruited and punished with whips. From their midst stood out bishops and monastic servants who served life-long corvée instead of recruitment and quitrent duties. In 1786 this category of peasants was equated with the state.
Assigned (possession) peasants. In 1721, a Decree was issued allowing merchants and breeders to acquire populated villages in order to provide workers for the enterprises that were being created. In 1752, the Decree determined the number of peasants who could be acquired to work in factories, but already in 1762 such a purchase was prohibited: only civilians with passports could work in factories. Then (in 1798) followed by a new permit for the acquisition of serfs for production (in the Decree of 1797, these peasants were called "possessional"), which was valid until 1816.
Since 1722, it was also allowed registration with factories and plants runaway and alien people working for them; in 1736, the craftsmen who worked for them were forever assigned to the enterprises, and compensation was paid to their owners. But in 1754, a Decree was issued that allowed the owners of assigned peasants to claim them back. The assigned fugitives remained behind the factories, but it was forbidden to accept new fugitive peasants from now on. According to the instructions of 1743, illegitimate and "staggering commoners" were equated with ascribed (possession) ones.
Posessional peasants could not be sold separately from factories, transferred from factory to factory, set free, mortgaged or recruited for serfs. They performed recruiting duties, paying taxes, paid a poll tax, manufacturers could apply corporal punishment and exile to Siberia. A decree of 1754 granted the right to breeders to recruit artisans, and in 1775 the Senate recognized this category of peasants as privately owned.
By order of the Berg and Manufactory Collegiums, part of the state peasants. Unlike those assigned to factories forever, for a period (five years) some categories of the poor and "walking" people were assigned. If these latter were equated with the status of serfs, then the former state peasants assigned to factories, since 1796, restore their status as “state-owned”.
Changes in social structure Russian society of the period of absolutism (in its early stages) led to the emergence of a new social stratum associated with the capitalist development of the economy. Small crafts and manufactories formed the basis for its appearance. Since the majority of manufactories were privately owned, the question of labor became especially acute for the emerging entrepreneurship.
The legislator, taking into account the state interest in the development of industry, took a number of measures aimed at solving the problem
A procedure was established for assigning state peasants to manufactories (in the public sector of the economy) and buying them with land, with the obligatory use of their labor in manufactories (in the private sector). These categories of peasants receive the name of ascribed and possessive.
In 1736, entrepreneurs were given permission to buy peasants without land, especially for use in industry, since 1744 they can be purchased by entire villages. The growth of wages in industrial production stimulated the process of registering peasants (a significant part of their earnings came through taxes to the treasury and through dues to landlords).
There were measures by which bonded peasants could get away from work at manufactories: pay off by paying certain amounts, or put hired people in their place. Most of ascribed was formed from privately owned peasants and peasants, assigned by the Decree of 1736.
The differentiation of the peasantry led to the isolation of wealthy people from its environment: manufacturers, usurers and merchants. This process ran into many obstacles of a socio-psychological, economic and legal nature.
Peasant withdrawal was limited to owners interested in the exploitation of peasants in the corvée. At the same time, the increase in quitrents stimulated landowners to use the labor of peasants on the side, in waste. For industrialists, the prohibition to sell peasants without land and at retail (1721) made it difficult to use their labor in enterprises and manufactories.
The management of ascribed peasants was carried out by the Berg and Manufactory colleges. The sale of these peasants was allowed only together with manufactories. Such an organizational measure was possible only under the conditions of the feudal regime and, in nature, resembled the attachment of the townspeople to the towns, and the peasants to the land, carried out by the Council Code of 1649. It prevented the redistribution of labor within the industry and outside it, did not stimulate an increase in labor productivity and his qualities. However, this turned out to be the only way in those conditions to form a contingent of labor in industry, to create a “pre-proletariat”.
Cities
Industrial enterprises and manufactories were organized near large centers where trade relations, masses of commodities and labor were concentrated. Around the newly formed enterprises, mines, mines and shipyards, new urban-type settlements began to be built.
The emerging urban bourgeoisie was rather motley in composition and origin. In general, it was a taxable class, but for some of its groups (manufactory workers, merchants of the higher guilds, etc.), special privileges and benefits were established.
Decrees of the 60-80s. 17th century all courtyards and settlements of private individuals located on the territory of the settlements were unsubscribed to the treasury. The settlements adjacent to the settlements were assigned to the settlements, and their owners in return received other, distant estates. Residents of Belomestsk were forbidden to acquire new yards in the suburbs; By decree of 1693, possessory and runaway people were forbidden to be accepted as tax. As an exception, since 1698, people from the “sovereign volosts” could be admitted to craft and trade
Customs charter 1653 and Novotragovy charter In 1667, the trading people of the township were granted the right to free trade. New managerial and financial responsibilities began to be assigned to the merchants, for example, the collection of the “streltsy tax” (1681) or participation in the work of the Ship Chamber.
Cities began to form self-government bodies: town councils, magistrates. The urban estate began to legally take shape. According to the regulations of the Chief Magistrate in 1721, it was divided into regular citizens and "mean" people.
Regular, in turn, were divided into the first (bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers of merchant ships, painters, icon painters and silversmiths) and the second (artisans, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, small merchants) guilds.
Guilds ruled by guild meetings and foremen. According to the European model, workshop organizations were created, which included foremen, apprentices and apprentices, the leadership was carried out by foremen. Appearance guilds and workshops spoke of the fact that corporate professional principles were opposed to feudal (suzerain-vassal) principles of economic organization, new incentives to work arose, unknown to the feudal system.
These systems (guild and guild), which emerged from the Middle Ages, at the first stage of their development by no means ensured the emergence of new bourgeois and capitalist principles. They coexisted with serfdom and absolutism.
Manufactory production stimulated the growth of trade turnover. The main forms of trading activity were trade fairs and auctions. The penetration of rich peasants into the merchant class, the departure from the protectionist policy caused instability in the position of the old traditional merchant class.
During his trip to Europe in 1698 (the "great embassy") Peter I invited a large number of foreign misters to work in Russia. In 1702, the same manifesto-invitations were published in Germany, but in addition to craftsmen, financiers, manufacturers and artisans were invited to Russia. Various benefits and privileges were established for those invited.
The Manufactory Collegium was engaged in the organization of foreign training of Russian masters. AT Russian cities government encouraged the creation artels, organizational form of entrepreneurship, in which there was a combination of labor and capital. Even earlier (at the end of the 16th century) in Russia, trading houses(Stroganovs, Bazhenins, etc.).
The government provided financial benefits to the organizers of factories and plants: they were exempted from state and local city duties, they were given the right to trade duty-free (for some time), receive irrevocable subsidies and interest-free courts. The Manufactory Collegium was obliged to support the domestic Entrepreneurship.
Until 1719 (before the formation of the Manufacture College), the owners of commercial and industrial companies were granted the right to sue workers in civil and labor cases.
By a decree of 1722 (July) it was forbidden to remove workers from factories, even if they were runaway serfs, as early as 1721, factory owners of non-noble origin were allowed to acquire populated villages, attributing them to factories. Convicted women were sent to the factories for "correction".
The commercial and industrial class received rights and benefits that were slightly inferior to those of the nobility.
This article will focus on what the socio-economic life of Russian society was like in the 16th-17th centuries. The main source for this period remains Domostroy, so we will try to carefully consider different aspects of public life from this source.
"Domostroy" was the main source of everyday life Russian Society XVI - XVII centuries. According to some researchers (S.M. Solovyov, I.S. Nekrasov, A.S. Orlov, currently D.V. Kolesov), the text of Domostroy is the result of a long collective work begun in Novgorod at the end of the 15th century. According to others (D.P. Golokhvastov, L.V. Mikhailov, L.I. Sobolevsky), the author
The property belongs to the archpriest of the Annunciation Monastery in Moscow, an associate of Ivan the Terrible Sylvester. It was his edition that became widespread in Russia from the middle of the 16th century and was used as a guide family life for almost 200 years. Domostroy is on a par with such monuments as Stoglav, the Great Cheti-Minei and others, surpassing them in expressiveness and figurativeness of the language. The book outlines the fundamentals of Orthodox family and economic life. "Domostroy" is a kind of textbook on home economics, child rearing, domestic and social Orthodox life.
He stands on a religious point of view and narrowly practical calculations and is exclusively occupied with family life. Domostroy does not concern public relations, the meaning of friendship, mutual services, it does not contain consciously patriotic prescriptions, concepts of obligations to the fatherland, which its researcher Nekrasov carefully noted. Domostroy combines 64 chapters of the set of rules, which are divided into 3 parts: On the spiritual structure (As a belief); On the structure of the worldly (How to honor the king) and On the structure of houses-nome (How to live with wives and with children and with households).
Domostroy is based on the relationship between a man and a woman, which was built in the system of patriarchy. In families where relationships are built in this system, a woman devotes herself completely to her husband, children and home. She has no right to decide important family matters. A man makes decisions alone. This fact can be seen throughout the reading of Domostroy. The head of the family is considered to be a man who plays the role of husband and father. He must educate his wife, children and household. It is obliged to teach not to steal, not to lie, not to slander, not to condemn, not to be angry, not to offend, not to remember evil, not to take revenge, to be obedient and submissive to the elders, to be friendly to the middle, to the younger and wretched - friendly and merciful and any offense endure gratefully for the sake of God. Wives, children and households are required to obey and obey in everything. And it is also believed that if a man does not teach good to his entire family, then he will destroy his life, his house and his servants and will be punished by God [1, p. 23]. Domostroy pays considerable attention to the position of women in society and in the family.
A woman is the keeper of the hearth and on her shoulders lies the creation of well-being and peace in the house. A woman is obliged to submit to her husband, and to accept and fulfill any instruction or request with love and fear. In the morning, getting out of bed, having washed and prayed, a good housewife should indicate the work to the servants and always control all the expenses that go to the affairs of the house. The mistress herself must be able to cook and teach her servants what she knows. And if the wife is a needlewoman, then she is obliged to sew shirts for her husband and embroider on the hoop with gold and silk. The hostess should not sit idle, but she needs to work all day, pray before going to bed, and get up early in the morning and wake up servants and household members. The hostess can rest either at the request of her husband, or due to poor health. A wife should not visit neighbors in order to ask for something, since a good housewife should have everything on her own.
She is honored only when her house is clean and tidy, the yard is swept, and in winter the snow is removed. Noticing the disorder in the house, the husband must definitely give his wife useful advice or guidance. If the wife understands and accepts her mistake and obeys her husband, then he should praise her and help her, but if the wife does not act on the orders of her husband and does not teach his servants to obey, then the husband should punish her bodily, “use fear in private”, but by punishing and welcome (probably caress with a kind word). At the same time, it is forbidden for a husband to be offended by his wife or a wife by her husband. We must always live in love and harmony. A woman should consult first with her husband, and then with good, kind wives, who can politely and courteously give advice or guidance in dealing with any economic matters.
You need to talk with guests about needlework, about household order, about how to run a household and what things to do. And a good hostess, who has order in the house, on the table, unusual and beautiful needlework, polite servants, who is smart, kind and smart, you need to ask especially carefully and obediently, since from such a hostess you can hear many useful and wise things that will come in handy in life. every woman. And if a woman is asked about something that she does not know, she should answer: “I don’t know that, I haven’t heard anything and I don’t know; and I myself don’t ask about unnecessary things, I don’t gossip about princesses, or boyars, or neighbors. Also, in Domostroy, a separate chapter is highlighted, which tells that a woman is forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages at home and away, and food cannot be hidden (make hiding places). You need to eat with your husband at the same table. A good wife should not gossip to her husband about her servants, and if something happened and she cannot figure it out herself, then she needs to tell her husband the whole truth and consult with him in resolving this issue.
Honor in every woman has always been more precious than all beauty. The wife needs to be respected. A woman is the empress of the house, an example of moral restraint, modesty and diligence for children and servants. Although after God, she is subordinate to the sovereign-spouse in everything, but she is his first deputy in the family and home. Before children, they are equal, like father and mother; "According to Bose" they receive the same honor and respect from their children. In Domostroy, much attention is paid to the upbringing of children. Parents should keep and love their "children", take care of them, educate them, teach courtesy, "fear of God", do not steal, do not slander, do not remember the basics, do not get angry. When children grow up, the father begins to raise sons, and the mother - daughters.
A father must punish his children in their youth: “If you punish him with a rod, he will not die, but he will be healthier, for you, beating him on the body, will deliver his soul from death. Do not laugh, playing with him in his infancy, you had fun in his infancy, but when you grow up, you will grieve, and in the future, as a soreness for your soul. And also the father should bring up children in prohibitions, protect spiritual purity and bodily dispassion and marry off a daughter blameless. Observing all these rules, the father gains well-being in the house and the forgiveness of sins by God. If the children sin, then the parents will take this sin upon themselves and then they will receive ridicule and shame from the people, and there will be a loss in the house.
And if the children are reasonable, reasonable, educated, trained in crafts and needlework, then such a family will have respect from the people, prosperity in the house and will be merciful by God. The main task of children is to honor and protect mother and father and obey them. If children honor and respect their parents all their lives, then all sins are forgiven and people glorify them. If a child insults and beats his parents, then he becomes cursed and doomed to "fierce death." The prophet Isaiah said: "Whoever mocks his father and reproaches his mother's old age, let the ravens peck him and devour him!" The one who honors his parents, obeys them in everything, will become a consolation for them, and in a difficult life period, God will help, save and hear prayer. “Chad” should not forget the labors of his father and mother, and in old age you need to take care of them, as they cared for and loved their child from birth. And the main thing is not to hold a grudge and forgive your loved ones. Thus, we have considered various aspects life of Russian society.
And we can conclude that Domostroy was based on a clear regulation of life, which was followed by most people in the 16th-17th centuries. The relationship between a man and a woman was based on the system of patriarchy, the complete subordination of a woman to a man. The woman was the keeper of the hearth and her main task was to run the household and raise children. But we know that the situation begins to change at the end of the 17th century, in connection with the Petrine reforms, which also affected the private life of the people of that era.
References 1. Domostroy.-SPB., 1994.-345 p. 2. Kolesov V.V. Domostroy. - SPB., 2007. - 287 p. 3. Hornkhin V.V. Lists of Domostroy of the XVI-XVII centuries: the history of publication and study. - M., 2003. - 256 p.
Belokopytova A.L., student of the 8th "B" class, MBOU "Gymnasium No. 11", Yelets
The publishing house "Tsar's House" published the book "Domostroy - the Great Book of the Great Country". As an afterword, an essay by our regular author, the historian Leonid Bolotin, was published in it. This essay can be seen as an objection to an essayVictor Aksyuchits "Falling into the turmoil and exit from it. Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Josephism.
The sixteenth century can rightly and should be called the Golden Age of Russian National Literature. It is customary to talk about Russian Literature as a phenomenon in the sense of exclusively artistic works - poems, poems, short stories, novels, short stories, fables, tragedies, comedies - about reading undoubtedly useful, instructive, with great educational value, but at the same time entertaining, fascinating that excites the reader's fantasy and imagination. But is the life of words, first inscribed by hand, and then typographical, limited by this alone? letters spread around the world?
Speaking of the word, and especially of the literary word, one must always remember that in the depths of its nature each alive human word in extreme smallness, but directly likened Word-God - our Lord Jesus Christ, since our human literature, in contrast to the wordless world, and there is one of the main expressions of the fact that man was created according to image and likeness God's (Genesis 1:27). Saint Righteous John of Kronstadt thus testified to the connection of God the Word with the words of human speech: “Feeling warmth and your breath in yourself, remember the Word of God as a Person; when speaking the word, remember the Personal and Living Word of God; and acting with your mind, remember the great Mind - God, from Whom every mind and everything that is wisely created. That is why the living human word is so expressively- in addition to sounds and direct mental meaning, the word in some wonderful, supernatural way also carries a visual image.
Unfortunately, most of the purely secular researchers of the Russian National Literature of the 16th century, expressing their love and respect for our written heritage of that time quite sincerely, still cannot avoid looking top down, the point of view, as if from the "height" of the undoubtedly great works of Russian Literature of the 19th century. Many scientists consider the old period as a kind of "childhood" of Russian literature. Such arrogant tenderness, a sincere condescending look at the works of the 16th century as at tombstones, at literary monuments, is fraught with a distortion of the real perspective, a diminution of the true spiritual dignity of native speech, the existence of which lies outside the “patterns” of primitive evolutionism, progress. Many of the spiritual peaks reached by Russian National Literature in the 16th century were never conquered again in subsequent centuries.
In the 17th century, tendencies were already intensifying towards a simplified imitation of non-Orthodox foreign samples, primarily Polish (through Little Russia), but also German, English, Latin too. At the same time, on the one hand, European “carnival” (according to M. Bakhtin) laughter, laughter, scoffing penetrates into Russian literature, on the other hand, eloquent mannerisms, stylistic redundancy or bureaucratic inertness, soullessness. Civilizational imitation is further enhanced in XVIII century due to the derogation of national identity in our literature, therefore according to some spiritual and national indicators one can speak not of “progress”, but of degradation in Russian literature.
What compels us to look at the literary heritage of the 16th century is not top down, a upwards? Such a point of view turns out to be more scientific, methodologically accurate, since it reveals the authentic, deep meanings of the ancient works of the Russian Word.
The erection of new, more powerful and extended red-brick walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin under the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilievich in 1485-1495 marked a fundamentally new stage in the state building of Russia, which in the distant outskirts acquired its clear boundaries and raised a single Capital Center above all specific cities. The new Kremlin bastions have become a kind of architectural icon of the spiritual fence of the entire Russian State as the New Jerusalem. Already under this mighty protection, nationwide Russian literature rapidly developed in the 16th century, the diverse works of which are also constituent parts of state building and original creation of the vital, spiritual structure of the Russian people.
Russian literary XVI century begins with the "Illuminator" of St. Joseph Volotsky, a work that freed the Orthodox Russian spirit and mind from the captivity of the Jewish heresy. In the same years, Saint Spyridon-Sava wrote to Grand Duke John Vasilyevich the "Message about the Monomakh's Crown", which contains a legend about the origin of Grand Duke Rurik from Prus - a relative ("brother") of the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar.
In the years 1516-1522, a disciple and relative of the Monk Joseph (Sanin) - the Monk Dosifey (Toporkov) Volotsky, relying on the rich library of the Volokolamsk monastery, created the first "Russian Chronograph", in which World History was first described with full inclusion in it of the events of Russian History.
In the years 1523-1524, the monk of the Spaso-Eliazarov Monastery, the Reverend Philotheus of Pskov, in a message to the deacon Misyur Munekhin, for the first time sets out his spiritual insight: Moscow is the Third Rome.
Under Grand Duke Vasily Ioannovich, through the efforts of St. Daniel of Moscow, in 1526-1530, a monumental annalistic vault, which later received the everyday scientific name "Nikon Chronicle", given by the owner of the manuscript, Patriarch Nikon. To create this collection, ancient lists of all-Russian and specific annals, documents, stories and legends about revered icons, Saints and heroes were brought to Moscow from different cities and monasteries of Russia. From this diverse material, the metropolitan scribes brought together Russian Antiquity from its beginnings to the 1520s. Russian History was restored, again woven into a single canvas, disheveled into separate strands, first by the appanage, and then by the Tatars.
In 1529, in Novgorod, Archbishop Macarius (Leontiev) began to collect the original version of the Russian Great Readings of Menaia, where the Lives of the Saints, legends about icons, stories from general church history, instructive words and many other spiritual works, which together compiled the first Russian church encyclopedia. Having become the Metropolitan of Moscow, Saint Macarius creates more extensive Kremlin Great Honored Menaions.
The spiritual book building of St. Macarius of Moscow was crowned with the creation of the “Degree Book of the Royal Genealogy” and the multi-volume “Royal Personal Chronicle Code”, the final design of which was completed after the death of St. Macarius by his disciple, St. Athanasius of Moscow - Confessor of the Holy Blessed Tsar-Great Martyr John. In this spiritual and educational, encyclopedic activity of Saint Macarius, a creative synthesis of the ancient Novgorod and relatively “young” Moscow literary schools was accomplished.
It was on this delightful basis in its universality and on the works of St. Maximus the Greek that the diverse literary and liturgical creativity of the Holy Great Martyr Tsar John Vasilyevich the Terrible, in the monks of Jonah, unique in all world literature, grew, in which the understanding of the meaning of the Kingdom and the Church in the Divine Dispensation reached unprecedented heights Theological and sovereign thought.
In this magnificent literary constellation of the 16th century, the book called Domostroy, at first glance, occupies a rather modest, private place.
The Church Slavonic word "domostroy" itself is a direct similarity to the Greek word "economy", or in church tradition - "economia". In church literature, there is an expression “economical theology”, which, firstly, refers to the dogmatic theology of the Holy Trinity, and secondly, to the questions of the creation of the Universe and man by God the Word, to the very order of the world (John 1, 1-18 ).
But even long before the birth of Christ providentially in the Greek language, in Greek philosophy, there was a process of formation of subtle speculative, generalizing concepts, which later became the perfect tool of Christian Theology. Ancient wisdom also formed the concepts of “economy”, “economy”, which, on the one hand, denoted the broadest principles of rational management on a state scale, on a policy scale, and on the other hand, considered private issues of housekeeping proper.
Many hexameters in Homer's Odyssey are devoted to deliberate homeownership and home economics. Hesiod wrote about practical management in detail in Works and Days. The ancient Greek playwright Euripides also paid attention to the correct home arrangement.
The great Athenian sage Socrates believed that the household, like government, should be included in the circle of compulsory subjects of philosophical education. A student of Socrates, the philosopher and commander Xenophon wrote the dialogue "Economy", the name of which is translated into Russian as "Domostroy". In Xenophon's Domostroy, the philosopher Socrates, in his unique dialectical manner, on many historical examples and his own everyday experience, convincingly proves the importance and necessity of everyday understanding of current economic problems:
“I once noticed that from the same occupation, some are extremely poor, others are extremely rich. This surprised me terribly, and I decided that it was worth seeing what was the matter. I began to observe and found that this is quite natural: whoever does business somehow, he, I saw, suffers a loss; and whoever takes care of it with intense attention fulfills it faster, easier, and more profitable. If you want to learn from them, and if God is not against you, then I think you will become a resourceful person.
It is significant that Socrates, being in a pagan environment a spontaneous (not according to the Holy Scriptures) apophatic Theologian, who believes in the Unknown God, in the One Creator God, points out to the interlocutor the importance of the mystical factor, Divine favor for a profitable business.
The treatise "Domostroy" is also known from another great ancient philosopher - Aristotle, however, it is more often translated into Russian as "Economics". There is also a chapter in Aristotle's "Polity" - "Economy". Despite a different tradition of translating these names, this does not change their house-building essence. The economic treatises of Xenophon and Aristotle were later translated into Latin by Cicero himself and enjoyed success with ancient Roman readers; they were repeatedly quoted by Virgil, Theophrastus, Philodemus.
Already at the time of Christianity in Constantinople, in the Roman Empire, a number of works were created both on the broad problems of the economy, and on housekeeping and family organization already in connection with Christian piety. Many Western European medieval treatises based on the tradition of Xenophon, Aristotle, and other ancient writers were also devoted to prudent and God-fearing housekeeping, housekeeping.
The Russian "Domostroy" had its spiritual predecessors in Russian literature. First of all, it is necessary to name the "Izbornik of 1074" by Grand Duke Svyatoslav and the completely original, magnificent, unsurpassed work of Russian didactic literature - "Instruction of the Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh to his children", compiled by the Russian Sovereign at the beginning of the XII century.
Russian literary historians, who have studied about forty manuscripts, both entitled Domostroy and containing texts common with Domostroy, believe that the most complete Sylvester edition of Domostroy of the middle of the 16th century was based on the works of Novgorod and Moscow that have not come down to us. books of the 15th - the first half of the 16th centuries, dedicated to Orthodox housekeeping, in the writing of which both clergy and literate lay people took part, directly familiar with the most ancient literary traditions, dating back both to the ancient Xenophon's "Domostroy" and to the ancient Tsargrad already Orthodox protographers. Thus, the Russian "Domostroy" is included in the circle of world philosophical, economic and didactic literature.
But with all the variety of sources of the Russian "Domostroy" - it is a completely original, independent work of Russian National Literature of the middle of the 16th century, filled with both the sovereign Theology of that time, the Theology of the new state building, and living, everyday Russian speech and folk wisdom.
Russian "Domostroy" in the works of domestic historians of our literature is emphatically characterized as a secular work, in which the spiritual component has only a subordinate, official meaning. This, in our opinion, erroneous assessment is due to the fact that the teachings of "Domostroy" are addressed to the layman, and a significant part of the text is related to the description of the way of life. But such an assessment, so to speak, “mechanical”, “quantitative”, does not take into account the strategic meaning, the highest ideal of this unique purely spiritual work, which really goes beyond the typological genre series of proper church literature.
The attitude to the spiritual component of the Russian "Domostroy" as something brought in from outside, additional does not allow us to see the author's creative synthesis, as a result of which everything mundane, everyday, everyday in this work is completely subordinated to the heights of the Orthodox Russian spirit ... Here is the Russian spirit, here Smells like Russia! And first of all, by no means spicy pickles, beer, bread dough, cabbage soup, onions and well-fed belching, but incense, wax, oil, the pure spirit of Great Lent and Paschal Joy, the light prayerful breath of Holy Russia!
The full title of the work: “The book spoken by Domostroy has useful things in itself, teaching and punishment to every Christian - husband, and wife, and child, and slave, and slave”, - already indicates the religious dignity of the reader to whom the treatise is addressed. Teachings and orders are given not only to the owner of the house or the father of a large family in general, but to "every Christian."
A number of initial chapters of Domostroy correspond to the spiritual target designation of "every Christian". The first chapter is a strict instructive blessing of the father of a large family to an adult son, his wife, their children and household members. The style itself, the form of blessing, in terms of genre, resembles the prayer read at confession, and the state oath, and the legal contract, and the spiritual testament, and above - the Biblical Testament: “I bless az, a sinner name and I teach, and I punish, and I admonish my son name, and his wife ... "The creator of Domostroy thinks on a large scale, statesmanship, he creates a model close in meaning to the spiritual canon for wide, widespread, repeated use. Hence the chased severity of the wording and these "names".
The one who blesses spiritually obliges those who are blessed with obedience to this order by the highest authority: “give an answer on the day of the Last Judgment.” Blessing resembles home, more - generic oath, which is also expected for subsequent generations of heirs. Here one immediately sees a hierarchical level, which is by no means reducible to a home economics manual. The spiritual goal of this book, which should become generic, passed down from father to son, from son to grandchildren, from grandchildren to great-grandchildren, is immeasurably higher: to build Russian family life for many generations ahead according to the highest Christian ideal.
Russian Literature of the 11th-16th centuries, in its pictorial and compositional-semantic techniques, largely relied on the canons of iconography. The scale of figures, objects, events, their location in the Orthodox icon corresponded to their significance in the spiritual hierarchy. So here in the center - at the beginning of the text, above the entrance to the literary space - God, the Divine, church, religious are depicted large and categorically, and everyday, earthly, material - according to the degree of their semantic significance. But even the smallest third-rate details are drawn clearly and simply - without emotional expression, dynamism, in spiritual simplicity, with a contemplative look. Details are subordinated to Divine service in the broadest sense of this concept as a chaste human being.
The following brief chapter points to the likening of the book “Domostroy” to documents of state dignity: “How Christians believe in the Holy Trinity and the Most Pure Mother of God and the Cross of Christ and the Holy Powers of Heaven and all the Holy and honest and Holy Power and worship them.”
All the most important state documents, letters of Sovereign Church Councils and the Sovereign Duma, chronicles in the XV-XVII centuries began with spiritual beginnings, which secular historians of ancient Russian sources call the conditional term "Theology". In their analyzes, secular scientists, as a rule, limit themselves to this definition, without going into the content of such spiritual beginnings, considering them to be something formal and therefore not deserving of special attention. However, a careful examination of state charters of the 16th-17th centuries shows that their “Theologies” invariably focus on the Orthodox confession of the Most Holy Trinity, on the divinity of the human nature of Jesus Christ, on the confession of the Ever-Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, on the veneration of the Cross, Holy Icons and Holy Relics.
This is explained by two main reasons.
Firstly, sovereign cutting off from the consequences of the heresy of the Judaizers, whose adherents rejected both the Most Holy Trinity, and the Divinity of Jesus Christ, and the true dignity of the Mother of God and mockingly mocked the veneration of the Cross of Christ, Holy icons and Holy relics.
Secondly, since the capture by the crusaders in early XIII centuries of Constantinople and since the time of the Holy Blessed Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky, Holy Russia was threatened from the outside by Catholic expansion, followed by a distortion of the dogma of the Holy Trinity, a violation of Its inseparability and equality by the Catholic introduction of the filioque confession. It is no coincidence that the hero of the Battle of the Neva in 1242 went to the battle of Chudsk on the ice against the Catholic crusader knights with the motto: "For the Holy Trinity!"
In line with such sovereign letters, the author of Domostroy also supplies this instructive text with a similar beginning-theology. Just as the Russian Tsardom in its charters testified that it is the guardian, the sovereign stronghold of Orthodoxy on a universal scale, so every Russian family, in its small measure, should become the guardian of the paternal faith, its Orthodox dogmas: “It is fitting for every Christian to know how to live according to God in the Orthodox faith of the Christians: first, from the bottom of your heart, believe in the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit - in the inseparable Trinity, and believe in the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and call the Mother of God who gave birth to Him, bow down to the Cross of Christ with faith, as if on the Lord has wrought salvation for all men. And honor the icon of Christ and His Most Pure Mother and the Holy Heavenly Incorporeal Forces and all the Saints honor, as Love Himself.
Thus, the dogmatic Divine economy of the Most Holy Trinity is determined by the yardstick for family life, and for domestic life, for housekeeping. Orthodox leavened patriotism of Russia is opposed here unleavened cosmopolitanism of the Catholic West.
A number of subsequent chapters - 3-6, 8-15, 22-25 can be called a kind of home Church Charter. Their names speak for themselves: “How to partake of the Mysteries of God and believe in the resurrection of the dead, and look forward to the Last Judgment and touch every Holy thing”, “How to love God with all your soul, so also have your brother and the fear of God and have the memory of death”, “How venerate the hierarchical ranks, as well as the priestly ranks and the priestly ranks, and so on.
A special place among this “church-statutory” section is occupied by the seventh chapter: “How to honor and obey the Tsar and the prince in everything and to repent of every ruler and serve them in truth in everything, to the great and to the lesser, and to the sorrowful and weak to any person be, and pay attention to yourself about this.
Here it is again emphasized that the existence of the Russian family is by no means a private, individualistic, self-contained existence - it is an integral part of the state life of Holy Russia, the family is the basis, the support of the Russian State.
The author of Domostroy calls for the most reverent attitude towards the Anointed of God: “Be afraid of the Tsar and serve him by faith and always pray to God for him and do not speak falsely before him, but with submission answer the truth to him as to God Himself, and obey him in everything, if you serve the earthly King with truth and fear him, you will learn to fear the Heavenly King.
And in subsequent chapters, the need for obedience to the Tsar, the spiritual duty of loyal subjects to pray for the Tsar-Sovereign, the Tsarina and Their Children-Heirs is repeatedly mentioned.
The state dignity of the head of the family and his wife is repeatedly emphasized by the fact that in the “Domostroy” of the Sylvester edition they are called “sovereign”, “sovereign” more than one hundred and thirty times and derivatives of these words are used in relation to them. After all, for all households they are not just masters, owners of property, elders, but patrons, teachers and judges, punishing, merciful and favoring. In the vivid pictures of the Russian "Domostroy" the Holy Russian patriarchal tradition of ancient times from the epic Holy Prince Vladimir the Red Sun reveals itself.
Thus, the compiler of Domostroy comprehensively depicts the Russian patriarchal family not only as Small Church, which is a general provision in Sacred Tradition, but also how Small Kingdom.
In the light of the patriarchal tradition, a very important spiritual and ideological stratagem of "Domostroy" - the fatherland - is highlighted. For the author, primacy from tsa, that is, that from whom everything happens both physically, and legally, and spiritually, no doubt. The writer does not specifically defend the truth that is obvious to him and his readers. Economical Theology of the Most Holy Trinity - the Son of God, from From born, the Holy Spirit, from From outgoing - simply excluded the very possibility of a different look at the father of the family, the family and society as a whole. The positivist and then materialistic, but in fact atheistic fable about the primacy of the “matriarchy” was simply unknown to the people of that era. The paramount hierarchical dignity of the father and paternity pervades the entire text of Domostroy from beginning to end. Here is the spiritual, tribal basis of both Russian paternalism and Russian patriotism.
In our time, when the Family Code and other laws repeatedly talk about motherhood, about “maternity capital”. Fatherhood is mentioned only once or twice and, “naturally”, in second place after motherhood. This is evidence of the deepest spiritual disease of modern society. And in the coming years, the healing of this disease on a national scale is not expected. But modern Orthodox Christians must remember the family ideal, based both on Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, as well as on the patriarchal Old Russian tradition. Without a deep reverence for fatherhood and through it the Fatherland, it is also impossible to revive spiritual patriotism, sacrificial patriotism, which is fundamentally different from corporate “patriotism”, based on serving personal and corporate interests, on selfish love for oneself in one’s native land: here both the “patriotism” of a cat, and "patriotism" of a criminal godfather, and the last refuge of a scoundrel.
"Domostroy" in no way humiliates, does not belittle the importance of mothers and wives, as many Russian writers tried to present already in the 19th century. But the Christian family, as the original bond of the Orthodox Kingdom, is unthinkable without reverence for the Fatherland, fatherhood, courage in its true sacrificial dignity. The sacrificial service of the father - the sovereign of the household consists in the highest responsibility before God to serve the cause of not only the personal salvation of the soul for Eternal Life, but in every possible way to contribute to the salvation of the souls of the wife, children and all household members in the Kingdom of Heaven.
In one of the editions of Domostroy, the preface says: “... In this book, you find an instruction from some about the worldly structure, how to live as an Orthodox Christian in the world with wives and children, and with household members, and punish (instruct) and teach them , and to save with fear, and to vex (protect) with a thunderstorm, and in all things to protect them in spiritual and bodily things, to be clean, and in everything to be guard over them, and take care of them as if about your ud (member of the body). Lord of the rivers: you will be wallpaper in one flesh. The apostle of the rivers: if one soul suffers, then all suffer with it. Likewise, you do not worry about yourself alone, but also about your wife, and about your children, and about others, and about the last household members. For all are connected by one faith to God: and with this good diligence, have love for all who live according to God, and have an eye of the heart (have), looking to God. And you will be chosen as a vessel, carrying not only yourself to God, but many. And you will hear: a good servant, you will be faithful in the joy of your Lord.
The royal law, according to the Scriptures: love your neighbor as yourself(James 2:8).
At the time of a covert departure from the Marxist-Leninist - destructive for the state - communist "dogma" in the ideology of the socialist "state" (in quotation marks, because without the Sovereign), it began to be declared that the family is the main, basic unit of society and the "state". The crafty reception of the official ideology of "developed socialism", however, did not resolve the deep-seated contradictions between the godless worldview and the mystical nature of family, marriage, fatherhood, motherhood and childhood. But in a formal message, Soviet ideologists returned to the main, power-forming provisions of Domostroy.
The book "Domostroy" is very important integral part church-state ideology of the Autocratic Orthodox Kingdom, which was built in Russia during the 16th century. Actually, the everyday component of this work, in which we find pictures of the patriarchal way of life of the exemplary Russian House, amazing in beauty and originality, deeply dear to all of us, is entirely subordinated to this lofty national goal.
The treatise on Russian family life takes its worthy and very important place among such spiritual-sovereign program works and documents of the era as the Tsar's Code of Laws of 1550, the Russian Chronograph, the Tsar's Chronicle Code, the Great Kremlin Menaion, "The Degree Book of the Royal Genealogy", "Stoglav", "Illuminator", various Cathedral and Royal Establishments.
It is significant that the very ideal concept of “Holy Russia”, which we habitually assimilate both in our antiquity under the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich, and in the times of the Holy Blessed Grand Duke-Martyr Andrei Bogolyubsky, and in the era of St. Alexis of Moscow, Reverend Sergius of Radonezh and Holy Blessed Great Prince Dimitry Donskoy, in fact, owes its appearance, formulation to the activity of the Holy Great Martyr Tsar John Vasilyevich the Terrible and St. Macarius of Moscow in the middle of the 16th century. It was the Makariev Councils, which glorified for general church veneration a whole host of Russian Ascetics of Piety, that brought to life this spiritual ideal - Holy Russia, an ideal that, of course, applies to all times of Russia-Russia, starting with Askold's Baptism under Patriarch Photius, and to Russia coming.
Holy Russia was created by the Providence of God, but in helping the Lord it was created and is being created. works of faith(James 2, 14-26), the earnest faith of our ancestors, the deep faith of our contemporaries, who are still unknown to us - prayer books for us and our Fatherland. A vivid image and example of the creative deeds of faith is the Russian "Domostroy", showing us the Face of Holy Russia through patriarchal family, home life.
This is what is hidden from the layman's eye on this truly great book! But the hidden in the ages without great difficulty is revealed to every loving heart of a believing Russian person. God is love!
memory of St. Maximus the Greek
NOTES
John of Kronstadt, Holy Righteous. About prayer. Extracts from diary notebooks for 1856-1862. M., Father's House, 2007. S. 249.
This passage is written under the influence of a conversation about Old Russian Literature with my friend, Doctor of Philology Alexander Vadimovich Gulin. In the process of this explanation, I borrowed the following thoughts from A.V. Gulin. Principles age development"- "childhood", "youth", "maturity" ... - are not applicable to the historical patterns of being literary language, content and form literary works. Such an "age" approach inevitably leads to the idea of "old age" and "death" of national literature. Russian Literature from the moment of its inception and development in the 11th-12th centuries revealed itself in such works as “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by St. Hilarion of Kyiv, “The Tale of Bygone Years” by St. Nestor the Chronicler, “Instructions of the Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh to his children”. They are the undoubted peaks of the national spirit and national culture, and yet they were not preceded by any "development", "evolution", literary "childhood". They are products of a creative spirit common to all eras.
Xenophon of Athens. Domostroy. Ch. 2, § 16.
The words "slave" and "slave" are not about one should attach importance to the disenfranchised estate, known from the history of ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Here we are talking about workers, serving the owner of the house on one basis or another, whether hired (in "Domostroy" refers to the salary of servants), or as permanent household members and servants, but not about the "living thing" of the times of the slave-owning system. No "slavery" and even "serfdom", known for a shameful century in history Russian Empire from 1762 to 1861, at the time of the creation of the Russian Kingdom and the writing of "Domostroy" did not exist.
The “hurtful” definition of Russian patriotism by “kvass” is now associated with kvass by everyday consciousness. But this bread drink is not exclusively Russian, since ancient times it has been in use among numerous Finno-Ugric and some Baltic peoples of Russia, not as borrowed from Russians, but as their own, original. In the course of the controversy between Russian Slavophiles and Westerners, who gravitated toward ecumenism, it is obvious that the definition of "leaven" was associated with the Orthodox dogmatic canon of the celebration of the Divine Liturgy at leavened bread , and not on unleavened bread, like the Catholics. Moreover, in Orthodox Russia, the Catholic tradition was spiritually associated with Jewish unleavened bread, with Easter matzah. Hence and leavened patriotism, that is, Orthodox, spiritual patriotism.
Here is the numbering of chapters according to the Sylvester edition of Domostroy.
The concept of the primacy of "matriarchy" is based on hypotheses. Firstly, on the tendentious interpretation by positivist archaeologists, positivist ethnologists of small sculptural artifacts of primitive antiquity as central cult objects (“mother goddesses”, “primitive Venuses”). In fact, these artifacts had a utilitarian pornographic purpose and had nothing to do even with pagan cosmogony. Secondly, on the unproven hypothesis of the supremacy of the female priesthood in Mycenaean Crete. Thirdly, as for the ancient Greek myth about the country of the Amazons, which is the only written “evidence” of the existence of “matriarchy” recorded in antiquity, then this false myth was refuted by ancient writers, who explained that the Amazon warriors were only part of a completely patriarchal Scythian civilization. Of course, the hypothesis of evolutionism could not do without the creation of an animal and semi-animal period, when the hypothetical "hominids" and then primitive people "did not know" the institution of marriage, but lived in mumps, and therefore supposedly only motherhood could physiologically guarantee ancestral succession. But mankind from the day of the creation of Adam and Eve knew both what marriage is and what fatherhood is, communicating with the Heavenly Father.
Stated according to: Domostroy. Series: "Literary Monuments". SPb., Nauka, 2005. S. 8.
In fairness, it should be noted that pointing out the importance of the church-sovereign dignity of the Russian “Domostroy”, including it in a number of the listed spiritual and state works of the 16th century, is by no means a “new word” in the study of this work. And the most attentive researchers of the Tsarist time - such as I.S. Nekrasov, A.V. Mikhailov, A.A. Kizevetter ( Nekrasov I.S. Experience of historical and literary research on the origin of Domostroy. M., 1873; Mikhailov A.V. On the issue of the editions of Domostroy, its composition and origin // Journal of the Ministry of National Education. 1889. Book. 2, 3; Kizevetter A.A. The main trends of the Old Russian Domostroy // Russian Wealth. 1896. No. 1. S. 39-52), and scientists of our era - such as academician D.S. Likhachev, a prominent St. Petersburg philologist, historian of the Russian Language V.V. Kolesov, paid attention to this. For example, V.V. Kolesov denotes the significance of the influence of such a historical and literary context of the 16th century on the form and content of Domostroy ( Kolesov V.V. Domostroy as a monument of medieval culture // Domostroy. Series: "Literary Monuments". SPb., Nauka, 2005. S. 307-308). However, even in the most benevolent interpretations of the Russian "Domostroy" this influence is not seen as the main and constructive, but as a factor that distorts the folk protographs of economic, everyday literature: "Domostroy suffered the fate of all Novgorod-Pskov literature: what was not directly burned on Red Square, then it is completely redone, sometimes with a distortion of the main idea of the work. The literary activity of [St.] Macarius and his collaborators was such a "reshaping" of the rich literary tradition that had developed in Novgorod, in order to please the autocratic interests of Moscow ”( Kolesov V.V. There. S. 326). Thus, the main merit of the book is turned into its "flaw" by a purely journalistic, non-historical, non-scientific device. Suffice it to say that at the time of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible and Saint Macarius, the Moscow city toponym "Red Square" did not exist in Moscow. The area to the east of the Kremlin was called Torg. The name "Red Square" appeared in May 1613 in connection with the meeting of Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich Romanov. For His procession from the Neglinnye (later Resurrection) Gates of Kitay-Gorod to the Spasskaya Tower, a high wooden platform covered with red cloth was built. Since then, the Kremlin Trade became known as the Red Square.
DOMOSTROY
1. Patriarchal-severe and inert family life (by the name of the old Russian code of everyday rules).
2. A good owner, organizer of order in his house.
USEFUL BOOK
"Domostroy" amazes us today with an almost improbable spirituality of even the smallest everyday details. "Domostroy" is not just a collection of advice; a grandiose picture of an ideally churched family and economic life unfolds before the reader. Orderliness becomes almost ritual, the daily activity of a person rises to the height of church action, obedience reaches monastic rigor, love for the king and fatherland, home and family acquires the features of a real religious service.
"Domostroy" was created in the first half of the reign. The authorship of the final text is associated with the name of the associate and mentor of Ivan the Terrible, the Annunciation priest Sylvester.
"Domostroy" consists of three parts: about the attitude of the Russian people to the Church and royal power; about intra-family dispensation; about the organization and management of the household.
“Fear the king and serve him by faith, and always pray to God for him,” Domostroy teaches. - If you serve the earthly king with truth and fear it, then you will learn to fear the heavenly King ... ". The duty of serving God is at the same time the duty of serving the tsar, who embodies Orthodox statehood: “The tsar... do not try to serve with lies and slander and deceit... do not wish earthly glory in anything... do not repay evil for evil, nor slander for slander ... do not condemn those who sin, but remember your sins and take care of them tightly ... "
Domostroy has everything. There are touching instructions "how to love and protect and protect and obey the children of the father and mother and give them peace in everything." There are arguments that “if God gives a good wife to someone, dearly, there are stones of great value.” There are practical tips: “what kind of dress to wear and arrange for every wife”, “what kind of garden and gardens to drive”, “how food is served at the table all year long” (details about what is a meat-eater, and what is in what post). There are instructions on the order of the household prayer rule for the whole family - "as a husband with his wife and household in his house pray to God." And all this - with that simplicity, thoroughness and quiet, peaceful unhurriedness, which unmistakably testifies to a concentrated prayer life and unshakable faith.
WOMAN'S LOOK
Domostroy - a set of rules for the behavior of a city dweller, by which he had to be guided in everyday life, a monument of secular writing of the 16th century. Authorship and compilation work are attributed to the archpriest of the Annunciation Monastery in Moscow, confessor of Ivan the Terrible Sylvester. When compiling the code, Russian (“Izmaragd”, “Chrysostom”, “Instruction and Punishment of the Spiritual Fathers”) and Western (Czech “Book of Christian Teaching”, French “Paris Master”, Polish “Life of a Respectable Man”, etc.) “instructive collections". For gender history, sections of Domostroy XXIX, XXXIV, XXXVI are of particular importance, concerning the upbringing of children (including teaching girls to needlework, and boys to do "male" housework) and relations with his wife, "the sovereign of the House", as the author of Domostroy calls the hostess. Domostroy taught women “how to please God and husband”, how to observe the honor of the clan and family, take care of the family hearth, and manage the household. Judging by the Domostroi, they were real housekeepers, supervising the procurement of food, cooking, organizing the work of all family members and servants (cleaning, providing water and firewood, spinning, weaving, tailoring, etc.). All members of the household, except for the owner, had to help the “empress of the House”, completely obeying her. In relations with the household, Domostroy recommended that the owner be a “thunderstorm” for his wife and children and severely punish them for their offenses, up to “crushing the ribs”, or “whipping with a whip for the fault of looking.” The cruelty of relations with a wife and children, prescribed by Domostroy, did not go beyond the morality of the late Middle Ages and differed little from similar edifications of Western European monuments of this type. However, Domostroy got into the history of Russian social thought precisely because of the odious descriptions of the punishments of his wife, since he was repeatedly quoted in this part by Russian raznochintsy-publicists of the 1860s, and then by V. I. Lenin. This explains the unfair oblivion of this most valuable monument until the last quarter of the 20th century. At present, the expression "house-building customs" has retained a clearly expressed negative connotation.
FEMALE LOOK-2
... The argument of foreign researchers in favor of the theory of “terem seclusion” is that during the period of strengthening the grand ducal, and then the royal power and increasing the power of the boyar-princely aristocracy, women remained aloof from these processes and did not receive the right to independently rule, self-realize, and even travel without a male escort.
This conclusion was made on the basis of a number of works of the sixteenth century. - "Domostroy" of the Annunciation archpriest Sylvester and notes of foreigners about Russia. But can these monuments be considered reliable historical sources? Sylvester expressed his idea of the place of women in society and the family; foreigners, who hardly communicated with Russian people, could only have the most superficial idea of the position of local women. For example, when they saw that a noble person was traveling on business surrounded by an honorary retinue, they could conclude that she did not have the right to travel alone. Foreigners could also biasedly assess the presence of female and male halves in Russian houses. This was not due to the isolation of women, but to the division of responsibilities in the family. The woman was engaged in the upbringing of small children, provided all household members, including servants, with clothes, linens and took care of their cleanliness. All women had these duties, regardless of their social status. But the noble and rich hired servants, needlewomen, porters, nurses, mothers and nannies for children, while poor commoners did everything themselves. But the husbands never interfered in these women's affairs, giving the spouses freedom of action.
AUTHORSHIP
Sylvester (beginning of the 16th century - until 1568), a native of the Novgorod prosperous commercial and industrial environment, was close to the Novgorod archbishop Macarius, after whose election as metropolitan he moved to Moscow and from 1545 became the archpriest of the court Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. He participated in the preparation and implementation of the state and cultural reforms of that time, including the compilation and editing of such important monuments as the Sudebnik of 1550 and Cheti-Minei. By their own political views Sylvester is close to non-possessors, he opposed the enrichment of the church, defended a strong state power - autocracy; it became a political platform for rapprochement with representatives of the towering nobility (in the form of other New Dealers such as Alexei Adashev). "Ostuda" of Ivan IV to Sylvester began after the boyar "mutiny" of 1553, in which Sylvester took an evasive position; since he was associated with Vladimir Staritsky, the main antagonist of Ivan IV, he had to "voluntarily" take a haircut in the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery (under the name of Spiridon). The final disgrace befell Sylvester in the spring of 1560, after the death of Empress Anastasia, who favored him. The further circumstances of Sylvester's personal life are little known and are controversial, even the time and place of his death is not known. Leading politician and writer last years During his life he was engaged only in the correspondence of books, some of which have survived.
"Domostroy" of the "Sylvester edition" is the main work of the writer; he edited and partly supplemented the Novgorod collection of similar content that was in the lists.
FROM THREE PARTS OF HOUSE-BUILDING
6. How to visit in monasteries and in hospitals and in dungeons and any mournful (“drink, feed, warm”)
In monasteries, and in hospitals, and in deserts, and in dungeons of prisoners, visit and alms and forces of all necessary give, they demand, and see their misfortune and sorrow and every need, help them as much as possible, and everyone is sorrowful and poor and necessary and do not despise poverty, enter feed your house, feed it, warm your clothes with all love and a pure conscience with those merciful God and receive freedom, and make an offering to the churches of God by your parents who have passed away, and in the house I feed them, do alms to the poor and you yourself will be remembered by God.
(In a monastery, and in a hospital, and in seclusion, and in a dungeon of prisoners, visit and alms that they ask, give according to your ability, and look into their misfortune and sorrow, and their needs, and, as far as possible, help them, and all who are in sorrow and poverty, and the needy, and the poor, do not despise, bring into your house, give drink, feed, warm, welcome with love and with a clear conscience: and by this you will earn the mercy of God and receive forgiveness of sins; also your parents commemorate the dead with an offering to the church of God, and arrange a commemoration at home, and give alms to the poor, then you yourself will be remembered by God).
20. Praise for wives (“if God grants a good wife”)
If God grants a wife to goodness, there is a stone of great value, such one will not lose self-interest from goodness, makes her husband all the goodness, having found a wave and flax, make it worthwhile with your hand, as if a ship would buy from afar, it takes wealth in itself and rises from the night and gives a brush to the house and the work of the slaves, from the fruit he planted his hand, the weight is much, having girded his loins tightly, he will establish his muscle for work and teach his children, so is the slave, and her lamp does not go out all night, stretches out her hands on the useful one, but affirms her lacti on the wrong , but mercy stretches out fruit to the poor, but gives to the poor, her husband does not care for the house, her many different robes are embellished with her husband and herself and the child, and her household, but the husband is always in the host with the noble and sits down with the well-known nobles, he is honest quickly, and prudently understands the conversation as if doing good, no one will be crowned without difficulty, for the sake of good, the husband is blessed and the number of his days is purely, the wife of good makes her husband glad and fill his years with peace, the wife of good part of the good in the part of those who fear the Lord, let it be, the wife of her husband honestly doing, keeping the first commandment of God will be blessed, and the second from the person is praised, the wife is kind, and passionate and silent, there is a crown for her husband, the husband will wear his good wife from his house, blessed are such wives, husband and years of their fulfillment in the goodness of the world, for a good wife, praise to her husband and honor.
(If God grants a good wife, it is better than a precious stone; such a self-interested good will not deprive, always good life arrange for her husband. Having collected wool and linen, do what you need with your own hands, be like a trading ship: from afar it absorbs wealth and arises from the night; and she will give food to the house and the work of the maidservants, from the fruits of her hands she will increase the wealth much more; having tightly girded her loins, she will set her hands on the work and teach her children, like slaves, and her lamp will not go out all night: she stretches her hands to the spinning wheel, and her fingers are taken by the spindle, she turns mercy to the wretched and gives the fruits of labor to the poor, - her husband does not worry about the house; He will make a variety of embroidered clothes for her husband, and for herself, and for her children, and for her household. And therefore, her husband will always gather with the nobles and sit down, honored by all his friends, and, speaking wisely, knows how to do good, for no one is crowned without labor. If a husband is blessed with a good wife, the number of days of his life will double, a good wife pleases her husband and fills his years with peace; let a good wife be a good reward to those who fear God, for a wife makes her husband more virtuous: firstly, having fulfilled God's commandment, she will be blessed by God, and secondly, she will be glorified by people. A kind wife, and industrious, and silent - a crown to her husband, if a husband has found his good wife - he brings out only good things from his house; blessed is the husband of such a wife, and they will live their years in a good world; for a good wife praise her husband and honor).
54. In the cellar and on the glacier, take care of everything (“both mushrooms, and caviar, and fruit drink”)
And in the cellar and on the glaciers, and on the cellars, breads and kolachis, cheeses, eggs whitened, and onions, garlic and all kinds of meat, fresh and corned beef and fresh and salted fish and fresh honey, and boiled meat and fish jelly and all the stock of estomoi, and cucumbers and cabbage, salted and fresh, and turnips, and all sorts of vegetables, and mushrooms, and caviar, and rosols, and fruit drinks, and apple kvass, and cranberry water, and flask wines, and all kinds of combustibles and all kinds of meads, and sycheny and plain beers, and braga, and all that to the key keeper to know, and how much was put on the cellar, and on the glacier and cellar, and everything would be counted and marked, what is completely, what is not quite, and marked, and recorded, and how much of what will be given to where by order of the sovereign and how much what would have happened, everything in the account would have been something to say to the lord, and give an account of everything, and everything would have been clean and covered, and not stale and moldy, and sour, but Frya wines and sychennaya perevara, and every best drink to keep in a cellar behind a castle, and he himself would go there.
(And in the cellar, and on the glaciers, and in the pantries, bread and rolls, cheeses and eggs, sour cream and onions, garlic and all kinds of meat, fresh and corned beef, and fresh and salted fish, and unleavened honey, and boiled food, meat and fish , jelly and any food supply, and cucumbers, and cabbage, salted and fresh, and turnips, and all kinds of vegetables, and mushrooms, and caviar, and ready-made pickles, and fruit drinks, and apple kvass, and lingonberry water, and dry and strong wines and all sorts of meads, and mead-based beer, and simple, and home brew - all that supply to be in charge of the keykeeper. what is not completely, and recounted, and written down, and how much of what and where the keykeeper will give by order of the master, and how much of what will be sold - and that would be all in the account, there would be something for the master to say and give an account of everything. everything is clean and covered, and not suffocated, and not moldy, and not sour. and follow them).