Russian society in the second half of the 19th century. History of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
Great Reforms of Alexander 2. All of them are connected with the abolition of serfdom. Local self-government reforms: zemstvos and city dumas are being created. Peasants also took part in the Zemstvo elections, but they elected according to a multistage system.
Judicial reform. The court becomes public, adversarial. A profession appears lawyer. A jury appeared. Gradually, the most important cases were removed from the competence of the jury. because the government has concluded that such courts issue acquittals unjustifiably . Vera Zasulich, who shot at a police general and was acquitted by a jury, despite the fact that she did not deny her guilt. But the court showed that the general she shot at was a bad person. After that, they decided not to rely on a jury trial. Corporal punishment was abolished, with the exception of the verdict of the peasant hair courts.
Cancellation of recruiting kits and reduction of service life. From 25 to 6 years old. Active discussion of reforms begins in society , there is publicity and this leads to the activation of the opposition, the revolutionaries.
In the 60-70s, the most popular was populism. The main idea of the populists is movement towards socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the peasant community. Lavrov and others believed that it was necessary to prepare the people for revolution. Second direction - rebellious, leader Bakunin. They believed that the people had been ready for a revolution for a long time, it was necessary to raise an uprising. 3 direction - conspiratorial. Leader - Tkachev. They believed that the people were not ready for revolution and would never be ready. So you just need to organize a group of conspirators and stage a coup.
By the mid-1960s, a revolutionary youth group which was headed Ishutin. AT 1862 Karakozov shoots Alexander 2. After that, he was arrested, repressions began, many reforms were stopped. But soon a new organization appeared, headed by Nechaev. He creates a secret organization, divided into 5s.
In 1874 famous going to the people. The result of propaganda - most of the propagandists were arrested by the peasants themselves. In the late 1970s, an organization emerged that made stake on terror. A hunt for Alexander 2 is arranged.
In 1871 March 1 Alexander 2 was killed. Comes to power Alexander 3 who rules from 1881-1894 . Alexander 3, first of all, seeks to restore order in the country, suppresses organizations, introduces a state of emergency in many regions of the country, in addition, a number of reforms were limited, in particular the zemstvo, the control of governors over zemstvos was strengthened, a special position appeared - zemstvo chiefs who controlled the peasant institutions. There is a crisis of populism. Marxism is gradually gaining popularity. Its main idea is the most advanced layer is the industrial workers. By the end of the 19th century, Marxists were most popular among the revolutionaries.
36. The second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century
Treaty of Paris 1856. Achieve a revision of the terms of the Paris peace. It was necessary to find allies, and those who could help us. And initially at the end of the 50s of the 19th century Russia moves closer to France. France was one of the guarantors of this peace.
Border between Russia and Austria-Hungary. The parties came to an unclear agreement. France did not explicitly promise that it would consider the disclosures of the Paris peace. War between France and Austria-Hungary. Outcome the emergence of Italy. The lands of Italy were part of Austria-Hungary.
France is a weakening ally. Russia finds a new ally in the 60s and draws closer to the enemy of France - Prussia. At the head of Prussia the famous Bismarck. He believed that his country should be friends with Russia. German lands around Prussia. Russia and Prussia sign an agreement. Then came the Franco-Prussian War.
The political system of France was liquidated. France ceased to be a monarchy, and never was again. 1871 is a republic. Unification of Germany. United German Empire. Russia received again the rights to keep the fleet in Chernobyl. Union of three emperors. Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary.
Russo-Turkish War(1877-1878). We defeated the Turkish army. As a result of this war- It is Russia that dominates the Balkans. The West didn't like it. In the summer of 1978 in Berlin is going to Berlin Congress. The Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Russia was ordered to withdraw troops from the Balkans. Russia was shown that she is not the master. The alliance of the three emperors began to fall apart. Austria-Hungary opposed Russia most of all, because it had an interest in the Balkans.
In the early 80s of the 19th century, a new union arises, which is called Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. It was already a military alliance. At the end of the 80s of the 19th century Russian-German contract of reinsurance. Bismarck resigns. Russia draws closer to France in the 90s of the 19th century. military union. Europe and the world are preparing for war. Attempts to salvage the situation.
A conference is being held in The Hague. Decisions were made on the humane treatment of prisoners of war, on the prohibition of barbaric weapons. Far East . Conflicts of the three powers. Russia, Japan, USA. Russo-Japanese War. 1907 Russian-English agreement.
1912 first Balkan War . Turkey is weakening and the Slavic countries have tried to take advantage of this. Bulgaria in the Balkans became the most powerful state. The Russian Empire in the First World War. The triple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey, and then Bulgaria joined it. Everyone was preparing for a short war. Spring-summer 1915 offensive on the Russian front. The most unfortunate year for the Russian army. Loss of the Baltic States, Poland, Galicia.
Result 1915 - The German flag is finally torn down. 1916 - Brusilovsky breakthrough in the Austrian fleet. In the rear, the situation is getting worse and worse. Very big food problems. Hunger in the cities. The criticism of Nicholas 2 begins. Rasputin was the same lightning rod, and he was killed. In early 1917, a revolution took place in Russia.
The raznochintsy identified the peasants as the main driving force of the revolution
In the 19th century, trips to Europe by educated Russian people were not uncommon. They returned with the conviction that the West was more civilized than Russia. Sorrowful thoughts about this have always been present in the minds of the advanced part of the Russian intelligentsia, but they manifested themselves with particular force after the defeat in the Crimean War, the change in the way the country was ruled from the rigidly authoritarian - Nicholas I to the relatively liberal - by his son Emperor Alexander II, carried out by him, as it seemed many - insufficient, half-heartedThe fermentation of minds was also facilitated by the entry onto the public stage of a new stratum - raznochintsy (from a combination of the words "different ranks"). The children of deacons, village priests, merchants, and petty officials who managed to get an education and thus "get out into the people" knew the life of the common people better than the nobles, so the need to reorganize Russian reality was obvious to them. However, they did not have a clear, realistic plan for transformations.
Social movements of post-reform Russia
conservative
- church, faith, monarchy, patriarchy, nationalism - the foundations of the state.
: M. N. Katkov - publicist, publisher, editor of the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", D. A. Tolstoy - since May 1882, Minister of the Interior and chief of gendarmes, K. P. Pobedonostsev - lawyer, publicist, chief prosecutor of the Synod
liberal
— constitutional monarchy, glasnost, rule of law, independence of church and state, individual rights
: B. N. Chicherin - lawyer, philosopher, historian; K. D. Kavelin - jurist, psychologist, sociologist, publicist; S. A. Muromtsev — jurist, one of the founders of constitutional law in Russia, sociologist, publicist
revolutionary
- building socialism in Russia, bypassing capitalism; a revolution based on the peasantry, led by a revolutionary party; the overthrow of the autocracy; full allocation of land to the peasants.
: A. I. Herzen - writer, publicist, philosopher; N. G. Chernyshevsky - writer, philosopher, publicist; brothers A. and N. Serno-Solovyevich, V. S. Kurochkin - poet, journalist, translator
Revolutionary organizations of Russia in the late 60s - early 80s of the XIX century
- "Great Russian" (proclamation)- in St. Petersburg in June, September and October 1861, three issues were published and one more issue in 1863. They required the transfer to the peasants without redemption of all the land that they used under serfdom, the complete separation of Poland, a constitution, and individual freedom. The hope for carrying out reforms in life was assigned to the king. The author of the proclamations remains unknown.
- "Land and freedom" (1861-1864). tasks: to completely transfer the land to the peasants, the overthrow of the autocracy, the convening of the Zemsky Sobor to determine the form of democracy. Self-destructed from the fact that the hopes for an all-Russian peasant revolt in 1863 did not materialize
- Revolutionary circle of N. A. Ishutin (1863-1866). Tasks: by organizing various workshops on an artel basis, an attempt to convince the people of the advantages of socialist production; demands for government reforms leading to socialism, and in the absence of reforms, a popular revolution. After a member of the organization D.V. Karakozov made an attempt on Alexander II in April 1866, the circle was defeated
- "Smorgon Academy" (1867–1868) headed by P. N. Tkachev. Tasks: creation of a secret centralized and conspiratorial revolutionary organization, seizure of power and establishment of the dictatorship of the "revolutionary minority". With the arrest of Tkachev, the society ceased to exist.
- "Ruble Society" (1867-1868) headed by G. A. Lopatin and F. V. Volkhovsky. Tasks: revolutionary propaganda among the peasants. In 1868 most of members of the society were arrested.
- "People's massacre" (1869-1870) headed by S. G. Nechaev. Tasks: the unification of local peasant uprisings into an all-Russian uprising with the aim of the absolute destruction of the state system of Russia. Destroyed after the murder by Nechaev of one of the ordinary members of society, suspected of betrayal
- Society of "Chaikovites" (1869-1874), by the name of one of the members of the society N.V. Tchaikovsky. The tasks are propaganda, educational: distribution among the people of legally published books by leading authors and printing of prohibited books and brochures. In 1874 the police arrested many members of the society
According to V. I. Lenin - 1861 - 1895 - the second period freedom movement in Russia, called raznochinskiy or revolutionary-democratic. Wider circles of educated people, the intelligentsia, entered the struggle, “the circle of fighters has become wider, their connection with the people is closer” (Lenin “In Memory of Herzen”)
Topic: Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century
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University: VZFEI
Year and city: Vladimir 2007
Plan. page
Introduction 3
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century 4
(1861-1900)
2. Domestic policy of the Russian Empire in 1881-1900 7
3. Social - political and opposition movement in 1861-1900 9
4.Development of the labor movement in Russia. Russian education 12
social democratic party
5. Test 15
Conclusion 16
References 17
Introduction.
In 1861, the most important event in the history of Russia took place - the abolition of serfdom, which had existed as a system for more than two centuries. Peasant reform cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, the abolition of serfdom led to irreversible changes in all spheres of Russian life. In the countryside, the stratification of the peasantry was in full swing: from the patriarchal milieu of the communal peasants, rapidly growing wealthy owners stood out - potential bourgeois - and the poor, turning into poor proletarians. Factories and plants received a constant influx of cheap labor. The accelerated destruction of the subsistence economy made the all-Russian domestic market more capacious. All this, taken together, gave a powerful impetus to the development industrial production. On the other hand, the reform preserved and mothballed serf relations. Carrying out the abolition of serfdom, which undermined the traditional landlord economy, the government at the same time sought to preserve this economy itself, compensating the landowners for the inevitable losses. Moreover, she laid the compensation on the liberated peasantry. As a result, the landlords retained the best lands and received huge sums of money in their hands; the peasantry, for the most part, was dispossessed of land and subjected to exorbitantly heavy payments. This aggravated the features of backwardness in rural life and ultimately led to a deep crisis. After that, a whole band of various transformations begins.
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century (1861-1900)
After the reform of 1861, the development of capitalist relations accelerated significantly. This process under conditions had significant specific features:
The great inhibitory influence of semi-serfdom relations;
Significant role of the state, especially in the development of large-scale industry;
Sharp disproportions in the development of industry and agriculture.
Industry development. After the abolition of serfdom and until the end of the 19th century, two periods of industrial growth were noted: the 60-70s and the 90s.
The first rise was characterized by the greatest growth in industries that had earlier switched to civilian labor, especially in the textile and sugar industries. The metallurgy of the Urals, previously based on serf labor, was in stagnation. The shift in the development of metallurgy began only in the second half of the 1970s. as the formation of Donbass.
The most important factor in industrial growth at that time was railway construction (the largest roads were to Nizhny Novgorod and Voronezh). Among other things, this became an incentive for the rise of engineering; already from the second half of the 70s, railways began to be provided with rolling stock of domestic production.
The industrial revolution that began in the middle of the century in a number of industries (primarily in textiles) in the main industries is completed by the end of the century.
Cities are growing rapidly, including new ones - especially Ivanovo-Voznesensk in the center and Rostov-on-Don in the south. But even according to the 1897 census, a little more than 1/10 of the population lived in cities.
The development of industry had a great regional specificity. Formed 4 main industrial center: Center, St. Petersburg, Ural, South.
There is a formation of new classes - the workers and the bourgeoisie. By the end of the century there were 3 million industrial workers. One of the features of the Russian proletariat was its unprecedented high concentration in large enterprises. During this period, the position of the bulk of the workers, with the exception of a small group of highly skilled workers, was very difficult. As for entrepreneurs, it is necessary to note the emergence of a number of dynasties from among them (Bakhrushins, Morozovs, Mamontovs, Tretyakovs), who took measures to improve the lives of workers, gained fame as patrons, played an important role in the development of culture.
In the 80s. there was a slow development of industry due to the narrowness of the domestic market due to the poverty of the peasants. In conditions of stagnation, there is a particular deterioration in the situation of workers, primarily in the textile industry. It is no coincidence that it was at this time, in 1885, that the first mass action of workers in Russia took place - the Morozov strike (at the largest textile enterprise in the country - the Nikolskaya Morozov Manufactory).
New industrial boom 90s. was associated with unprecedented stimulation of industry by the state, especially since 1892, when S. Witte became Minister of Finance. Support was provided through state orders, primarily in relation to military factories and railway construction (including the Trans-Siberian Railway was built in 1891-1904).
Important sources of financing at that time were, first of all, grain exports in accordance with the formula “we will not finish eating, but we will take it out”. Under Witte, a wine monopoly and the widespread attraction of foreign capital were added to this, which was facilitated by the monetary reform of 1897 (the introduction of a convertible ruble).
As a result, an unprecedented industrial upsurge was ensured, during which modern large-scale industry was created. At this time, Russia had the highest growth rates in the world. In general, during the post-reform period, the volume of industrial production increased by 7 times. In terms of iron smelting, the country ranked fourth in the world. Russia has become an industrial-agrarian country. But the development of industry was characterized by sharp disproportions: the main investments were made in military production, there was an excessive share of heavy industry against the backdrop of backward agriculture and a narrow domestic market.
Agriculture. After 1861 and until the end of the century, two periods are distinguished in its development: 60-70s and 80-90s. For the first 20 years, the conditions for the development of agriculture were largely determined by the high prices for bread on the world market. Russia at that time occupied the first place in the world export of bread and during this period increased it by 3 times.
At this stage, two options for capitalist development in agriculture, to some extent localized and territorial. The "Prussian" path prevailed in the Center, characterized by slow capitalist evolution. Here, for a long time, semi-serf exploitation was preserved, primarily in the form of a labor system. In the South (especially in Novorossia), the "American" version of the rapid development of capitalist relations prevailed - a large number of large farms ("economy") based on hired labor appeared.
At the same time, in the Center itself, there was a noticeable difference between the situation in the Chernozem region and in the Non-Chernozem region. In the first, it was relatively favorable, because ransom payments here were acceptable. Therefore, the redistribution of land in the community was rare, the attitude towards allotments as property was gradually formed, social stratification was going on. In the Non-Chernozem region, the situation was much worse due to excessively high redemption payments.
In the subsequent period, in the 80-90s, in the Non-Chernozem region, on the contrary, there was some improvement in the situation, because. otkhodnichestvo is getting more and more developed, many peasants found earnings in industry. In the Chernozem region, there is a sharp deterioration under the influence of two factors. Firstly, there is a huge increase in the peasant population (by 2 times in 40 years) due to a decrease in mortality under the influence of zemstvo medicine. As a result, there is a rapid crushing and grinding of peasant allotments. Secondly, since the late 70s. the world market is filled with cheap bread from America and Australia. As a result, there is a fall in the price of bread, as a result, the curtailment of landowners' plowing and a decrease in working off. The main source of income for landowners is the lease of land, which leads to an exorbitant increase in rent.
Therefore, in the Chernozem region, the main process is not the stratification of the peasantry, but the impoverishment (pauperization) of its bulk. In these difficult conditions, land redistributions are being revived in the community. To this in the early 90s. crop failure and famine were added in many places. The situation of the peasants did not change for the better for a long time, they accumulated despair and anger, a social explosion was brewing.
Counter-reforms. How did the ruling circles try to solve all these acute problems? Under Alexander III, the autocracy, frightened by the terror of the Narodnaya Volya, embarked on the path of reaction, a whole era of "counter-reforms" (80-90s) began.
In 1881, the "Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Protection" was adopted, which became the main document - the legal basis for intensifying repression. When it was introduced in any locality, the authorities could expel undesirable persons, refer court cases to military courts, suspend periodicals and close educational institutions. This document was valid until 1917, and some areas lived for decades under the regime of emergency management.
The government tried to solve the problems of the countryside by strengthening the landowners' control over the peasants. In 1889 Zemstvo chiefs were introduced. They were appointed from local landowners and completely controlled the life of the village - they could cancel the decision of the village and volost gatherings, arrest the headman or volost foreman. A series of laws were also passed to make it difficult to leave the community and family divisions.
In 1890, the zemstvo counter-reform was carried out: the property qualification for the nobles was lowered and the property qualification was increased for the townspeople, the zemstvo became a class, the governor began to appoint peasant vowels.
2. Internal policy of the Russian Empire in 1861-1900.
The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of a whole series of transformations, which in those years were called "great reforms". The main ones are: reforms of local self-government (zemstvo and city), judicial, military.
In 1864, zemstvo self-government was introduced (except for Siberia and a number of other regions where there were no landowners, who were assigned a dominant role in the zemstvo).
Zemstvos were created at the county and provincial level, but in the following years, a public struggle unfolded for the creation of a grassroots zemstvo unit at the volost level. The zemstvo included administrative bodies: provincial and district assemblies and executive councils.
Unlike the former bodies of estate self-government, the zemstvo had an all-estate character. Elections of zemstvo deputies (vowels) were held from three separate congresses (large landowners, city owners and peasants).
The landowners dominated the zemstvos, but the "third element" - the zemstvo intelligentsia (teachers, doctors) - grew more and more. A whole generation of selfless workers has grown up, like the heroes of Chekhov's works.
Zemstvos were primarily engaged in economic affairs, and the main result of this was the creation of a system of schools and hospitals for the people. Gradually, they began to be included in politics - zemstvo liberalism becomes the main base of the liberal movement.
The assessment of the historical role of the Zemstvo is ambiguous. Revolutionary circles rated him very low as an appendage of the bureaucracy (Lenin: "Zemstvo is the fifth wheel in the cart of the Russian autocracy"). Now, on the contrary, this body is given high marks. An example of this is Solzhenitsyn, who considers the restoration of the Zemstvo an important prerequisite for the revival of modern Russia.
In 1870, a city self-government was also established, which in its structure and functions was similar to the Zemstvo.
It was the most progressive of all these reforms, based on the achievements of world jurisprudence. The judiciary created according to the reform, in contrast to the old feudal court, had such features as non-estate, publicity, adversarial nature of the process, independence from the administration (the most important guarantee of this is the irremovability of judges).
The district court became the main instance of the judicial system. Along with the judge, the most important role in the court was played by the jurors, who were recruited from representatives of all estates by lot from all estates) delivered a verdict. It should be noted that the legal norms adopted at that time in Russia were of a very progressive nature, including common criminal law, which did not know the death penalty.
In addition to other judicial instances, the institution of justices of the peace was established to deal with petty cases.
In the conditions of post-reform Russia, the judicial and legal sphere was of great social importance and became the most important means of democratic education. Famous judicial figures (Koni, Plevako) gained wide popularity.
However, the created judicial system was not of a universal nature: the estate volost court for peasants was preserved, which was guided by local customary law and could award corporal punishment (until 1904).
The initiator of the reform carried out in 1874 was the Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin, whose brother, Nikolai Milyutin, played key role in the drafting of the peasant reform.
The main thing was that instead of recruitment, universal military service was introduced (6 years in the army, 7 in the navy). After high school they served - 6 months, gymnasium - 1.5 years. These norms provided additional incentives for education.
3. Socio-political and opposition movement of 1861-1900.
In the second half of the 50s. there was a public upsurge, but after February 19, 1861, the pressure of the reactionaries intensified (this led to the resignation of N. Milyutin).
A vivid expression of the disengagement of the opposition movement was the fall of the role of the "Bell", which had previously been the ruler of thoughts. In the second half of the 60s. there is its decline and closure, complete loneliness of Herzen sets in, combining the features of liberalism and democracy.
In the first half of the 60s. the main manifestation of the liberal movement was a series of speeches by provincial noble assemblies (especially Tver and Moscow). Zemstvos are becoming the center of liberal activity.
Meanwhile, the onset of reaction is intensifying, the reason for which was the actions of the "extreme left". In the summer of 1862, a leaflet entitled "Young Russia" by a student Zaichnevsky appeared calling for a "bloody revolution" and the introduction of communism. The famous Petersburg fires coincided with this, giving rise to rumors about nihilist arsonists. Taking advantage of this, the authorities arrested the leader of the revolutionary democracy N.G. Chernyshevsky and his chief collaborator in the Sovremennik magazine N. Serno-Solovyevich. In 1864, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to 7 years of hard labor.
The repressions led to further radicalization of the opposition youth, the creation of underground organizations, and the emergence of the idea of assassination of the king. Back in the early 60s. the first underground organization after the Decembrists "Land and Freedom" arose. It was headed by Serno-Solov'evich, but after his arrest, the student Utin played the most prominent role in it. Having lost hope for a peasant uprising, this organization dissolved itself in 1864.
But the Moscow branch of "Earth and Freedom" survived and became the basis for the organization created by Ishutin, a student at Moscow University. She tried to conduct propaganda among the peasants, and then they began to incline to terror (for this, the Hell group was created). In April 1866, Dmitry Karakozov, a member of the group, shot at the tsar on his own initiative.
After this, there is a more decisive turn towards reaction. Outwardly, the Minister of Education Tolstoy became the main conductor of this policy. Really leading role in strengthening the reaction, the head of the III department, the chief of the gendarmes, Shuvalov, played.
Late 60s-early 70s. there is a formation of a certain, relatively integral ideology of the revolutionary movement - populism (the name is associated with the main motive of their activity - "the return of debt to the people"). His predecessors are Herzen and Chernyshevsky. A number of key provisions were inherited from them: 1) revolution is the only way to improve the life of the people. 2) neglect of the struggle for the constitution and civil rights. 3) the idea of bypassing capitalism through the peasant community.
There were three ideological currents in populism:
Propaganda (founder - P. Lavrov, his main work - "Historical Letters");
Rebellious (leader - M. Bakunin, his main work "Statehood and anarchy");
Conspiratorial. Its ideologist was P. Tkachev, a member of the Nechaev organization (1869), and the main ideas came from him (the main thing is an underground organization with an iron organization and discipline). These ideas came to the fore in the late 70s.
In the early 1970s, for the first time, a wide association of revolutionary circles was created, which is sometimes called "Chaikovites" (after the name of one of the leaders). Most of the future leaders of populism came out of it. Among them was the later famous anarchist theorist Kropotkin.
In 1874, the largest action of revolutionary youth was undertaken, a desperate attempt to influence the peasants - "going to the people." Members of the movement were repressed, 770 people were arrested.
In 1876, the first large underground organization "Land and Freedom" was created (there were 150 people in it). The main task was propaganda for the preparation of the people's socialist revolution, while terror was conceived only as a means of self-defense.
In the second half of the 70s, a new social upsurge was observed, in particular under the influence of the Russian-Turkish war. There is an activation of the liberal movement, there have been a number of speeches demanding a constitution, an illegal zemstvo congress was held, an illegal "Zemsky Union" was created. There were even negotiations with the revolutionaries (they were asked to temporarily stop the terror), but the agreement did not take place.
Meanwhile, under the influence of government repressions in the organization "Land and Freedom", sentiments in favor of terror were growing more and more. They especially intensified after the case of Vera Zasulich (1877), which revealed public sympathy for terror. In 1879 there was a split in "Land and Freedom". Supporters of propaganda created the organization "Black Redistribution" headed by G. Plekhanov and V. Zasulich, while the majority joined the "Narodnaya Volya". It was a strictly centralized organization, headed by the Executive Committee (its leaders are Andrey Zhelyabov and Sofya Perovskaya). The main goal was a political coup, the establishment of a revolutionary government that would carry out socialist measures. The main means was terror, in fact, the main one was the "hunt" for the king.
The climax of the struggle took place in the late 70's - early 80's. After the explosion organized in early 1880 by Khalturin in the Winter Palace, there were certain fluctuations in power. Tolstoy was fired, General Loris-Melikov actually became the head of the government. He carried out the so-called "dictatorship of the heart", combining ruthless repression against terrorists and at the same time flirting with liberals. Vague plans were made to convene a representative assembly.
On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was assassinated, and soon after that, the authorities managed to defeat the "Narodnaya Volya". After that there was a decisive turn of the ruling circles towards reaction, counter-reforms.
4.Development of the labor movement in Russia. Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Party.
From the beginning of the new century, a social upsurge was indicated, which continued uninterruptedly until the first revolution. The general expectation of change intensified, the words from Maxim Gorky's "Song of the Petrel" became a symbol of the time, "Let the storm break stronger!"
The objective basis for the activation of the social movement was the acuteness of socio-economic contradictions. The public upsurge took place in two directions. On the one hand, the student, worker and peasant movement is activated. On the other hand, the liberal and radical intelligentsia is becoming more active, embarking on the path of creating appropriate political organizations.
The initiator of the public upsurge was the students, whose performances became more active from 1899. In response to the repressions (turning the rebellious students into soldiers) in 1901, student Karpovich shot the Minister of Education Bogolepov, which was the first in Russia in the 20th century. an act of "revolutionary terror".
The workers' movement is also activated, and then the peasant movement. On May 1, 1900, the country's first May Day demonstration took place in Kharkov. The year 1901 was marked by May Day demonstrations in a number of cities across the country, a clash between workers and the police in St. Petersburg (“Obukhov defense”), a general strike in Rostov-on-Don with the participation of 30,000. was described in Gorky's novel "Mother") and the mentioned mass unrest of peasants in Ukraine. 1903 was marked by a general strike of workers in the South of Russia (200 thousand people). For 1900-1904 there were 600 peasant uprisings.
As for the politically formed opposition movement, two currents acted in it as before - revolutionary and liberal. Moreover, as before, the first was dominant, which was also manifested in the earlier emergence of revolutionary parties (Social Democrats and Socialist-Revolutionaries) in comparison with liberal ones. This was determined both by the weakness of the social base of liberalism and the repressive policy of tsarism, which pushed the opposition to extreme radicalism.
social democratic movement. The creation of the Marxist party was preceded by certain period spread of Marxism in Russia. Back in 1883, former members of the "Black Redistribution", headed by Plekhanov, created the "Group for the Emancipation of Labor" in Geneva. Plekhanov launched a struggle against the ideology of the populists - in his work "Our Differences" he argued that Russia was following the path of capitalism. In the 80-90s. a number of Marxist circles arose in Russia itself (they were headed in St. Petersburg by Blagoev, then by Brusnev, in the Volga region by Fedoseev, in which young Vladimir Ulyanov, the future Lenin, got acquainted with Marxism in the early 1990s).
The main ideological task of the Marxists in the 90s. there was a struggle against liberal populism, which occupied social thought in the 80-90s. leading position. The main ideas of the liberal populists: a peaceful path of transformation, the possibility of bypassing capitalism, relying on "people's production." Their main organ is the magazine " Russian wealth”, the main authors: Mikhailovsky, Vorontsov, Krivenko (the latter put forward the famous theory of “small deeds”). In 1894, Ulyanov's first major work, "What are the "friends of the people" and how do they fight against the Social Democrats?", which was directed against the liberal populists, was published.
In 1895, at the initiative of Ulyanov, the Marxist circles united in the "Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class." Among its leaders was the future leader of the Mensheviks, Julius Martov. Lenin considered this organization "the prototype of the workers' party", "the first attempt to combine Marxism with the workers' movement." However, soon the leadership of the union was arrested, Ulyanov was exiled to Siberia, in the village. Shushenskoye (1897-1900).
Meanwhile, the union continued to operate and in 1898, on its initiative, the 1st Congress of the RSDLP was held in Minsk with the participation of 9 people, which announced the creation of a Social Democratic Party. In reality, as before, within the Russian empire at that moment there was the only significant workers' organization - the Jewish association "Bund".
After the arrest and exile of radical Marxists like Ulyanov, the reformist representatives of this ideological movement, the so-called "legal Marxists" (among them the future leaders of the Kadet party Struve and Bulgakov), gained significant influence. Economism was another reformist trend in social democracy at that time.
In 1900, Ulyanov went into exile, since 1901 his works have been signed with the pseudonym "Lenin". He begins to implement his plan for creating a "workers' party of a new type." The main tool for this was the newspaper Iskra (1990), created abroad in 1900, as a "collective propagandist and organizer", whose agents were sent to Russia. There was a formation of a layer of supporters of the Leninist trend in the Social Democracy - "Iskrists". In 1902, in Lenin's work "What is to be done?", where the concept of a "party of a new type" received the most fundamental justification. It provided for centralization, discipline, reliance on "professional revolutionaries", ideological intransigence, and the introduction of revolutionary ideology into the labor movement.
In 1903, the Second Congress of the RSDLP was held (in Brussels, then in London), which adopted its program and charter. At the congress, the Russian Social Democrats split into a more radical trend headed by Lenin and a moderate trend led by Martov. In the elections to the Central Committee of the party, the first won a majority and since then began to be called Bolsheviks, and the second Mensheviks.
5.Test.
Install chronological order events:
1) Accession of Astrakhan to Russia
2) The beginning of the Livonian War
3) Accession of Kazan to Russia
4) The final legal registration of serfdom
Answer: 3,1,2,4.
Conclusion.
Thus, by the end of the century, the results economic development Russia were controversial. There was a significant growth in industry and at the same time the slow development of agriculture, the difficult situation of the main masses of the peasantry was preserved and aggravated. Under these conditions, the ruling circles did not find adequate ways to solve acute socio-economic problems. It can be said that the policy of counter-reforms, driving problems into the depths, made its "contribution" to the brewing of a revolutionary explosion at the beginning of the 20th century.
The "Great Reforms" became an important step towards the development of capitalism, familiarization with the highest achievements of civilization. However, the reforms were limited. The reforms did not touch the upper levels of power - the constitution and the parliament did not appear. The bulk of the population - the peasantry to a large extent continued to live in conditions of lack of rights and arbitrariness.
Evaluation of these events is very difficult. Soviet historians, in accordance with the statements of Lenin, characterized the social movement of the 60-70s. as "the second - raznochinsk stage of the liberation movement." Revolutionary populism was highly valued, and revolutionary terror was recognized as natural. Now, following Vekhi, many authors write about the irresponsible intelligentsia, which thwarted the reforms with their terror. In reality, we can talk about a complex relationship: repression caused opposition, and the actions of the revolutionaries, in turn, pushed the government to react. The predominance of the revolutionary trend in the opposition movement, the weakness of liberalism, were not accidental. In many ways, they were explained by the lack of a mass social base among the liberals in the face of the bourgeoisie, the main support of this trend was a relatively small group of liberal nobles.
Addition.
In the period of 60-70s handicrafts developed most intensively. Their growth rates were very high. An example would be statistics on Perm province- one of the most dynamically developing regions of the country. If for 1855-1865. in the west of the Middle Urals, 533 new handicraft establishments arose, then in the next decade there were already 1339 of them created, in the period 1875-1885. the number of new handicraft farms has already amounted to 2652 thousand. in 30 years their number has increased five times.
In the 1960s, manufactory production began to develop intensively. Numerous factories and factories are being built in the European part of Russia, primarily in Moscow and the Moscow region, Donbass, the Volga region and the St. Petersburg region. Metallurgy is developing most intensively. The Urals becomes the center of mining and metallurgical production. Of the 290,000 tons of pig iron produced in Russia in 1865, 232,000 tons were smelted by the Ural plants; they also produced 161,000 tons of iron and steel out of 187,000 tons received in the whole country.
At the turn of the 70s, the construction of metallurgical plants began in the south of Russia. In the pre-reform period, only three small metallurgical enterprises worked there on imported or local ores. At the end of the 1960s, a plant was built in Lisichansk and the Petrovsky plant in the Lugansk mining district was reconstructed. In 1872, the Yuzovsky Metallurgical Plant was put into operation.
By the beginning of the 1980s, along with handicrafts that continued to develop, factory production was becoming increasingly important. An important feature of its formation was the gradual transition from manual to mechanized labor. Machine technologies have received the greatest development in the manufacturing industries. The enterprises of the metalworking industry, which had 24.8% of all engines and concentrated 77.5% of all workers, provided 86.3% of the total production of the industry.
In the process of industrial and economic development, the country's economy faced a number of serious difficulties and contradictions. The rapidly increasing volumes of shipments of factory products outpaced the transport possibilities. So, the Ural metal and products from it were sent from the Ural state-owned factories by caravans of barges in the summer-autumn period along the Chusovaya, Belaya Kama and Volga rivers and only then were reloaded into the cars of the Ural, Samara-Zlatoust and other railways. The industrial south of the country also experienced a large shortage of vehicles.
The task of creating the railway network as soon as possible has grown into a major national problem. The development of steam transport was put at the forefront of state policy, it became the basis of the industrial and economic strategy of the last 25th anniversary of the 19th century. - the second stage of industrialization.
Railway construction had a huge impact on the development of agriculture and industry. In Russia, which has a vast territory and diverse, widely separated economic regions, railways were of exceptional importance for expanding the domestic market and for strengthening the country's trade ties with the world market.
Railway construction became a powerful factor in the development of industry, as it presented a huge demand for metal (rails, wagons, steam locomotives), for fuel, for consumer goods for an entire army of construction workers. For the construction of railways, large capitals were required, and for this purpose many joint-stock companies arose, which "gave ... an impetus to the concentration of capital ..."
The railway network in Russia from 1861 to 1881 grew from 1.6 thousand km to 23.1 thousand km. "Rivalry with European powers forced the Russian autocracy ... to create a wide network of railways ...".
The first railways connected Moscow as the economic center of the country with a number of important regions and cities (Kursk, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod,
Yaroslavl and others); then a connection is established between the center and port cities
(Odessa, Riga). The construction of roads in the Urals (Perm -
Yekaterinburg).
Water steam transport has grown significantly: the number of steamboats on the rivers increased from 399 in 1860 to 1200 in 1881. Accordingly, the freight turnover of rail and steamship transport and the transportation of passengers are growing.
In view of the special significance of the transport issue, the main burden of its solution was assumed by the state. The laying of railways was financed mainly from the treasury, at the expense of general budget revenues, the share of private capital of shareholders was insignificant. Only in the first decade of the era of reforms (1861-1870) about 2.5 billion rubles were invested in railway construction. In the future, the volume of investment in the industry continued to grow and by the end of the 19th century. reached the maximum. From 1891 to 1903, 5.5 billion rubles were allocated for industrial and, above all, railway construction, which was 25% more than investments for the previous 32 years. The main ideologist of the priority financing of transport programs was S. Yu. Witte, who held the post of Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903.
Large investments provided fast development railways. If in 1860 the construction length of the railway network in Russia was 1626 km, then in 1870 it increased to 10,731 km, in 1880 this figure reached 22,865 km. During the industrial boom of the 90s, more than 2.5 thousand km were built annually. From 1893 to 1902, 27 thousand km of railways came into operation, and their total length exceeded 55 thousand km. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began, which was basically completed at the beginning of the 20th century.
The country's breakthrough in railway construction gave a powerful impetus to the growth of production in other industries. The need of the railway industry for metal, coal and rolling stock stimulated the development of mechanical engineering, mining, metallurgy, and energy.
By the beginning of the 20th century, 17 new plants were put into operation in the Donbass and Krivoy Rog, including such large ones as the Dneprovsky, Druzhkovsky and metallurgical plants of the Donetsk-Yuryevsky Society. At the same time, Kharkov, Lugansk and Nikolaev mechanical plants were built in the south of Russia.
Rapid development at the end of the XIX century. industry and railway construction caused a rapid increase in the number of workers in the country. If in 1865 in the European part of Russia 706 thousand people were employed in production and in the field of transport construction, then in 1879 this figure increased to 1179 thousand, in 1890 it amounted to 1432 thousand and finally in 1900 - 2208 thousand people. Thus, for the period 1865-1900. The number of workers in European Russia more than tripled. The population during this time increased by 1.5 times.
At the same time, the industrial construction of Russia also experienced considerable difficulties, including: insufficient development of the domestic market, lack of scientific and engineering personnel, the land-patriarchal mentality of the population, and a negative attitude towards the industrialization of large landowners. In the depths of the country's industrial breakthrough at the end of the 19th century, the prerequisites for the emergence of a deep industrial and economic crisis at the beginning of the 20th century, which developed into a protracted depression of 1903-1908, were secretly ripening.
List of used literature
1.I.S. Kuznetsov. Lectures on the history of Russia. Novosibirsk: 2002. 182p.
2. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia
IX - early XX century / Comp.: S.V. Mironenko. - M.: Politizdat, 1991.- 367 p.
3. History of Russia from antiquity to the present day: A guide for applicants
universities / I.V. Volkova, M.M. Gorinov, A. A. Gorsky and others; Ed. M.N. Zuev.
M. : Vyssh. school, 1996. - 639 p.
4. The World History: Textbook for universities / Edited by G.B. Polyak, A.N.
Markova. - M.: UNITI, 2001.- 496 p.
5. A.P. Derevyanko, N.A. Shabelnikova. History of Russia since ancient times
until the beginning of the XXI century, Moscow 2002
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Conservative, liberal and radical currents in the social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century
In the second half of the nineteenth century. Three directions in the social movement finally took shape: conservatives, liberals and radicals.
The social basis of the direction of the conservatives was the reactionary nobles, clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants and a significant part of the peasants. Conservatism in the second half of the nineteenth century. remained true to the theory of "official nationality".
Autocracy was declared the foundation of the state, and Orthodoxy - the basis of the spiritual life of the people. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people. In this, the conservatives saw the originality of the historical path of Russia.
In the domestic political field, conservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s. In the economic sphere, they advocated the inviolability of private property, landownership and the community.
In the social field, they called for the unity of the Slavic peoples around Russia.
The ideologists of the conservatives were K.P. Pobedonostsev, D.A. Tolstoy, M.N. Katkov.
Conservatives were statist guardians and had a negative attitude towards any mass social actions, standing up for order.
The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landowners, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.
They defended the idea of a common path with Western Europe historical development Russia.
In the domestic political field, the liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles and the continuation of reforms.
Their political ideal was a constitutional monarchy.
In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise. They demanded the abolition of class privileges.
The liberals stood for the evolutionary path of development, considering reforms to be the main method of modernizing Russia.
They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activity mainly consisted in submitting "addresses" to the name of the tsar - petitions with a proposal for a program of transformations.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists: K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin, V.A. Goltsev and others.
Features of Russian liberalism: its noble character due to the political weakness of the bourgeoisie and readiness for rapprochement with conservatives.
Representatives of the radical direction strove for violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (revolutionary path).
The radical movement was attended by people from different walks of life (raznochintsy), who devoted themselves to serving the people.
In the history of the movement of radicals of the second half of the XIX century. three stages are distinguished: 60s. - folding revolutionary-democratic ideology and the creation of secret raznochinsk circles; 70s - the formation of populism, the special scope of the agitational and terrorist activities of the revolutionary populists; 80s - 90s - the weakening of the popularity of populism and the beginning of the spread of Marxism.
In the 60s. there were two centers of radical direction. One is around the editorial office of Kolokol, published by A.I. Herzen in London. He promoted the theory of "communal socialism" and sharply criticized the conditions for the emancipation of the peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. N.G. became its ideologist. Chernyshevsky, who was arrested and exiled to Siberia in 1862.
The first major revolutionary-democratic organization was "Land and Freedom" (1861), which included several hundred members from different strata: officials, officers, students.
In the 70s. Among the populists there were two trends: revolutionary and liberal.
The main ideas of the revolutionary Narodniks are: capitalism in Russia is imposed "from above", the future of the country lies in communal socialism, the transformations must be carried out by the revolutionary method by the forces of the peasants.
Three trends emerged in revolutionary populism: rebellious, propagandistic, and conspiratorial.
The ideologist of the rebellious trend M.A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant was by nature a rebel and ready for revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and kindle an all-Russian revolt. He called for the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities.
P.L. Lavrov - the ideologist of the propaganda trend - did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he focused on propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry.
P.N. Tkachev, the ideologist of the conspiratorial trend, believed that the peasants should not be taught socialism. In his opinion, a group of conspirators, having seized power, will quickly draw the people into socialism.
In 1874, based on the ideas of M.A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries undertook a mass "going to the people", hoping to stir up the peasants in revolt. However, the movement was crushed by tsarism.
In 1876, the surviving participants in the "going to the people" formed the secret organization "Land and Freedom", headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov and others. A second "going to the people" was carried out - with the aim of prolonged agitation among the peasants.
After the split of "Land and Freedom", two organizations were formed - "Black Redistribution" (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich and others) and "Narodnaya Volya" (A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S. .L. Perovskaya). The Narodnaya Volya considered the assassination of the tsar as their goal, assuming that this would cause a nationwide uprising.
In the 80s - 90s. the populist movement is weakening. Former participants of the "Black Redistribution" G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, V.N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. In 1883 - 1892. in Russia itself, several Marxist circles were formed, which saw their task in studying Marxism and propagating it among workers and students.
In 1895, Marxist circles in St. Petersburg united in the Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class.
The position of Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of the abyss. The economy and finances were undermined Crimean War, and the national economy fettered by the chains of serfdom could not develop.
Legacy of Nicholas I
The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most unsuccessful since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus. the ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one”. The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the general illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of small-town authorities in all spheres of public life.
It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:
- In foreign policy- to restore the international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
- In domestic policy, to create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the sore peasant question. To overcome the lag behind Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
- When solving internal problems, the government involuntarily had to face the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.
After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air, the country needed reforms. The new Emperor Alexander II understood this.
Russia in the reign of Alexander II
The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles revolted. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into the territory of Poland and suppressed the rebellion.
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The manifesto on the abolition of serfdom on February 19, 1861 immortalized the name of Alexander. The law equalized all classes of citizens before the law and now all segments of the population bore the same state duties.
- After a partial solution peasant question local government reforms. In 1864 Zemstvo reform was carried out. This transformation made it possible to reduce the pressure of the bureaucracy on local authorities and made it possible to solve most of the economic problems on the ground.
- In 1863, judicial reforms were carried out. The court became an independent authority and was appointed by the Senate and the king for life.
- Under Alexander II, many educational institutions, for the workers were built Sunday schools, there were secondary schools.
- The transformations also affected the army: the sovereign changed 25 years of service in the army from 25 to 15 years. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army and navy.
- During the reign of Alexander II, Russia achieved significant success in foreign policy. The Western and Eastern Caucasus, part of Central Asia, was annexed. Having defeated Turkey in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, the Russian Empire restored Black Sea Fleet and took possession of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles in the Black Sea.
Under Alexander II, the development of industry is activated, bankers seek to invest in metallurgy and in the construction of railways. At the same time, there was some decline in agriculture, as the liberated peasants were forced to rent land from their former owners. As a result, most of the peasants went bankrupt and went to the city to work with their families.
Rice. 1. Russian Emperor Alexander II.
Social movements in the second half of the 19th century
The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main currents :
- conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev joined him. The conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria - autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
- Liberal movement. The founder of this movement was the prominent historian Chicherin B.N., later Kavelin K.D. and Muromtsev S.A. joined him. constitutional monarchy, the right of the individual and the independence of the church from the state.
- revolutionary current. The ideologists of this current were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N. A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of theoretical writers were based on the complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for all would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism, and the peasantry would help it in this.
One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Great Russian”, “People's Reprisal”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was promoted in order to agitate them.
The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the raznochintsy to overthrow the government. This led to the split of the revolutionaries into two camps - practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and cracked down on prominent statesmen. The organization "Land and Freedom", later renamed the "People's Will" issued a death sentence to Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful assassination attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the feet of the tsar.
Russia in the reign of Alexander III
Alexander III inherited a state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new tsar immediately set about crushing the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.
- Russia, instead of a constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, under the rule of his son, Alexander III, received a state with a police regime. The new emperor began a systematic attack on his father's reforms.
- Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of freethinking in the student environment.
- The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their vote in the election of local deputies. Rich merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility sat in the zemstvos.
- Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court has become more closed, the judges are more dependent on the authorities.
- Alexander III began to spread Great Russian chauvinism. The favorite thesis of the emperor was proclaimed - “Russia for the Russians”. By 1891, pogroms of Jews began with the connivance of the authorities.
Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the advent of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerate the development of foreign and domestic trade, cities grew, factories and factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway was begun in order to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.
Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the XIX century.
Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture during second XIX century.
- Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in the literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two currents - the so-called Slavophiles and Westerners. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov considered themselves Slavophiles. The Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and there was and will not be any Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, to whom Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S. Turgenev, historian S. M. Solovyov considered themselves, argued that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the Western path of development. Despite the differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally worried about the future fate of the Russian people and state structure countries. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Russian literature flourished. F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy write their best works.
- Architecture . In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, ecletism began to prevail - a mixture of different styles and trends. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. Also, the design of certain forms in the architecture of a more classical genre was developed. A.I. Shtakenshneider was a well-known architect in this direction, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg from 1818 to 1858. This project was designed by Auguste Montferrand.
Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.
- Painting . The artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the close tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was cut off from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the remnants of the serf system. In the 60s, the work of the portrait painter Kramskoy flourished, V. A. Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism either. His works “Courtship of a Major” or “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” ridiculed the stupid complacency of officials and the remnants of the serf system.
In 1852, the Hermitage was opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.
What have we learned?
From the article briefly described, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as the flowering of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.
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