Methods of studying sensations and perception in psychology. Measurement of sensations
Examination of musculoskeletal sensations
TOPIC 2. PERCEPTION
Observation Research
Study of Time Perception
Study of cognitive control in perception
TOPIC 3. MEMORY
Study of short-term memory capacity
Study of mediated memory
Comparative study of direct and indirect memorization of abstract concepts
Study of the predominant type of memorization
TOPIC 4. ATTENTION
Attention Selectivity Study
Attention Focus Research
13. Attention switch research
Section II
HIGHER COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND PROCESSES OF GOAL FORMATION
TOPIC 5. THINKING
Study of the influence of installation on the way of solving problems
The study of analytic thinking
The study of the reflexivity of thinking
TOPIC 6. IMAGINATION
Research on Imagination Productivity
The study of individual characteristics of the imagination
Study creative imagination
TOPIC 7. SPEECH
Speech rigidity study
Study of the pace of oral speech activity
22. Study of egotism
Section III
EMOTIONAL-VOLITIONAL PROCESSES
TOPIC 8. EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS
Sentiment Research
Anxiety Research
Research on emotional responsiveness
TOPIC 9. WILL
Study subjective control
Perseverance Research
28. Research on impulsivity
Section IV
INDIVIDUAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSONALITY
TOPIC 10. TEMPERAMENT
Strength research nervous system
Study of the type of temperament
Study of the properties of temperament
TOPIC 11. CHARACTER
Risk propensity study
The study of volitional self-regulation
The study of characterological tendencies
TOPIC 12. ABILITIES
Intelligence research
Research of communicative and organizational tendencies
TOPIC 13. PERSONALITY
Personal self-assessment study
Level of claims research
egocentrism research
Literature index to research methods
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T.I. Pashukova, A.I. Dopira, G.V. Dyakonov (comp.)
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Workshop on general psychology for students pedagogical universities
Proc. allowance. - M.: Publishing house "Institute of Practical Psychology", 1996.
annotation
The workshop is a bank of methods that allow the study of the development of mental processes and personality traits in adolescence. The workshop is intended for students of pedagogical universities studying general psychology. It can be used by high school teachers general education schools, school psychologists and anyone interested in psychology.
BBC 74
P79
ISBN 5-87224-126-7
© Publishing House "Institute of Practical Psychology", 1996
INTRODUCTION
the main task workshop - to deepen students' knowledge of psychology by involving them in psychological psychodiagnostic research. Its intended purpose is self-improvement and self-education of future teachers as professionals.
This workshop included techniques to characterize individual characteristics functioning mental activity and basic personality traits of students. The workshop consists of the following sections.
I. Cognitive processes.
II. Higher cognitive processes and processes of goal formation.
III. Emotional-volitional processes.
IV. Individual-typological features of personality.
Each section is prefaced brief description basic mental functions or personality traits subjected to diagnostics.
Since the workshop is aimed at learning tasks, on the one hand, and at orienting students in the psychological reality, which manifests itself in pedagogical activity, - on the other hand, special attention is paid to the clarity of the description of each technique; acceptance of the study. technologies for performing research and interpreting the results. The description of the methods is given in exactly the same sequence:
a. the purpose of the methodology and the purpose of the study;
b. material and equipment;
c. research procedure, which includes a description of the conditions for its conduct and instructions;
d. processing results;
e. analysis of the results and their interpretation using tables and scales for evaluating the data obtained, recommendations on the possible use of the results for the purpose of self-improvement of the subject.
Academic work students with methods involves the study of theoretical material on the topic of study. It can be lecture material, teaching aids, primary sources. It is desirable that acquaintance with the procedure of the study ends with the delivery of permission to the teacher-psychologist to conduct a diagnostic study. Having received admission, the student can begin to conduct an experiment or testing and, having processed the results, submits a report on the work along with conclusions and recommendations.
Since the methods proposed by the workshop have a psychodiagnostic value, each student should familiarize himself with the requirements for the use of methods by allied specialists. These are the requirements.
The specialist - the user of the technique is charged with the obligation to:
A. Preliminarily consult with psychologists working in this practical field about which methods can be applied to solve the tasks. If there are certified methods, the user must use them.
B. If psychologists warn that the correct use of a technique requires general knowledge of psychodiagnostics or special training (in mastering the technique), then the user must either choose another technique, or undergo appropriate training, or involve a psychologist in conducting psychodiagnostics, or refuse psychodiagnostics generally.
C. A user who has access to psychodiagnostic methods automatically assumes the obligation to comply with all requirements of professional secrecy.
D. The user follows all ethical standards in conducting the survey in relation to the subject and any third parties: he, like the psychologist, has no right to abuse trust and is obliged to warn the subject about how the information will be used.
E. Methods that are not provided with an unambiguous standard instruction, the necessary indicators of reliability and validity, requiring the parallel use of highly professional expert methods, cannot be used by non-psychologists.
F. Any user of methods (tests) assists psychologists in observing procedural and ethical standards, takes measures to prevent the incorrect use of methods.
G. Users who are not professional psychologists, can carry out rationalization and inventive activities in the field of psychodiagnostics only with the approval of the attestation commission of the Society of Psychologists, certifying the necessary professional level both the developments themselves and their author.
Given these requirements, it must be taken into account that the main task of the workshop is educational. Future teachers must learn to think about psychological qualities person and apply knowledge in order to improve the personality. It is important that the psychologist talk with students who are preparing a report on the work done, help them develop recommendations, correct the process of forming their psychological thinking, monitor their compliance with the requirements for users of methods, and help solve the problems of psychological ethics that have arisen.
A number of methods proposed in the workshop allow you to observe the dynamics of certain psychological phenomena of a person, if you repeat the research at certain intervals.
SECTION I
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
The most important function of mental activity is orientation. To one degree or another, it is performed and provided not only by all mental processes, but also by personality traits. However, the maximum load in this case falls on cognitive processes: sensation, perception, and memory and attention directly related to them.
Sensations and perceptions are elementary cognitive processes, but this traditional description of them is valid only when compared with conceptual or hypothetical-theoretical thinking. Sensations and perceptions are the regulators of the individual's life activity in response to stimuli that are acting at the present moment, and memory reproduces what happened in past experience. Both the results and these processes themselves can become conscious in a person or proceed unconsciously, but their invariable function is orientation in the state of the organism and signaling about the relationship of a person with the world, based on its reflection.
TOPIC 1. FEELING
Feelings supply primary knowledge about the world around man. They are a mental reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality and arise from their direct impact on the senses. Sensations are the result of the transformation of the specific energy of the stimulus into the energy of nervous processes.
It is experimentally possible to establish the minimum intensity of any stimulus, under the action of which a barely noticeable sensation appears. G.T. Fekhner called such a minimum intensity of the stimulus the absolute threshold of sensitivity.
The intensity of sensation is its quantitative characteristic, which depends not only on the strength of the acting stimulus, but also on the functional state of the receptors. And the quality of sensation distinguishes it from others and varies within the given type of sensation. Thus, auditory sensations are a sense of the pitch of a sound, its volume, timbre, while visual sensations are divided by color tone, its saturation, etc.
When measuring sensitivity, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of adaptation, that is, adaptation, sensitization as a change in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and synesthesia, which is sensations arising under the influence of irritation of one analyzer, characteristic of another.
Sensations develop in ontogenesis and can be improved under the influence of special exercises. They are exposed to the conditions of life and labor activity person.
Feeling as an elementary mental process when entering into more difficult perception is modified. When a person performs a variety of activities, it is extremely difficult to separate sensation from perception. But in order to establish the difference between these processes, the workshop proposes a task related to the study of tactile sensations and the adequacy of their performance of the tasks of reflecting objective reality is the practice, activity, activity of the subject. To study sensations adequate to the corresponding sense organs, the tasks of determining the absolute threshold of visual sensations were selected, allowing the subject to orient in the state of the work of his own eyes, and measuring the absolute threshold of muscular-articular sensations.
Exercise 1
Exploring the role of sensations
in cognitive activity human
Purpose of the study: establish the difference between sensations and perception during tactile recognition of objects.
Material and equipment: a set of small items for tactile recognition (pin, key, fleece, etc.), eye patch, stopwatch.
Research procedure
The study of tactile sensations consists of two series of experiments and is carried out with one subject.
Objective of the first series: to establish the features of tactile sensations according to their verbal descriptions of the subject, caused by objects from the set during their alternate presentation to a motionless palm.
During the first series of the study, the subject is blindfolded and given the following instructions.
Instructions to the subject in the first series:"Turn your hand palm up. In the palm of your hand during our study, you will feel some impacts. Without making groping movements with your hand, give a verbal account of the sensations that you will experience. Everything that you feel, say out loud."
The experimenter sequentially presents objects for tactile recognition by the subjects. The time of presentation of each of them is 10 seconds. After that, the object is removed from the hand, and the verbal report of the subject is recorded in the protocol.
Task of the second series: to establish the features of tactile sensations according to the verbal descriptions of the subject, when objects are alternately placed on his palm and it is allowed to feel them with the same hand,
The second series of studies is carried out two to four minutes after the first. In the second series, just as in the first, the subject is blindfolded and given instructions before presenting the items of the kit.
Instructions to the subject in the second series:"Turn your hand palm up. During our study, you will feel some influences. You are allowed to make groping movements with your hand. Give a verbal account of the sensations that you will experience during these influences and movements of the palm of your hand."
In the second series, the experimenter sequentially presents the same objects from the set, maintaining the duration of tactile recognition for 10 seconds and recording the verbal report of the subject in the protocol.
The protocol for the study of two series of experiments can be presented on one common form.
At the end of two series of studies, the subject gives a self-report on how he was guided by the effects exerted on the palm of his hand, when it was easier to recognize objects and when it was more difficult.
Processing and analysis of results
The purpose of processing the results is to establish the properties of objects that have been adequately recognized. The number of named sensations in the first and second series will be considered as an indicator of the recognition of "P1" and "P2".
When analyzing the results, one should compare the values of tactile recognition indicators in the first and second series and pay attention to the fact that the recognition of impacts coming from objects differs qualitatively. As a rule, in the first series, the subjects give a report on the individual properties of the object, and then try to identify it, giving it a name. In the second series, where tactile perception is present due to groping, the subjects usually first identify the object, name it (for example: "pin"), and then give a verbal report on its properties.
Tactile sensations are essential in contact orientation and allow a person to survive and learn even in the absence of hearing and vision. They enhance the cognitive capabilities of an individual who is accustomed to relying on his sight, and therefore the experience of closed or blindfolded can be used as a means of relaxation after a long reading of books or watching movies. The conscious use of this tool will help to switch attention in cases of intense emotional state in situations of an upcoming exam, waiting for an assessment, etc.
Task 2
The study of visual sensations
Purpose of the study: determine the value of the absolute lower threshold visual sensation and evaluate visual acuity.
Material and equipment: measuring tape and 5 standard posters depicting Landoldt rings (ring diameter 7.5 mm, line thickness 1.5 mm, ring break 1.5 mm; it is important that the ring breaks on the posters face different directions).
Research procedure
The research group consists of the experimenter of the subject and the recorder. The room where the examination is carried out must have good lighting, and its length must be at least 6.5 m.
During the study, the subject, who is at a distance of 6 m in a position with his back to the poster, at the command of the experimenter, turns and approaches him until he sees a gap in the ring. The experimenter and recorder, using a tape measure, determine the distance from the poster to the position of the subject, from which he correctly establishes the location of the ring break, and the result is recorded in the protocol, that is, the length in centimeters. The test is then repeated with another poster, and then a third.
Test subject instructions."Behind you, at a distance of 6 m, there is a poster with the image of a ring with a gap. At my signal, turn to it and determine the place of the gap, gradually approaching. As soon as you see the gap, stop."
The research protocol should record the subject's well-being, as well as the results of three attempts. If the result varies by more than a meter, then another measurement must be taken.
METHODS FOR STUDYING SENSATIONS AND PERCEPTIONS
Experimental psychological methods:
· Methods for the study of simple and complex aspects of the activity of analyzers (E.F. Bazhin);
object perception - sets of objects and their images, including those distorted by the background, superimposed lines, plot pictures, photographs of acquaintances;
The method "Classification of objects", Poppelreiter's tables (images superimposed on each other) - to detect visual agnosia;
Ravenna tables - for the study of visual perception: 60 tables, 5 series of 12, the goal is to insert the “necessary” fragment into the tables by analogy with its structure;
tables M.F. Lukyanova (moving squares, wavy background) - to study sensory excitability (the "organics" do not succeed). This also includes - counting squares for a while, a separate selection of squares, circles and triangles from wavy lines;
tachistoscopy method:
1) identification of listened to tape recordings with various sounds: the sound of glass, the murmur of water, a whisper, a whistle. Used to study auditory perception;
2) perception of the image on the tachistoscope screen (pictures, objects, letters, numbers) in a fraction of a second. A short time makes it difficult to perceive and allows you to identify violations that are not detected during normal exposure. Used to study visual perception.
WARNING: DEFINITION, PECULIARITIES, VIOLATIONS, CHARACTERISTICS
Attention - it is a mental process that ensures the focus and focus of the psyche on certain objects and phenomena outside world, images, thoughts and feelings of the person himself.
This is a process of conscious or unconscious selection of one information coming through the senses, while ignoring the other. The difference between arbitrary and involuntary attention in the degree of control of human attention. The result of attention is an improvement in the mental action on which it focuses. Attention is necessary when perceiving, thinking, performing actions.
Types of attention:
1. Involuntary attention(is congenital. A classic example of involuntary attention in a child is orientation reflex. From environment the most intense (new or biologically significant) stimulus is singled out, giving the behavior an organized character. For example, an object stimulus (a new bright toy)).
2. Arbitrary(focused on the present, due to the social and cultural environment. It is formed in the process of interaction of the child with adults who, in addition to the objective stimulus, present him with speech stimuli, thereby linking one with the other. Arbitrary attention begins to form to preschool age . Its presence is said if a person can put in front of conscious goals. Such attention is volitional, since in order to preserve the object of concentration, an effort of will is required - maintaining a certain intensity of concentration of attention despite extraneous actions. A feature of voluntary attention is the ability to focus on both past, so on future(in the form of a conscious expectation of a probable event)).
3. post-arbitrary
There are several forms attention corresponding to one or another mental processes:
- sensory (for example, visualization of an object when picking mushrooms);
- motor (protective tension of the press when hit in the stomach);
- emotional (the look of parents from the sidewalk when the child crosses the road);
-intellectual (choosing a book of interest in a bookstore).
Attention is affected by:
Temperament (type of higher nervous activity).
Skills and abilities in this area.
Interest of a person in activities that require concentration
Attention features are:
1. Selectivity (focus, concentration) - the ability to focus on certain information while ignoring the other.
2. Volume - the total set of objects (or the amount of information) that can be stored in the sphere of human attention (simultaneously). The average amount of attention is 5-7 units of information;
3. Sustainability- the ability to concentrate attention for a long time and maintain its intensity without being distracted or weakening attention.
4. switchability- the ability to perform actions when changing goals or taking into account several factors when performing one job.
5. Distribution of attention - the ability to disperse attention to a significant number of objects or activities, in parallel with the same concentration to perform several types of activities (important in the work of doctors and ambulances). The distribution of attention is influenced by the factor of fatigue.
The study of perception is carried out:
1) clinical methods;
2) experimental psychological methods. The clinical method is usually used in the following cases:
1) studies of tactile and pain sensitivity;
2) study of temperature sensitivity;
3) study of disorders of the organs of hearing and vision.
4) study of the thresholds of auditory sensitivity, speech perception.
Experimental psychological methods are usually used to study more complex auditory and visual functions. So, E.F. Bazhin proposed a set of techniques, which includes:
1) methods for studying the simple aspects of the activity of analyzers;
2) methods for the study of more complex complex activities.
The following methods are also used:
1) the method "Classification of objects" - to identify visual agnosia;
2) Poppelreuter tables, which are images superimposed on each other, and which are needed to detect visual agnosia;
3) Raven tables - for the study of visual perception;
4) tables proposed by M. F. Lukyanova (moving squares, wavy background) - for the study of sensory excitability (with organic disorders of the brain);
5) tachistoscopic method (identification of listened to tape recordings with various sounds: the sound of glass, the murmur of water, whisper, whistle, etc.) - for the study of auditory perception.
1. Anesthesia, or loss of sensation, can take over as certain types sensitivity (partial anesthesia), and all types of sensitivity (total anesthesia).
2. The so-called hysterical anesthesia is quite common - the disappearance of sensitivity in patients with hysterical neurotic disorders (for example, hysterical deafness).
3. Hyperesthesia usually captures all spheres (the most common are visual and acoustic). For example, such patients cannot tolerate the sound of normal volume or not very bright light.
4. With hypoesthesia, the patient, as it were, does not clearly perceive the world(for example, with visual hypoesthesia, objects for him are devoid of colors, look shapeless and blurry).
5. With paresthesia, patients experience anxiety and fussiness, as well as increased sensitivity to skin contact with bed linen, clothing, etc.
A kind of paresthesia is senestopathia - the appearance of rather ridiculous unpleasant sensations in various parts of the body (for example, a feeling of "transfusion" inside the organs). Such disorders usually occur in schizophrenia.
Definition and types of perception
Now consider the main violations of perception. But first, let's define how perception differs from sensations. Perception is based on sensations, arises from them, but has certain characteristics.
What is common to sensations and perceptions is that they begin to function only with the direct action of irritation on the sense organs.
Perception is not reduced to the sum of individual sensations, but is a qualitatively new level of cognition.
The main principles of perception of objects are the following.
1. The principle of proximity (the closer to each other in the visual field are the elements, the more likely they are combined into a single image).
2. The principle of similarity (similar elements tend to unite).
3. The principle of "natural continuation" (elements that act as parts of familiar figures, contours and forms are more likely to be combined into these figures, contours and forms).
4. The principle of isolation (elements of the visual field tend to create a closed integral image).
The above principles determine the main properties of perception:
1) objectivity - the ability to perceive the world in the form of separate objects with certain properties;
2) integrity - the ability to mentally complete the perceived object to a holistic form, if it is represented by an incomplete set of elements;
3) constancy - the ability to perceive objects as constant in shape, color, consistency and size, regardless of the conditions of perception;
The main types of perception are distinguished depending on the sense organ (as well as sensations):
1) visual;
2) auditory;
3) taste;
4) tactile;
5) olfactory.
One of the most significant types of perception in clinical psychology is a person's perception of time (it can change significantly under the influence of various diseases). Great importance It is also attached to violations of the perception of one's own body and its parts.
Major Perceptual Disorders
The main cognitive impairments include:
1. Illusions are a distorted perception of a real object. For example, illusions can be auditory, visual, olfactory, etc.
There are three types of illusions according to the nature of their occurrence:
1) physical;
2) physiological;
3) mental.
2. Hallucinations - disturbances of perception that occur without the presence of a real object and are accompanied by confidence that this object really exists at a given time and in a given place.
Visual and auditory hallucinations are usually divided into two groups:
1. Simple. These include:
a) photopsia - perception of bright flashes of light, circles, stars;
b) acoasma - perception of sounds, noise, cod, whistle, crying.
2. Complex. These include, for example, auditory hallucinations, which have the form of articulate phrasal speech and are, as a rule, commanding or threatening.
3. Eidetism - a disorder of perception, in which the trace of a just ended excitation in any analyzer remains in the form of a clear and vivid image.
4. Depersonalization is a distorted perception of both one's own personality as a whole and individual qualities and parts of the body. Based on this, there are two types of depersonalization:
1) partial (impaired perception separate parts body); 2) total (impaired perception of the whole body).
5. Derealization is a distorted perception of the world around. An example of derealization is the symptom of "already seen" (de ja vu).
6. Agnosia is a violation of the recognition of objects, as well as parts of one's own body, but at the same time consciousness and self-consciousness are preserved.
There are the following types of agnosia:
1. Visual agnosia - disorders of recognition of objects and their images while maintaining sufficient visual acuity. Are divided into:
a) subject agnosia;
b) agnosia for colors and fonts;
c) optical-spatial agnosia (patients cannot convey in the drawing the spatial features of the object: further - closer, more - less, higher - lower, etc.).
2. Auditory agnosia - impaired ability to distinguish speech sounds in the absence of hearing impairment;
3. Tactile agnosia - disorders characterized by unrecognition of objects by touching them while maintaining tactile sensitivity.
Stress. A crisis
The concept of stress was introduced by the Canadian pathophysiologist and endocrinologist G. Selye. Stress is the body's standard response to any factor that affects it from the outside. It is characterized by affects - expressed emotional experiences.
Stress can be of a different nature:
1) Distress wears negative character;
2) eustress is positive and mobilizing.
G. Selye identified two reactions to harmful effects external environment:
1. Specific - a specific disease with specific symptoms.
2. Nonspecific (manifested in the general adaptation syndrome).
The nonspecific reaction consists of three phases:
1) anxiety reaction (under the influence stressful situation the body changes its characteristics; if the stressor is very strong, stress can also occur at this stage);
2) resistance reaction (if the action of the stressor is compatible with the body's capabilities, the body resists; anxiety almost disappears, the level of body resistance increases significantly);
3) exhaustion reaction (if the stressor acts for a long time, the body's forces are gradually depleted; anxiety reappears, but now irreversible; the stage of distress sets in).
The concept of crises originated and developed in the United States. According to this concept, the risk of mental disorders culminates and materializes in a certain crisis situation.
“A crisis is a condition that occurs when a person encounters an obstacle to vital goals, which for some time is insurmountable by the usual methods of problem solving. There is a period of disorganization, disorder, during which many different abortive attempts at resolution are made. Eventually some form of adaptation is achieved which may or may not best serve the interests of the person and those close to him.” 1 .
There are the following types of crises:
1) developmental crises (for example, the admission of a child to Kindergarten, school, marriage, retirement, etc.);
2) random crises (for example, unemployment, natural disaster, etc.);
3) typical crises (for example, the death of a loved one, the appearance of a child in the family, etc.).
Frustration. Fear
“Frustration (eng. Frustration - “disorder, disruption of plans, collapse”) - specific emotional condition that arises in cases where an obstacle and resistance arises on the way to achieving the goal, which are either really insurmountable, or are perceived as such.
Frustration is characterized by the following symptoms:
1) the presence of a motive;
2) the presence of a need;
3) the presence of a goal;
4) the existence of an initial plan of action;
5) the presence of resistance to an obstacle that is frustrating (resistance can be passive and active, external and internal).
In situations of frustration, a person behaves either as an infantile or as a mature person. An infantile personality in the case of frustration is characterized by non-constructive behavior, which expresses itself in aggression or avoiding resolving a difficult situation.
A mature personality, on the contrary, is characterized by constructive behavior, which manifests itself in the fact that a person increases motivation, increases the level of activity to achieve a goal, while maintaining the goal itself.
The most common symptom of a disorder emotional sphere fear is considered. However, fears can be an adequate mobilizing response to a real threat. Many people are not even aware that they have some kind of fear until they are faced with a corresponding situation.
The following parameters are used to assess the degree of pathological fears.
1. Adequacy (validity) - the correspondence of the intensity of fear to the degree of real danger that comes from a given situation or from people around.
2. Intensity - the degree of disorganization of the activity and well-being of a person seized by a sense of fear.
3. Duration - duration of fear in time.
4. The degree of controllability of the feeling of fear by a person - the ability to overcome one's own feeling of fear.
A phobia is a fear that is experienced frequently, is obsessive, poorly controlled, and to a large extent disrupts human activity and well-being.
The most common types of phobias are:
1) agoraphobia - fear of open spaces;
2) claustrophobia - fear of closed spaces. A fairly common phenomenon are social phobias - obsessive fears that are associated with the fear of condemning a person from others for any actions.
Violations of the volitional sphere
The concept of will is inextricably linked with the concept of motivation. Motivation is a process of purposeful organized sustainable activity (the main goal is to satisfy needs).
Motives and needs are expressed in desires and intentions. The stimulus of human cognitive activity can also be interest, which plays the most important role in acquiring new knowledge.
Motivation and activity are closely related to motor processes, therefore the volitional sphere is sometimes referred to as motor-volitional.
Volitional disorders include:
1) violation of the structure of the hierarchy of motives - deviation of the formation of the hierarchy of motives from the natural and age characteristics of a person;
2) parabulia - the formation of pathological needs and motives;
3) hyperbulia - a violation of behavior in the form of motor disinhibition (excitation);
4) hypobulia - a violation of behavior in the form of motor inhibition (stupor).
One of the most striking clinical syndromes of the motor-volitional sphere is the catatonic syndrome, which includes the following symptoms:
1) stereotypy - frequent rhythmic repetition of the same movements;
2) impulsive actions - sudden, senseless and ridiculous motor acts without sufficient critical evaluation;
3) negativism - an unreasonable negative attitude towards any external influences in the form of resistance and refusal;
4) echolalia and echopraxia - repetition by patients individual words or actions that he hears or sees at the moment; 5) catalepsy (a symptom of "wax flexibility") - the patient freezes in one position and maintains this position for a long time. The following pathological symptoms are special varieties of will disorders:
1) a symptom of autism;
2) a symptom of automatisms.
A symptom of autism is manifested in the fact that patients lose the need to communicate with others. They develop pathological isolation, unsociableness and isolation.
Automatisms are the spontaneous and uncontrolled implementation of a number of functions, regardless of the presence of stimulating impulses from the outside. The following types of automatisms are distinguished.
1. Outpatient (occurs in patients with epilepsy and consists in the fact that the patient performs outwardly ordered and purposeful actions, which he completely forgets about after an epileptic seizure).
2. Somnambulistic (the patient is either in a hypnotic trance, or in a state between sleep and wakefulness).
3. Associative.
4. Senestopathic.
5. Kinesthetic.
The last three varieties of automatisms are observed in the syndrome of mental automatism of Kandinsky-Clerambault.
Research task. Determination of the absolute sensation and its features in different persons.
Equipment.
- 1. Landolt rings (Fig. No. 1) a round tablet, on a white background which is drawn a black ring 1.5 mm thick with an inner diameter of 7.5 mm and with a gap of 1.5 mm. The ring is mounted on a somewhat larger, also white square base (in the center), which can be hung on the wall.
- 2. Centimeter tape measure.
Research order. Conducted with several persons, in a room well lit and necessarily the same for all subjects. Subsequent studies should be absent from previous studies.
Instruction to the researcher.
“I will hang these pills on the board with a circle on which there is a gap. Now stand at the end of the room, at a distance of a little more than 5 m, and turn your back on me. When I give the command “Begin!”, turn around and slowly approach the board, try to see the ring inverted by the gap in the full direction. As soon as you see it, stop, put your hand in the direction of the gap and do not move. Understood?... Start!”.
Accounting for results.
When observing, it is necessary to establish whether the object under study is peering calmly or tensely.
When questioning, find out when it stopped: having clearly seen the gap or only guessing quantitative indicators are obtained by measuring the misalignment (in centimeters), from which the subject correctly saw the direction of the gap for the first time, for all the subjects it should change with each repeated experiment. The experiment is repeated 5 times.
Analysis of results.
The method makes it possible to evaluate the change in the threshold of visual sensation in the subject as a result of fatigue and to determine its difference in different individuals. The greater the distance from which the subject saw the direction of the break, the lower his obsalyutny threshold of visual sensation and the higher the sensitivity.
Since skin sensations are the most widely represented type of sensuality, we will conduct a study of tactile sensations.
Sensations are tactile - they give information about what is in contact with the body of the subject.
When conducting an empirical study, main goal was to establish the difference between sensations and perception during tactile recognition of objects. sensation analyzer tactile sense
Material and equipment: a set of small objects for tactile recognition (pin, key, cotton wool, etc.), eye patch, stopwatch.
Research procedure
Sample Description
The study involved 10 students aged 18-25 years
The study of tactile sensations consists of two series of experiments and is carried out with one subject.
The task of the first series was: to establish the features of tactile sensations according to the verbal descriptions of the subjects, caused by objects from the set during their alternate presentation to a motionless palm.
During the first series of the study, the subjects were blindfolded and given the following instructions.
Instructions to the subject in the first series:
"Turn your hand palm up. In the palm of your hand during our study, you will feel some impacts. Without making groping movements with your hand, give a verbal account of the sensations that you will experience. Everything that you feel, say out loud."
Next, objects were sequentially presented for tactile recognition by the subjects. The time of presentation of each of them is 10 seconds. After that, the object was removed from the hand, and the verbal report of the subject was recorded in the protocol.
The task of the second series: to establish the features of tactile sensations according to the verbal descriptions of the subject, when objects are alternately placed on his palm and it is allowed to feel them with the same hand.
The second series of studies was carried out two to four minutes after the first. In the second series, as in the first, the subjects were blindfolded and given instructions before presenting the items of the set.
Instructions to the subject in the second series:
"Turn your hand palm up. During our study, you will feel some influences. You are allowed to make groping movements with your hand. Give a verbal account of the sensations that you will experience during these influences and movements of the palm of your hand."
In the second series, the experimenter sequentially presents the same objects from the set, maintaining the duration of tactile recognition for 10 seconds and recording the verbal report of the subject in the protocol.
At the end of two series of studies, the subjects give a self-report on how they oriented themselves in the influences exerted on the palm of their hands, when it was easier to recognize objects and when it was more difficult.
The protocol for the study of two series of experiments is presented on one common form. (See in the "appendix")
Processing and analysis of results.
The number of named sensations in the first and second series is considered as an indicator of the recognition of "P1" and "P2".
Analyzing the results, the values of tactile recognition indicators in the first (P1=0) and second (P2=3) series were compared for the group of students, and attention was drawn to the fact that the recognition of influences coming from objects differs qualitatively. In the first series, the subject gives a report on the individual properties of the object, and then tries to establish it, giving it a name. In the second series, where tactile perception is present thanks to groping, the subject first identified the object by naming it (for example: "pin"), and then gave a verbal report on its properties.
The following group results were obtained during the study:
The number of these sensations in series P1 was - 0%.
The number of these sensations in the P2 series was 100%.
From these results, it follows that tactile sensations are the most important in contact orientation and allow expanding the cognitive capabilities of the individual.