Auditory and visual sensations are. Types of sensations (skin, auditory, olfactory, visual, contact, distant)
Auditory sensations are the effect of sound waves on the auditory receptor, which are air rarefaction.
Sound waves differ in amplitude, frequency and duration of vibrations. Auditory sensations are caused by periodic and non-periodic oscillatory processes, which are expressed in musical sounds and noises.
Sound properties:
1) volume. Depends on the strength and amplitude of the vibration of the sound wave;
2) height. Reflects the frequency of the sound wave. The human ear does not perceive all sounds. Ultrasounds and infrasounds remain out of hearing;
3) timbre. Each sound is characterized by a special character and color. Timbre shows
acoustic composition of sound.
Binaural hearing is the ability of the ear to determine the direction from which a sound is coming. There are phase (the direction of the sound is due to the difference in the times of arrival of the same phases of the sound wave to both ears) and amplitude (the direction of the sound is due to the difference in loudness obtained in both ears) binaural effect.
Touch is the sensation of touch and pressure. The organ of touch of a person is a moving hand, it is an organ of labor and knowledge of reality. It gives us knowledge of the properties of the material world. The basic properties of the material world (hardness, elasticity, impenetrability) are known by the moving hand and transmitted by sensations. Skin sensations are a specific human feeling of a working and moving hand. When cognizing the material world, motor processes are performed that turn into sensations, i.e. into effective knowledge of objects. The components of touch come from receptors that are located in muscles, ligaments and joint bags. When moving, the receptors are stimulated by voltage. However, sensation is not limited to sensations of pressure or touch. Such tactile sensations as touch, muscular-articular pressure, combined with skin sensitivity, reflect the properties through which objects of the world around us are known. The interaction of sensations of pressure and temperature gives us the sensation of moisture, and the combination of moisture with permeability allows us to distinguish between solid and liquid bodies. The interaction of a moving hand with material bodies makes it possible to determine viscosity, roughness, smoothness and oiliness. The sense of touch functions in parallel with vision and under its control. In the blind, touch is separate from sight. The teaching of the blind is based on the sense of touch and the moving hand.
OLFACTORY SENSATIONS
In general, sensation is the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that currently affect the human brain through the corresponding sensory organs. Sense of smell is the ability to perceive and distinguish odorous substances (for example, the smell of food).
Olfactory sensations refer to discant sensations that reflect the smells of objects surrounding a person. The organs of smell are olfactory cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, and the cortical part of the olfactory analyzer is located in the temporal part. Irritants of the olfactory organ are volatile substances that have a smell. These are substances that can penetrate into the olfactory area both from the outside, i.e. through the nostrils, and from the nasopharynx. Therefore, odorants in the form of, for example, vapour, gas, mist, dust or smoke reach the receptors when inhaled through the nose or mouth and spread through the nasopharynx into the nasal cavity. The receptors of the oral mucosa are also involved in the formation of the olfactory sensation. These include tactile, temperature, pain receptors. Substances that irritate only the olfactory receptors are called olfactive, but there are mixed substances that also irritate other receptors. Thus, the olfactory analyzer plays a role in determining the properties of a substance that is not only located at a certain distance from a person, but also that has entered the person's mouth.
It should be noted that the sense of smell in the same person can fluctuate within fairly wide limits. With prolonged contact of odorous substances with the mucous membrane, adaptation is observed, i.e. decreased olfactory sensitivity. Adaptation time different people to different smells is not the same. With an increase in the concentration of substances, it decreases, so people who deal with strongly odorous substances quickly get used to them and stop feeling them. But complete adaptation to one smell does not exclude sensitivity to others.
At modern man the olfactory analyzer is less developed than in its distant ancestors, since in a healthy person, the orienting function is performed primarily by sight and hearing. But with damage to vision and hearing, the sense of smell, along with the remaining intact analyzers, becomes especially important. For example, the deaf-blind use their sense of smell, just as the sighted use their sight, i.e. smell familiar places and recognize familiar people.
A brief digression into the development of the concept of sensations
Feel- “the law of the specific energy of the sense organ”, that is, sensation does not depend on the nature of the stimulus, but on the organ or nerve in which the process of irritation occurs. The eye sees, the ear hears. The eye cannot see, but the ear cannot see. 1827
The objective world is fundamentally unknowable. The result of the sensation process is a partial, that is, a partial image of the world. All that we perceive is the process of specific impact on the senses. "Mental processes" Vecker L.M.
Power dependence of the change in sensations with a change in the intensity of stimuli (Stevens law)
The lower and upper absolute thresholds of sensations (absolute sensitivity) and the thresholds of discrimination (relative sensitivity) characterize the limits of human sensitivity. In addition to this, there are operational thresholds of sensations— the magnitude of the difference between the signals, at which the accuracy and speed of their discrimination reach a maximum. (This value is an order of magnitude greater than the difference threshold value.)
2. Adaptation. The sensitivity of the analyzer is not stable, it changes depending on various conditions.
So, entering a poorly lit room, at first we do not distinguish objects, but gradually the sensitivity of the analyzer increases; being in a room with any smells, after a while we stop noticing these smells (the sensitivity of the analyzer decreases); when we get from a poorly lit space into a brightly lit one, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer gradually decreases.
A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of its adaptation to the strength and duration of the acting stimulus is called adaptation(from lat. adaptatio- fixture).
Different analyzers have different speed and range of adaptation. To some stimuli, adaptation occurs quickly, to others - more slowly. Olfactory and tactile adapt faster (from the Greek. taktilos- touch) analyzers. Auditory, gustatory and visual analyzers adapt more slowly.
Full adaptation to the smell of iodine occurs in a minute. After three seconds, the sensation of pressure reflects only 1/5 of the strength of the stimulus. (Searching for glasses shifted to the forehead is one example of tactile adaptation.) Full dark adaptation of the visual analyzer takes 45 minutes. However, visual sensitivity has the largest range of adaptation - it changes 200,000 times.
The phenomenon of adaptation has an expedient biological significance. It contributes to the reflection of weak stimuli and protects the analyzers from excessive exposure to strong ones. Adaptation, like getting used to constant conditions, provides an increased orientation to all new influences. Sensitivity depends not only on the strength of the impact of external stimuli, but also on internal states.
3. Sensitization. Increasing the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of internal (mental) factors is called sensitization(from lat. sensibilis- sensitive). It can be caused by: 1) the interaction of sensations (for example, weak taste sensations increase visual sensitivity. This is due to the relationship of analyzers, their systemic work); 2) physiological factors (the state of the body, the introduction of certain substances into the body; for example, vitamin A is essential to increase visual sensitivity); 3) the expectation of a particular impact, its significance, a special setting to distinguish between stimuli; 4) exercise, experience (thus, tasters, specially exercising taste and olfactory sensitivity, distinguish between various varieties of wines, teas and can even determine when and where the product was made).
In people deprived of any kind of sensitivity, this deficiency is compensated (compensated) by increasing the sensitivity of other organs (for example, increased auditory and olfactory sensitivity in the blind). This so-called compensatory sensitization.
Strong excitation of some analyzers always lowers the sensitivity of others. This phenomenon is called desensitization. So, the increased noise level in "loud shops" lowers visual sensitivity; visual desensitization occurs.
Rice. four. . The inner squares produce sensations of varying intensities of gray. In reality they are the same. Sensitivity to the properties of phenomena depends on adjacent and successive contrast effects.
4. . One of the manifestations of the interaction of sensations is their contrast(from lat. contraste- a sharp contrast) - an increase in sensitivity to one property under the influence of other, opposite, properties of reality. So, the same gray figure appears dark on a white background, and white on a black one (Fig. 4).
5. Synesthesia. An associative (phantom) non-modal sensation that accompanies a real one (the sight of a lemon causes a sensation of sourness) is called synesthesia(from Greek. synaisthesis shared feeling).
Rice. 5.
Features of certain types of sensations.
visual sensations. The colors perceived by a person are divided into chromatic (from the Greek. chroma- color) and achromatic - colorless (black, white and intermediate shades of gray).
For the appearance of visual sensations, the impact of electromagnetic waves on the visual receptor, the retina of the eye (an accumulation of photosensitive nerve cells located at the bottom of the eyeball), is necessary. In the central part of the retina, nerve cells predominate - cones, which provide a sense of color. At the edges of the retina, rods sensitive to brightness changes predominate (Fig. 5, 6).
Rice. 6. . To light-sensitive receptors - rods (reacting to changes in brightness) and cones (reacting to different wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, i.e. to chromatic (color) effects), light penetrates, bypassing ganglion and bipolar cells, which carry out the primary elementary analysis of nerve impulses going already from the retina. For the occurrence of visual excitation, it is necessary that the electromagnetic energy that enters the retina be absorbed by its visual pigment: rod pigment - rhodopsin and cone pigment - iodopsin. Photochemical transformations in these pigments give rise to the visual process. At all levels of the visual system, this process: manifests itself in the form electrical potentials, which are recorded by special devices -, electroretinograph,.
Light (electromagnetic) beams of different lengths cause different color sensations. Color - mental phenomenon- human sensations caused by different frequencies electromagnetic radiation(Fig. 7). The eye is sensitive to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum from 380 to 780 nm (Fig. 8). The wavelength of 680 nm gives the impression of red; 580 - yellow; 520 - green; 430 - blue; 390 - purple flowers.
electromagnetic radiation.
Rice. 7. electromagnetic spectrum and its visible part (NM - nanometer - one billionth of a meter)
Rice. eight. .
Rice. 9. . Opposite colors are called complementary colors - when mixed they form White color. Any color can be obtained by mixing two border colors with it. For example: red - a mixture of orange and purple).
The mixture of all perceived electromagnetic waves gives the sensation of white.
There is a three-component theory of color vision, according to which the whole variety of color sensations arises as a result of the work of only three color-perceived receptors - red, green and blue. Cones are divided into groups of these three colors. Depending on the degree of excitation of these color receptors, various color sensations arise. If all three receptors are excited to the same extent, then there is a sensation of white color.
Rice. ten. .
To different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, our eye has unequal sensitivity. It is most sensitive to light rays with a wavelength of 555 - 565 nm (light green color tone). The sensitivity of the visual analyzer at dusk moves towards shorter wavelengths - 500 nm (blue color). These rays begin to appear lighter (Purkinje phenomenon). The rod apparatus is more sensitive to ultraviolet color.
In conditions of sufficiently bright lighting, the cones turn on, the rod apparatus turns off. In low light, only sticks are included in the work. Therefore, in twilight lighting, we do not distinguish the chromatic color, the color of objects.
Rice. eleven. . Information about events in the right half of the visual field enters the left occipital lobe from the left side of each retina; information about the right half of the visual field is sent to the left occipital lobe from the right parts of both retinas. The redistribution of information from each eye occurs as a result of the crossing of part of the optic nerve fibers in the chiasm.
Visual excitations are characterized by some inertia. This is the reason for the preservation of a trace of light irritation after the cessation of exposure to the stimulus. (Therefore, we do not notice gaps between frames of the film, which turn out to be filled with traces from the previous frame.)
People with weakened cone apparatus have difficulty distinguishing chromatic colors. (This shortcoming, described English physicist D. Dalton, called color blind). The weakening of the rod apparatus makes it difficult to see objects in twilight lighting (this drawback is called "night blindness".)
For the visual analyzer, the difference in brightness is essential - contrast. The visual analyzer is capable of distinguishing contrast within certain limits (optimum 1:30). Strengthening and weakening of contrasts is possible through the use of various means. (To reveal a subtle relief, shadow contrast is enhanced by side lighting, the use of light filters.)
The color of each object is characterized by those rays of the light spectrum that the object reflects. (A red object, for example, absorbs all rays of the light spectrum, except for the red, which is reflected by it.) The color of transparent objects is characterized by the rays that they transmit. In this way, The color of any object depends on which rays it reflects, absorbs and transmits..
Rice. 12.: 1 - chiasma; 2 - visual tubercle; 3 - occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.
In most cases, objects reflect electromagnetic waves of various lengths. But the visual analyzer perceives them not separately, but in total. For example, exposure to red and yellow colors is perceived as orange, and a mixture of colors occurs.
Signals from photoreceptors - light-sensitive formations (130 million cones and rods) go to 1 million larger (ganglion) retinal neurons. Each ganglion cell sends its own process (axon) to the optic nerve. Impulses traveling to the brain along the optic nerve receive primary processing in the diencephalon. Here, the contrast characteristics of the signals and their temporal sequence are enhanced. And already from here, nerve impulses enter the primary visual cortex, localized in the occipital region of the cerebral hemispheres (fields 17-19 according to Brodmann) (Fig. 11, 12). Here, individual elements of the visual image are distinguished - points, angles, lines, directions of these lines. (Established by Boston researchers, 1981 Nobel Prize winners Hubel and Wiesel.)
Rice. 13. optogram taken from the retina of a dog's eye after her death. This indicates the screen principle of functioning of the retina.
The visual image is formed in the secondary visual cortex, where sensory material is compared (associated) with previously formed visual standards - the image of the object is recognized. (It takes 0.2 seconds from the beginning of the stimulus action to the appearance of a visual image.) However, a screen display of the perceived object occurs already at the level of the retina (Fig. 13).
auditory sensations. There is an opinion that we receive 90% of information about the world around us through vision. It can hardly be calculated. After all, what we see with the eye should be covered by our conceptual system, which is formed integratively, as a synthesis of all sensory activity.
Rice. fourteen. Deviations from normal vision - nearsightedness and farsightedness. These deviations can usually be compensated for with glasses with specially selected lenses.
The work of the auditory analyzer is no less complex and important than the work of the visual analyzer. This channel is the main stream speech information. A person feels sound 35 - 175 ms after he has reached the auricle. Another 200 - 500 ms is necessary for maximum sensitivity to a given sound. It also takes time to turn the head and properly orient the auricle in relation to the source of a weak sound.
From the tragus of the auricle, the oval auditory canal deepens into the temporal bone (its length is 2.7 cm). Already in the oval passage, the sound is significantly amplified (due to the resonant properties). The oval passage is closed by the tympanic membrane (its thickness is 0.1 mm, and its length is 1 cm), which constantly vibrates under the influence of sound influences. The tympanic membrane separates the outer ear from the middle ear - a small chamber with a volume of 1 cm³ (Fig. 15).
The middle ear cavity is connected to the inner ear and the nasopharynx. (The air coming from the nasopharynx balances the external and internal pressure on the tympanic membrane.) In the middle ear, sound is repeatedly amplified by the system of bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup). These ossicles are supported in weight by two muscles that tighten when sounds are too loud and weaken the ossicles, protecting the hearing aid from injury. With weak sounds, the muscles increase the work of the bones. The intensity of sound in the middle ear increases 30 times due to the difference between the area of the tympanic membrane (90 mm 2) to which the malleus is attached, and the area of the base of the stirrup (3 mm 2).
Rice. fifteen. . Sound vibrations of the external environment pass through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane, located between the outer and middle ear. The tympanic membrane transmits vibrations and the bony mechanism of the middle ear, which, acting on a lever principle, amplifies the sound by about 30 times. As a result of this, slight changes in pressure at the tympanic membrane are transmitted by a piston-like movement to the oval window of the inner ear, which causes the movement of fluid in the cochlea. Acting on the elastic walls of the cochlear canal, the movement of the fluid causes an oscillatory movement of the auditory membrane, more precisely, of a certain part of it, resonating at the appropriate frequencies. At the same time, thousands of hair-like neurons transform the oscillatory movement into electrical impulses of a certain frequency. The round window and the Eustachian tube coming from it serve to equalize pressure with external environment; leaving the nasopharynx, the Eustachian tube opens slightly during swallowing movements.
The purpose of the auditory analyzer is to receive and analyze signals transmitted by vibrations of an elastic medium in the range of 16-20,000 Hz (sound range).
The receptor part of the auditory system - the inner ear - the so-called cochlea. It has 2.5 turns and is divided transversely by a membrane into two isolated channels filled with liquid (relymph). Along the membrane, which narrows from the lower coil of the cochlea to its upper coil, there are 30 thousand sensitive cilia formations - they are sound receptors, forming the so-called organ of Corti. In the cochlea, the primary dissection of sound vibrations occurs. Low sounds affect long eyelashes, high sounds affect short ones. The vibrations of the corresponding sound cilia create nerve impulses that enter the temporal part of the brain, where complex analytical and synthetic activity is carried out. The most important verbal signals for a person are encoded in neural ensembles.
The intensity of the auditory sensation - loudness - depends on the intensity of the sound, that is, on the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound source and on the pitch of the sound. The pitch of the sound is determined by the oscillation frequency of the sound wave, the timbre of the sound is determined by overtones (additional oscillations in each main phase) (Fig. 16).
The pitch of a sound is determined by the number of oscillations of the sound source in 1 second (1 oscillation per second is called hertz). The organ of hearing is sensitive to sounds in the range from 20 to 20,000 Hz, but the highest sensitivity lies in the range of 2000 - 3000 Hz (this is the pitch corresponding to the cry of a frightened woman). A person does not feel the sounds of the lowest frequencies (infrasounds). The sound sensitivity of the ear starts at 16 Hz.
Rice. 16. . The intensity of sound is determined by the amplitude of the vibration of its source. Height - vibration frequency. Timbre - additional vibrations (overtones) in each "time" (middle figure).
However, subthreshold low-frequency sounds affect the mental state of a person. So, sounds with a frequency of 6 Hz cause a person to feel dizzy, tired, depressed, and sounds with a frequency of 7 Hz can even cause cardiac arrest. Getting into the natural resonance of the work of internal organs, infrasounds can disrupt their activity. Other infrasounds also selectively affect the human psyche, increasing its suggestibility, learning ability, etc.
Human sensitivity to high frequency sounds is limited to 20,000 Hz. Sounds that lie beyond the upper threshold of sound sensitivity (that is, over 20,000 Hz) are called ultrasounds. (Ultrasonic frequencies of 60 and even 100,000 Hz are available to animals.) However, since sounds up to 140,000 Hz are found in our speech, we can assume that they are perceived by us at a subconscious level and carry emotionally significant information.
The thresholds for distinguishing sounds by their height are 1/20 of a semitone (that is, up to 20 intermediate steps differ between the sounds produced by two adjacent piano keys).
In addition to high-frequency and low-frequency sensitivity, there are lower and upper thresholds for sensitivity to sound intensity. Sound sensitivity decreases with age. So, for the perception of speech at the age of 30, a sound volume of 40 dB is required, and for the perception of speech at the age of 70, its volume must be at least 65 dB. The upper threshold of auditory sensitivity (in terms of volume) is 130 dB. Noise above 90 dB is harmful to humans. Sudden loud sounds are also dangerous, hitting the autonomic nervous system and leading to a sharp narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels, an increase in heart rate and an increase in the level of adrenaline in the blood. The optimal level is 40 - 50 dB.
Tactile sensation(from Greek. taktilos- touch - the feeling of being touched. Tactile receptors (Fig. 17) are most numerous at the fingertips and tongue. If on the back two touch points are perceived separately only at a distance of 67 mm, then on the tip of the fingers and tongue - at a distance of 1 mm (see table).
Spatial thresholds of tactile sensitivity.
Rice. 17. .
Zone high sensitivity | Low sensitivity zone |
Tip of the tongue - 1 mm | Sacrum - 40.4 mm |
Terminal phalanges of fingers - 2.2 mm | Buttock - 40.5 mm |
The red part of the lips - 4.5 mm | Forearm and lower leg - 40.5 mm |
Palmar side of the hand - 6.7 mm | Sternum - 45.5 mm |
Terminal phalanx of the big toe - 11.2 mm | Neck below the back of the head - 54.1 mm |
The back side of the second phalanges of the toes - 11.2 mm | Loin - 54.1 mm |
The back side of the first phalanx of the big toe - 15.7 mm | Back and middle of the neck - 67.6 mm |
Shoulder and hip - 67.7 mm |
The threshold of spatial tactile sensitivity is the minimum distance between two point touches at which these effects are perceived separately. The range of tactile distinctive sensitivity is from 1 to 68 mm. The zone of high sensitivity is from 1 to 20 mm. The low sensitivity zone is from 41 to 68 mm.
Tactile sensations combined with motor sensations form tactile sensitivity underlying the subject actions. Tactile sensations are a kind of skin sensations, which also include temperature and pain sensations.
Kinesthetic (motor) sensations.
Rice. 18. (according to Penfield)
Actions are associated with kinesthetic sensations (from the Greek. kineo- movement and aesthesia- sensitivity) - a sense of the position and movement of parts of one's own body. The labor movements of the hand had crucial in the formation of the brain, the human psyche.
Based on muscle-articular sensations, a person determines compliance or inconsistency
their movements to external circumstances. Kinesthetic sensations perform an integrating function in the entire human sensory system. Well-differentiated voluntary movements are the result of the analytical-synthetic activity of a vast cortical zone located in the parietal region of the brain. The motor, motor area of the cerebral cortex is especially closely connected with the frontal lobes of the brain, which perform intellectual and speech functions, and with the visual areas of the brain.
Rice. 19. .
Muscle spindle receptors are especially numerous in the fingers and toes. When moving various parts of the body, hands, fingers, the brain constantly receives information about their current spatial position (Fig. 18), compares this information with the image of the final result of the action and carries out the appropriate correction of the movement. As a result of training, the images of intermediate positions of various parts of the body are generalized in a single general model of a specific action - the action is stereotyped. All movements are regulated on the basis of motor sensations, on the basis of feedback.
Motor physical activity of the body is essential for optimizing the work of the brain: skeletal muscle proprioceptors send stimulating impulses to the brain, increase the tone of the cerebral cortex.
Rice. 20. : 1. Permissible vibration limits for separate parts body. 2. The limits of permissible vibrations acting on the entire human body. 3. Borders of weakly felt vibrations.
Static sensations- sensations of the position of the body in space relative to the direction of gravity, a sense of balance. The receptors for these sensations (gravitoreceptors) are located in the inner ear.
receptor rotational body movements are cells with hair endings located in semicircular canals inner ear, located in three mutually perpendicular planes. When accelerating or decelerating the rotational movement, the fluid filling the semicircular canals exerts pressure (according to the law of inertia) on the sensitive hairs, in which the corresponding excitation is caused.
Moving into space in a straight line reflected in otolith apparatus. It consists of sensitive cells with hairs, over which are located otoliths (cushions with crystalline inclusions). The changing position of the crystals signals the direction to the brain rectilinear motion body. The semicircular canals and the otolithic apparatus are called vestibular apparatus. It is connected with the temporal region of the cortex and with the cerebellum through the vestibular branch of the auditory nerve (Fig. 19). (Strong overexcitation of the vestibular apparatus causes nausea, since this apparatus is also connected with the internal organs.)
vibration sensations arise as a result of reflection of oscillations from 15 to 1500 Hz in an elastic medium. These vibrations are reflected by all parts of the body. Vibrations are tiring and even painful for a person. Many of them are unacceptable (Fig. 20).
Rice. 21. . The olfactory bulb is the brain center of smell.
Olfactory sensations arise as a result of irritation by particles of odorous substances in the air, the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, where the olfactory cells are located.
Substances that irritate the olfactory receptors enter the nasopharyngeal cavity from the side of the nose and nasopharynx (Fig. 21). This allows you to determine the smell of a substance both at a distance and if it is in the mouth.
Rice. 22. . The relative concentration of taste receptors on the surface of the tongue.
Taste sensations. The whole variety of taste sensations consists of a combination of four tastes: bitter, salty, sour and sweet. Taste sensations are evoked chemicals dissolved in saliva or water. Taste receptors are nerve endings located on the surface of the tongue - taste buds. They are located on the surface of the tongue unevenly. Separate areas of the surface of the tongue are most sensitive to certain taste influences: the tip of the tongue is more sensitive to sweet, the back to bitter, and the edges to sour (Fig. 22).
The surface of the tongue is sensitive to touch, that is, it is involved in the formation of tactile sensations (the texture of food affects taste sensations).
Temperature sensations arise from irritation of thermoreceptors of the skin. There are separate receptors for the sensation of heat and cold. On the surface of the body, they are located in some places more, in others - less. For example, the skin of the back and neck is most sensitive to cold, and the tips of the fingers and tongue are most sensitive to hot. Different parts of the skin themselves have different temperatures (Fig. 23).
Pain are caused by mechanical, thermal and chemical influences that have reached a superthreshold intensity. Pain sensation is largely associated with subcortical centers, which are regulated by the cerebral cortex. Therefore, they are amenable to some degree of inhibition through the second signal system.
Rice. 23. (according to A.L. Slonim)
Expectations and fears, fatigue and insomnia increase a person's sensitivity to pain; with deep fatigue, the pain dulls. Cold intensifies and heat relieves pain. Pain, temperature, tactile sensations and pressure sensations are related to skin sensations.
organic sensations- sensations associated with interoreceptors located in the internal organs. These include feelings of satiety, hunger, suffocation, nausea, etc.
This classification of sensations was introduced by the famous English physiologist Ch.S. Sherrington (1906);
There are three types of visual sensations: 1) photopic - daytime, 2) scotopic - night and 3) mesopic - twilight. The greatest photopic visual acuity is located in the central field of view; it corresponds to the central, foveal region of the retina. In scotopic vision, the maximum light sensitivity is provided by the paramolecular areas of the retina, which are characterized by the greatest accumulation of rods. They provide the greatest light sensitivity.
AT modern science There are different approaches to the classification of sensations.
English scientist Ch.Sherrington identified groups of sensations depending on localization(location) receptors:
1. Exteroceptive- receptors are located on the surface of the body: visual, auditory, skin, olfactory, tactile.
2. Interoceptive- receptors are located on the internal organs: sensations of hunger, thirst, nausea, satiety, suffocation. Associated with the experience of positive and negative emotions.
3. proprioceptive- receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, joints, tendons. These are sensations of movement, the position of body parts.
By the presence or absence of contact with the irritant allocate:
1. distant sensations - without direct contact with the stimulus: visual, auditory, olfactory.
2. contact sensations - when the sense organs come into contact with the stimulus gustatory, cutaneous and kinesthetic(motor).
depending on the nature of the stimulus affecting this analyzer, and from character resulting sensations distinguish the following groups:
1st group- sensations that are a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin.
2nd group- sensations reflecting the state of the body - organic, balance, motor.
3rd group- special sensations: tactile, representing a combination of several sensations, and pain - sensations of various origins.
Let's give characteristics certain types sensations.
A) visual sensations are sensations of light and color. They arise as a result of exposure to light rays on the sensitive part of our eye - the retina. There are two types of cells in the retina - sticks(about 130 million) and cones(about 7 million). In daylight, only the cones are active; at night, the rods are active. Cones make it possible to see the colors of the spectrum (chromatic vision) and their shades. Rods allow you to see gray colors (achromatic) - from white to black. The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, it is impossible to read in poor lighting, at dusk, so as not to cause excessive eye strain, which can provoke the development of myopia. In addition, the reflection of black and white colors and colors evokes a certain emotional tone. For example, green - calms, blue - creates a feeling of open space, red - excites, causes anxiety, black - depresses, orange yellow- invigorates, creates high spirits, dark blue - depresses. Also, red and dark blue colors tire the eyes. Knowing this, you can use the color scheme to paint the walls of the classroom in order to increase the efficiency of the student.
B) auditory sensations are sensations that occur under the influence of sound waves that cause vibrations of the eardrum. The vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear, which contains a special apparatus - the cochlea - for the perception of sounds.
Distinguish 3 types of auditory sensations: speech, music and noises. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer distinguishes 4 qualities:
The strength of the sound (loud - weak); depends on the amplitude of oscillations.
Height (high - low); depends on the oscillation frequency.
Sound duration (sounding time).
Musical sensations allow us to distinguish the qualities of sound (strength, pitch, timbre, duration). An ear for music is formed better if the child is introduced to music as soon as possible.
Speech sensations allow you to distinguish the sounds of speech. Hearing for speech sounds is called phonemic. It is formed depending on the speech environment in which the child is brought up. Mastery foreign language difficult, as it involves the production new system phonemic hearing. Speech can evoke a certain emotional state.
Noise - the noise of a motor, train, thunder. Noises can cause a certain emotional mood (the sound of rain, the rustle of leaves); serve as a signal of danger (the hiss of a snake, the roar of a train) or joy (the steps of a loved one, the tramp of a child's feet). However, it has been noted that strong and prolonged noise causes significant loss of nervous energy in people, tires the nervous system, damages the cardiovascular system, causes absent-mindedness, reduces working capacity, and reduces hearing. Therefore, teachers should strive to maintain silence in the classroom.
B) taste sensations arise with the help of the organs of taste - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. Most of the taste buds are on the tongue. In total, a person has about 3 thousand of them. There is everything 4 types major taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sour-sweet, etc. Different parts of the surface of the tongue are sensitive to different taste sensations: the back surface of the tongue - to bitter, on the sides - to sour and salty, the tip of the tongue - to sweet.
Taste sensations are caused by the action on taste buds of substances dissolved in saliva or water. Dry matter on a dry tongue does not give a taste sensation. In addition, anything that makes the atoms move faster, such as heat, enhances the taste experience. Therefore, hot coffee seems more bitter than cold, roasted salted lard - more salty, and hot meat dish- tastier than cold.
The taste of food is affected by well-being, headache, heat, cold, hunger (increases), satiety (weakens). In addition, taste sensations are never perceived in their pure form, they are always complicated by olfactory ones. Coffee, tea, tobacco, apples, oranges, lemons stimulate the organs of smell to a greater extent than taste.
D) olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. Olfactory sensations arise as a result of air particles entering the nasal cavity. In our nasal cavity, odors are perceived by sensory hairs on the olfactory membrane. These hairs are rooted in the mucous layer covering the membrane. The membrane is always wet. If it dries out, we won't be able to smell. If we just breathe, then the air stream bypasses the membrane. Therefore, in order to smell, we need to sniff, i.e. allow air to pass over the membrane.
There are 5 main types of odors which we can catch:
Floral (violet, rose, etc.)
Spicy (lemon, apple)
Putrid (cheese, rotten vegetables)
Roasted (coffee, cocoa)
Essential (alcohol, camphor).
In humans, the sense of smell is not as well developed as in animals. In the process of evolution, the human sense of smell is becoming weaker and weaker, and we are more dependent on visual sensations.
In our nose, the membrane occupies an area the size of a fingernail on both sides, but in a dog this membrane, if spread, will cover more than half of its body. In the human brain, cells that distinguish odors occupy a 20th part, in a dog - a third of the brain.
A person's weak sense of smell is compensated by a higher development of other sense organs. Deaf and deaf people have a better sense of smell. By smell, they recognize familiar people, receive signals of danger.
Olfactory sensations allow you to determine the quality of food, warn of danger (the smell of burning, gas), determine chemical composition(perfumery). With hunger, as with taste sensations, sensitivity increases, with saturation it decreases.
D) Skin sensations. There are two types of skin sensations: tactile ( sensations of touch) and temperature(sensations of heat and cold). Tactile sensations provide knowledge about the quality of objects, temperature sensations regulate the body's heat exchange with the environment.
On the surface of the skin are different types nerve endings, each of which gives a feeling of only touch, only cold, only heat. The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each of these types of stimuli is different. Touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the fingertips. The back is less sensitive. To the effects of heat and cold, those areas of the skin that are usually covered by clothing (lower back, abdomen, chest) are most sensitive.
Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. Average temperatures evoke positive feelings, cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth is relaxing. High rates of heat and cold cause negative emotions.
E ) Organic sensations. These include feelings of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, suffocation, sexual sensations. They tell us about the work of our body, our internal organs - the esophagus, intestines, etc., in the walls of which there are corresponding receptors. Without them, we would not be able to recognize violations in the work of our body in time and help it. When certain nutrients are lacking in the blood, hunger is felt. Then a signal comes to the "hunger center" located in the brain - the work of the stomach and intestines is activated. That is why a hungry person hears the rumbling of his stomach.
During the normal functioning of the internal organs, individual sensations merge into one sensation, which constitutes the general well-being of a person.
G) Feelings of balance. The organ of balance is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the movement and position of the head. When we first ride a bicycle, put on skates, etc., it is very difficult for us to keep our balance. With regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand nor walk, he will fall all the time. The organs of balance are connected with other internal organs. With a strong overexcitation of the balance organs, nausea, vomiting (seasickness) are observed.
H) Motor or kinesthetic sensations- sensations of movement and position of body parts. The receptors of the motor analyzer are located in the muscles, ligaments, tendons, articular surfaces, as well as in the fingers, tongue, lips (these organs carry out precise and subtle working and speech movements).
Motor sensations signal the degree of muscle contraction, how much, for example, an arm or leg is bent.
The development of motor sensations is one of the tasks of training. The lessons of labor, physical education, drawing, drafting, and rhythm are most conducive to this.
Without motor sensations, we could not normally perform movements, since the adaptation of actions to the external world and to each other requires signaling about every smallest detail of the act of movement.
I) tactile sensations- this is a combination of skin and motor sensations of objects, that is, when a moving hand touches them. The hand is the organ of touch. In people who are blind, touch is one of the important funds orientation and knowledge. As a result of training, such people can engage in modeling, sewing, and cooking.
K) pain- signal a danger, trouble that has arisen in the human body, that is, they have a protective value. The Greeks said: Pain is the watchdog of health.
Pain sensations are of a different nature.
1. Exist "points of pain" (special receptors), located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give these sensations.
2. They arise under the influence super strong stimulus for any analyzer. Deafening sound. Blinding light, strong smell, cold or heat can cause pain.
Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly and will bring a person into serious trouble.
3. Patterns of sensations.
Every person has an innate ability to feel. Feelings can be improved through practice. But even the most systematic training does not allow one to cross the limit beyond which a person no longer distinguishes objects, hears sounds, or smells.
A) Absolute thresholds.
For a sensation to arise, the irritation must reach a certain level. Too weak stimuli do not cause sensations.
That smallest, minimum strength of the stimulus, at which a barely noticeable sensation occurs, is called lower absolute threshold sensitivity.
The greatest strength of the stimulus at which a sensation of a given type still exists is called upper threshold of sensitivity. A further increase in the strength of the stimulus acting on our receptors causes only pain (super loud sound, blinding brightness).
The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer. There is an inverse relationship between absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity.
The sensitivity of the visual and auditory analyzer is very high.
The absolute sensitivity of certain analyzers varies from person to person. Thresholds of sensitivity change throughout life: from birth they develop and reach highest development by adolescence, and by old age the thresholds rise (hearing and vision deteriorate).
B) Another important characteristic of the analyzer is its ability to distinguish between changes in the strength of the stimulus. So-called distinction threshold.
The discrimination threshold is a relative value showing by what proportion the strength of the stimulus must increase in order for a person to feel a barely noticeable change in sensation (for example, if 10 people are added to a choir of 100 people, then we will feel the difference).
B. Ananiev pointed out that sensitivity to distinction is a source of complex thought process- comparisons.
C) The following pattern of sensations - adaptation(lat.-addictive). Adaptation in life is known to everyone. When we enter the water, the water at first seems cold, and after a while the feeling of cold disappears and the water seems warm. When we enter a dark corridor from a bright room, it takes time for our eyes to get used to and we begin to see. And vice versa, from darkness to a bright room. Coming from the street into the room, we feel all the smells, and after a while we no longer notice them. These examples indicate that the sensitivity of analyzers can change under the influence of active stimuli.
Adaptation- this is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of the stimulus.
Distinguish 3 varieties this phenomenon:
1. complete disappearance of sensation during prolonged action of the stimulus (light load, watch on the arm, disappearance of smell, etc.)
2. dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus (hand in cold water, from darkness to bright light)
3. increased sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus (dark adaptation: eyes see better in the dark after a while; auditory adaptation - adaptation to silence).
The first two varieties are negative adaptation, as it leads to a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers. The third type of adaptation - positive, as it leads to an increase in sensitivity.
Adaptation helps to catch weak stimuli and protects the senses from excessive irritation.
Strong adaptation is observed in skin (tactile). Visual, olfactory, temperature sensations, weak - in auditory and pain. You can get used to the noise and pain, not pay attention to them, but you will not stop feeling them.
D) Sensations, as a rule, do not exist independently and are isolated from each other. The operation of one analyzer may affect the operation of another.
A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations. General pattern The interaction of sensations consists in the fact that weak stimuli increase, and strong ones decrease the sensitivity of the analyzers during their interaction. The sensitivity of the visual analyzer can be increased by weak musical sounds, wiping the face cold water, sweet and sour taste sensations.
The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called sensitization.
Physiologically, this is due to the fact that a weak stimulus causes an excitation process in the cortex, which easily radiates. As a result of the irradiation of the excitation process, the sensitivity of another analyzer increases. Under the influence of a strong stimulus, a process of excitation occurs, which tends to concentrate. In law mutual induction this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in sensitivity in them.
Weak taste sensations (sour) increase visual sensitivity, weak sound stimuli increase the color sensitivity of the eye, weak light stimuli enhance auditory sensations. This must be used in the learning process.
In addition, sensitization can be achieved through exercise. For example, music lessons develop pitch hearing.
Allocate two types of sensitization:
1. sensitization caused by necessity compensation sensory impairments (blindness, deafness)
2. sensitization caused by activity, the requirements of the profession (specialists in dyeing fabrics distinguish from 40 to 60 shades of black; tasters improve in olfactory and gustatory sensations, etc.)
Interactions of sensations are also manifested in synesthesia.
Synesthesia- this is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer.
For example, visual-auditory synesthesia - when exposed to sound stimuli, visual images arise. Less commonly, auditory sensations occur when exposed to the visual analyzer, taste - on the auditory. (For example, a lemon can cause a sour taste when tasted, or you can say the word "lemon" - and also feel the taste of lemon in your mouth.
We often say "pungent taste", "velvet voice", "screaming color", "sweet sounds". It's all synesthesia. Synesthesia is at the heart of color music.
Sensations are also influenced by previously acting stimuli.
Contrast- a change in the intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus.
With the simultaneous action of two stimuli, a simultaneous contrast. For example, the same figure appears lighter on a black background, and darker on a white one. A green object on a red background seems more saturated.
Consistent Contrast more widespread. After a cold, a thermal stimulus seems hot, after an sour one, sensitivity to a sweet one increases and vice versa.
4. The development of sensations.
Hearing develops under the influence of music and sound speech; music lessons
Clear pronunciation of words forms phonemic hearing
Painting classes contribute to the development of visual sensations
Remember to protect your eyesight (sufficient lighting, proper posture, do not read while lying down)
Remember to protect your hearing (better quiet than loud)
Observations in nature
Special exercises, games
Accounting individual characteristics sensations in children (submission of material in various ways: by ear, through the organs of vision, skin, tactile, taste sensations, etc.)
V. Krutetsky Psychology p.89-101. I.Dubrovina Psychology pp.91-105. Synopsis pp. 96-103.
There are several options classification of those two dozen analyzer systems that a person possesses. The most used is the systematization proposed by the English physiologist I. Sherrington, who singled out three main classes of sensations:
1. exteroceptive, arising from the impact of external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body;
2. interoreceptive(organic), signaling what is happening in the body (feelings of hunger, thirst, pain, etc.);
3. proprioceptive located in muscles and tendons; with their help, the brain receives information about the movement and position of various parts of the body.
total mass exteroceptive sensations, the Sherrington scheme allows divide by distant (visual, auditory) and contact(tactile, gustatory). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position in this case. Most ancient is organic(primarily pain) sensitivity, then contacts appeared(primarily tactile, that is, tactile) forms. And the most evolutionary auditory and especially visual systems should be considered young receptors. The most significant for the functioning of the human psyche are visual(85% of all information about outside world), auditory, tactile, organic, olfactory and gustatory sensations.
According to the modality of the stimulus, sensations are divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, static and kinesthetic, temperature, pain, thirst, and hunger.
Let us briefly describe each of these types of sensations.
visual sensations.
They result from the action of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the sensitive part of our eye - retina, which is the receptor of the visual analyzer. Light affects two types of light-sensitive cells in the retina - rods and cones, so named for their external shape. (Stolyarenko)
electromagnetic waves, which the visual system reflects are located in the range from 380 to 780 billionths of a meter and together they occupy a very limited part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Waves that are within this range and differ in length, in turn, generate sensations of different colors (Table 1).
Table 1
Relationship between visually perceived wavelength
And subjective feeling colors
Auditory sensations. These sensations also belong to distant sensations and also have great importance In human life. Thanks to them, a person hears speech, has the ability to communicate with other people. (Stolyarenko)
The human ear responds, unlike the eye, to mechanical influences, associated with changes in atmospheric pressure. Air pressure fluctuations (longitudinal oscillations of air particles), following with a certain frequency and characterized by the periodic appearance of areas of high and low pressure, are perceived by us as sounds of a certain height and loudness. (Nemov)
The human hearing organ responds to sounds in the range from 16 to 20,000 vibrations per second..
All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, musical, noise.(Stolyarenko)
vibration sensations.
Vibration sensitivity is adjacent to auditory sensations. They have a common nature of reflected physical phenomena. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. This type of sensitivity is figuratively called " contact hearing". No specific vibration receptors have been found in humans. It is currently believed that to reflect the vibrations of the external and internal environment can all tissues of the body. In humans, vibrational sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual. (Stolyarenko)
Olfactory sensations.
They refer to distant sensations that reflect smells objects around us. Olfactory organs are olfactory cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. (Stolyarenko) Anatomically, the olfactory organ is located in most living beings in the most advantageous place - in front, in a prominent part of the body. (Nemov)
The group of contact sensations includes taste, skin (pain, tactile, temperature) sensations.(Stolyarenko)
Taste sensations.
Caused by the action on taste receptors of substances, dissolved in saliva or water. Taste buds - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx, palate, - There are four main modalities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter.. All other taste sensations are various combinations of these four basic sensations. (Stolyarenko; Nemov)
Skin sensations.
There are several analyzer systems in the skin: tactile(sensation of touch) temperature(feelings of cold and heat) painful.
Haptic Sensing System(sensations of pressure, touch, texture and vibration) covers the entire human body. The largest accumulation of tactile cells is observed on the palm, on the fingertips and on the lips. The tactile sensations of the hands, together with the muscular-articular sensitivity, form the sense of touch, thanks to which the hands can reflect the shape and spatial position of objects. Tactile sensations, together with temperature sensations, are one of the types of skin sensitivity that provides information about the position of bodies with which a person is in direct contact (smooth, rough, sticky, liquid, etc.), as well as information about the temperature parameters of these bodies and the entire environment. environment.
If you touch the surface of the body, then press on it, the pressure can cause pain sensation . Thus, tactile sensitivity gives knowledge about the properties of the subject and pain signals the body about the need to move away from the stimulus and has a pronounced emotional tone.
The third type of skin sensitivity - temperature sensations - related to the regulation of heat exchange between the body and environment. The distribution of heat and cold receptors on the skin is uneven. The back is most sensitive to cold, the least - the chest.
O position of the body in space signal static feeling. Static sensitivity receptors are located in the vestibular apparatus inner ear. Sudden and frequent changes in body position relative to the ground plane can lead to dizziness.
Special place and the role in human life and activity is occupied by interoreceptive (organic) sensations that arise from receptors located in internal organs, and signal the functioning of the latter. These sensations form the organic feeling (well-being) of a person.
Organic sensations include, first of all, feelings hunger, thirst, satiety, as well as complexes of pain and sexual sensations. The feeling of hunger appears when the food center of the brain, located in the hypothalamus, is excited. Electrical stimulation of this center (with the help of electrodes implanted there) causes in animals a desire for continuous food intake, and destruction - to refuse it, that is, to death from exhaustion. (Stolyarenko)
All kinds of sensations arise as a result of the impact of appropriate stimuli-irritants on the sense organs. However, the sensation does not arise immediately, as soon as the desired stimulus begins to act. Between the onset of the action of the stimulus and the appearance of sensation passes certain time . It's called latency period. During the latent period, the energy of the acting stimuli is converted into nerve impulses, their passage through specific and non-specific structures. nervous system, switching from one level of the nervous system to another. By the duration of the latent period, one can judge the afferent structures of the central nervous system through which nerve impulses pass before reaching the cerebral cortex. (Nemov)
Perception
If, as a result of sensation, a person receives knowledge about individual properties, qualities of objects (something hot burned, something bright flashed ahead, etc.), then perception gives a holistic image of an object or phenomenon. It presupposes the presence of various sensations and flows along with sensations, but cannot be reduced to their sum. Perception depends on certain relationships between sensations, the relationship of which, in turn, depends on the connections and relationships between qualities and properties, various parts that make up an object or phenomenon.
Perception is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in the aggregate of their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. Perception is a reflection of a complex stimulus.
There are four operations or four levels perceptual action: detection, discrimination, identification and recognition. The first two relate to perceptual, the last - to identification actions.
Perception is the result of the activity of the system of analyzers. Every perception includes an active motor component.(feeling objects with a hand, eye movement when looking, etc.) and complex analytical-synthetic activity of the brain for the synthesis of a holistic image.(Stolyarenko)
The image formed as a result of the process of perception involves interaction, coordinated work of several analyzers at once. Depending on which one work more actively, process more information, receives the most significant features that testify to the properties of the perceived object, distinguish and types of perception. Accordingly, visual, auditory, tactile perception is distinguished . Four analyzers - visual, auditory, skin and muscle - most often act as leaders in the process of perception.(Nemov)
The pattern of subjectivity of perception - people perceive the same information in different ways, subjectively, depending on from their interests, needs, abilities etc. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperceptions. The influence of a person's past experience on the process of perception is manifested in experiments with distorting glasses: in the first days of the experiment, when the subjects saw all the surrounding objects upside down, the exception was those objects whose reversed image, as people knew, was physically impossible. So, an unlit candle was perceived upside down, but as soon as it was lit, it was seen as normally oriented vertically, i.e., the flame was directed upwards. (Stolyarenko)
Perception properties:
objectivity perception lies in the fact that a person realizes the mental images of objects not as images, but like real items objectifying them. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality.
Integrity perception is the reflection of an object as stable set of elements, even if some of its parts are not observed under these conditions. However, the ability of a holistic visual perception of objects is not congenital. Perception is formed in the process of practice, i.e. perception - perceptual system action, that need to be mastered.
constancy perception - thanks to constancy, we perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, color, size etc. The source of the constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system (the system of analyzers that provide the act of perception). Multiple perceptions of the same objects different conditions allows you to select a relatively constant invariant structure of the perceived object. Constancy of perception is not an innate property, but an acquired one. Violation of the constancy of perception occurs when a person finds himself in an unfamiliar situation, for example, when people look down from the upper floors of a high-rise building, cars and pedestrians seem small to them; at the same time, builders who work constantly at height report that they can see objects below without distorting their size.
Categorical human perception is manifested in the fact that it wears generalized character, and each perceived object we denote by a word-concept, belong to a certain class. In accordance with this class, we look for and see signs in the perceived object that are characteristic of all objects of this class and expressed in the volume and content of this concept.
Structurality Perception - Perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from these sensations. For example, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody, and we recognize it if it is performed by an orchestra, or a single piano, or a human voice, although individual sound sensations are different.
meaningfulness perception - perception closely associated with thinking, with understanding the essence of objects.
Selectivity perception - manifested in the predominant selection of some objects compared to others.
Types of perception allocate: perception of objects, time, perception of relationships, movements, space, perception of a person.(Stolyarenko; Nemov: Internet)
The described properties of objectivity, integrity, constancy and categorization of perception from birth are not inherent in a person; they gradually take shape in life experience, partly being a natural consequence of the work of analyzers, the synthetic activity of the brain.
Most often and most of all, the properties of perception were studied on the example vision - the leading sense organ in humans. Representatives of the gestalt psychology - direction of scientific research, established at the beginning of the XX century. in Germany. One of the first classification of factors influencing the organization of visual sensations into images in line with Gestalt psychology was proposed by M. Wertheimer. The factors he identified are:
1. The proximity to each other of the elements of the visual field that caused the corresponding sensations. The closer to each other spatially in the visual field are the corresponding elements, the more likely they are combined with each other and create a single image.
2. Similarity of elements to each other. This property is manifested in the fact that similar elements tend to combine.
3. Factor of "natural continuation". It manifests itself in the fact that elements that act as parts of figures, contours and forms familiar to us are more likely to be combined in our minds precisely in these figures, shapes and contours than in others.
4. Closure. This property of visual perception acts as the desire of the elements of the visual field to create complete, closed images. (Nemov)
Perception of time
There are large individual differences in the ability to estimate time. Experiments have shown that the same can pass for a ten-year-old child five times faster than for a sixty-year-old person. In the same subject, the perception of time varies greatly depending on the mental and physical state. When depressed or frustrated, time passes slowly. Time, saturated in the past with experiences, activities, is remembered as longer, and a long period of life, filled with uninteresting events, is remembered as quickly past.
The length of time is less 5 minutes when remembered it usually seems more its size, and longer gaps are remembered as smaller e.
Our ability to judge the length of time allows us to form time dimension- an axis of time on which we place events more or less exactly. The current moment (now) marks a special point on this axis, the events of the past are placed before, and the events of the expected future - after this point. This general perception of the relationship between the present and the future is called « time perspective». (Stolyarenko)
Feel- these are the properties of the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that are currently affecting the brain at the moment, reflected in the cerebral cortex.
Sensations are inherent not only to humans, they are the property of all life on Earth, and the sensations of animals are sometimes more subtle than those of humans.
Feelings can be divided into three large groups:
1) sensations that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin;
2) sensations that reflect the state of the body: organic, balance, motor;
3) sensations that are a combination of several sensations (tactile), as well as sensations of various origins (for example, pain).
visual sensations.
The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones. The rods are responsible for the perception of light and function during the day, and the cones are colors and work at dusk.
Auditory sensations.
Air vibrations, entering the ear, cause vibrations of the eardrum, and then through the middle ear are transmitted to the inner where the cochlea is located - the organ of sound perception.
Feelings:
2) musical
3) speech (combine musical sounds and noises).
Taste sensations.
They arise as a result of exposure to receptors of substances dissolved in water or saliva.
Taste buds are located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate, which are able to distinguish four types of elementary taste sensations: sweet, sour, bitter, salty.
Olfactory sensations.
Receptors are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. Skin sensations. Kinds:
1) temperature (the ability to distinguish between changes in air temperature, and the most sensitive are those areas of the skin that are covered with clothes);
2) tactile (touch);
3) vibrational (impact on the surface of the skin of air vibrations).
2. Organic sensations.
Receptors are located in the walls of internal organs. The most common sensations are thirst, hunger, nausea, etc.
Feelings of balance.
The receptor is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the position of the head.
Motor sensations.
Their receptors are found in muscles, ligaments, tendons.
Tactile sensations.
They are a combination of such sensations as skin and motor. Pain has two origins:
1) irritation of certain points of pain: for example, a skin burn;
2) arise as a result of exposure to any analyzer of a superstrong stimulus: for example, a strong smell of paint can cause a headache.