Stages of speech production. Open Library - open library of educational information
Let us repeat Vygotsky's thought: the birth of speech is always preceded by motive . This is what we are building our statement for. Sometimes the motive is obvious: we are hungry and ask our grandmother (or mother) to feed us; we don’t write with a pen at a lecture and we ask a neighbor to borrow a pen or pencil. However, sometimes the motive is not only not obvious, but also not clear to the author of the speech. Some of our statements (as well as some of our actions) we cannot explain to ourselves. We rush to express our opinion, and then regret what we have done; it seems to us that we are cutting the truth-womb, but in fact we are trying to show ourselves; we shout at the lecture, trying to clarify the teacher’s thought, and the real motive of our statement is the location of a pretty blonde in the next row, etc., etc., etc.
A woman gives her friend a compliment, but for some reason her mood deteriorates. A similar situation can be analyzed with an anecdote.
Friends are talking.
- My husband usually lights up only after a good dinner.
- Well, two or three cigarettes a year won't hurt him...
But even if we do not realize why we produce speech, our discourse always has a motive; it becomes a trigger, an impetus to the beginning of any speech.
The motive forms in our linguistic consciousness communicative intention - readiness for speech production, for communicative actions. At this primary stage of speech formation, there is a mood for one or another social and communicative situation (chatter or heart-to-heart talk, a compliment or a quarrel, secular communication or public speaking etc.), one or another modality of communication (conflict, centered, cooperative). It is at this stage that the speaker appears - as yet vague - common goal(intention, illocution) statements.
N. I. Zhinkin succeeded (in his award-winning brilliant work “The Mechanisms of Speech”) with the help of fluoroscopy
to show that the internal organs of pre-articulation, which provide speech production with an air flow, and their own (autogenic) vibrations of the vocal cords - these organs are activated and occupy a certain position until the moment of pronunciation. The changes that the organs of articulation of a person who is about to enter into communication demonstrate are predetermined by the specific situation of speech interaction.
Let us specifically point out the genre character of this primary stage. speech thinking person. In the second part of our book, we will talk about the theory of speech genres, the creator of which was M. M. Bakhtin. The idea of a speech genre - the verbal design of typical situations social interaction people - is present in the mind of the speaker in the form of a finished script (frame), according to which he is ready to build his speech (text). The intonational mood for a particular genre is what N. I. Zhinkin's experiments show. At the time of the formation of a holistic speech work (discourse), already at the primary stages of inner speech, we attune ourselves to a particular situation of communication, to a specific speech genre.
Next comes the formation semantic (semantic) filling the statement. There are no elements of the national language yet. In the non-verbal code of images and schemes, which N. I. Zhinkin called the universal subject code (UCC), a general yet not quite clear awareness is maturing. general design future discourse. At this stage of speech production, the speaker knows what he will talk about, but does not yet know how. The more complex the informative content of the future statement (discourse), the less clear to the author of the speech how it will unfold and what external forms it will take.
Only after that the first linguistic components of the future statement appear in the mind. In inner speech, transcoding, translation of meaning (the general idea of the speech whole) from the language of images and schemes to the national language . The primary record of the content of a speech work is still in the nature of an extremely compressed synopsis, consisting of key words, nuclear phrases and rhematic fragments of sentences. This compressed version of the discourse does not yet have a grammatical design and carries a personal (understandable only to the speaker) meaning.
Further formation of speech has the character unfolding the nuclear concept into a coherent and, if possible, coherent text , text that ideally builds according to psycholinguistic norm of textuality(which we wrote about in the previous chapter). It is here that what L. S. Vygotsky called “the completion of a thought in a word” takes place.
It is easy to see that syntactic unities are primarily restructured: “Why are you with me ... Couldn’t you ask me?” Or: “Come on better ... you know when? I want to say that tomorrow I’m busy,” etc. All this, in particular, means that the idea of the future in speech, i.e., the meaning that is constructed in the speaker’s brain apparatus, is not necessary at all - even at the moment of actual verbalization - “ originally attached" to a certain form of linguistic expression.
The experiments of the neurolinguist A.R. Luria confirm the idea of Fr. the primacy of syntax in the process of forming an utterance. Those suffering from aphasia are often helped to speak out by the presence of external supports (cubes or paper squares), as if “bringing out” the structure of the future phrase; three dice - three words, two dice - two words. For example, when an aphasic cannot answer a simple question “What is your name?”, he is put cubes one by one on the table, he touches each with his hand and answers: “My ... name is ... Nikolai” or “Ivanov .. . my surname". And finally, observational material
confidently testifies that in the course of auto-corrections the speaker in 70% of cases corrects not the phrase as a whole, not the syntactic structure, but makes lexical substitutions. Syntactic structures are primary .
Except for accidental reservations, substitutions are made, as a rule, within synonymous series (“came” - “rushed” - “ran”; clarifications of all kinds, for example: “in the morning” - “at dawn”; “late” - “completely late") or within adjacent semantic fields: "a face with such freckles" - "or a pockmarked face, in a word"; “almost missed the tram, that is, the metro, of course”; “wrapped in paper” - “in a piece of polyethylene”; “I picked it up with my hand, with my finger, that is,” etc.
The question of how our "internal lexicon" is organized, our vocabulary in our linguistic memory, is far from finally resolved. Thanks to the research of Professor A. A. Zalevskaya, much of this complex problem has become clearer with the help of the free association technique. Recall once again that the experience usually looks like this. The lead experimenter offers the subject to answer each of his instructor's words with any other word or phrase that comes to the subject's mind. Sometimes you have to give examples: "cow" - "milk" or "cow" - "calf", "cow" - "horned", etc. Some subjects find the closest associations by the type of antonymic series ("cow" - "bull" ), others prefer syntagmatic connections (“brown cow”), others prefer whole extended judgments (“the cow benefits us”).
In linguistics, they argue about “what is more important”, what is “primary” - a word or a text? Is it easy to answer this question by considering association experiments? After all, the text-centric theory is confirmed by syntagmatic reactions to a verbal stimulus, while the lexicological one is confirmed by all the rest. Let's turn to our own object of observation - the process of solving crossword puzzles.
Given: “A river in Western Europe” (i.e., we are given an incomplete text that refers us to the “bank of knowledge”, to that section of it that is in charge of our geographical knowledge). We begin to sort through the names of European rivers in memory, not losing sight of the fact that the number of letters in it is 4: Rhone, Seine, Rhine, Oder (stop! This is already Eastern Europe), Mine ... "Mine" matches the letter "m" at the beginning. In short, a single word is somehow
is taken from the whole text in a broad sense (from any part of our knowledge). And if we are offered to name any word that means “furniture”, then from our lexicon (the section that deals with furniture) we can choose one of the series “table - wardrobe - chair - sofa - chair ...” But each unit of the row is part of the previous (which were in our experience) texts like "A sofa is also furniture" and "The room is furnished with furniture: tables, chairs, cabinets." Later, especially in the course of language learning, we gradually learn how to alienate individual words from texts, forcing them to live a “special life”. Therefore, a more or less literate person will easily fulfill the request “Name any word with “o” at the beginning”, and an illiterate person will find it difficult to fulfill this request. ... Experience shows that one of the once favorite games of students (“balda”) knows its virtuosos, and a child or an illiterate one will not play “balda”: the words for them exist precisely in the text, and not separately, especially not from individual letters.
Thus, the process of generating an utterance, which begins with the formation of a communicative intention and then the formation of a meaning (intention) in the system of the Code of Criminal Procedure even before the actual verbalization begins, passes first of all into the stage of the future syntactic whole. The mood for a certain type of situation stimulates the choice of syntactic constructions included in the statement. Then the filling of the syntactic structure with specific vocabulary begins; in case of failure, auto-correction is carried out (and this means that the consciousness does not always immediately begin to effectively control the speech produced). But, undoubtedly, normal speech is formed with the participation of consciousness, under its control - otherwise there would be no auto-corrections. Everyone knows, of course, cases when everything expressed contradicts the intention (intention) of the speaker: one has not to correct individual errors, but to reformulate the entire statement (“Sorry, I didn’t say what I wanted”).
A separate question is whether our every act of speech creative process. We will talk about this separately and later.
Now let's turn to the judgments of the famous, talented German writer, now, unfortunately, almost forgotten in our country and even in his homeland, Germany - Heinrich von Kleist. He is very
seriously pondered the mysteries of the generation of speech. So, a fragment from G. Kleist's letter to his friend.
If I have some vague idea, remotely somehow connected with what I am looking for, then as soon as I begin to speak, my mind, forced to find the beginning of the end, transforms this vague idea into complete clarity, so that by the end of the period I, to my amazement, know what I wanted to know. I make inarticulate sounds, stretch connecting words, use synonyms unnecessarily, and resort to other lengthening tricks in order to gain the time necessary for the manufacture of my idea in the workshop of the mind ... A strange source of inspiration for the speaker is a human face in front of him; and often just one look, indicating to us that our half-expressed thought has already been understood, gives us the opportunity to express the other half ... The series of ideas and their designations follow side by side, and the movements of the mind necessary for both agree. Language here is not a constraining hindrance, not like a brake on the wheel of the mind, but like a second, parallel rotating wheel on the same axis. It is a completely different matter if the mind has already dealt with the thought before the beginning of speech. After all, then it remains only for him to express it ... If any idea is expressed inconsistently, on the contrary, it is most inconsistently; the expressed ideas are just the most clearly thought out ... For it is not we who know, but first of all, it is our state that knows. Only the ignorant, the people who yesterday memorized and tomorrow they will forget again, have the answer ready... And only an unreasonable examiner concludes from this confused answer that the speaker does not know what he should say.
Let us repeat once again, in a little more detail than before, how the program of turning thoughts into words (“verbalization”) is carried out.
1. The utterance is stimulated motive of this act of speech activity (Why, for what purpose am I speaking?), and the speaker must first have an attitude towards communication in general (it is not, for example, in a dream).
2. The primary stage of the formation of an utterance is the stage communicative intention , which is realized in the form of a mood for a certain typical situation of social interaction of people - for a specific speech genre, be it the genre of greeting, compliment, quarrel, report, chatter, etc. Depending on the specific situation of social interaction, he forms a general setting for a certain intonational tone of communication, modality of speech (for cooperative or conflict communication, for understanding or communicative sabotage, etc.). At the same stage in consciousness
the speaker forms an idea of the goal (intention, illocution) of the future statement (What type of communication am I tuning in to?). Setting on a specific speech genre affects the formation of the general semantic (semantic) program of the utterance.
3. From the communicative intention, the process proceeds to the moment of formation of the semantic content of the future statement (Not only “for what”, but also “what exactly will I say”, will I start with a question or with a statement?) in the Code of Criminal Procedure (according to Zhinkin). This is the general stage intent . Here, a holistic (perhaps, as yet indistinct, diffuse) semantic “picture” of the future statement is formed: the meaning, semantics already exist, but there are no specific words and syntactic structures yet.
4. The formed internal program (concept) begins to transform: the mechanism begins to work transcoding, meaning translation from the language of images and schemes to a specific National language- the language of meanings. Here appear primary verbal record future statement: key concepts, sentences are fragments of phrases that carry a nuclear (rhematic) meaning. The primary verbal summary of the future statement that arises in the mind of a person is filled with personal meanings: the first verbal formations (if they are voiced) are understandable only to the speaker himself.
5. Further formation of speech is unfolding nuclear meaning (theme) into a speech whole built in accordance with the psycholinguistic norm of textuality.
6. In this case, first formed syntactic scheme future statement. "Internal words", i.e., the meanings of words are already becoming "prototypes" of external words and gradually occupy "their" syntactic positions.
7. The next stage of speech generation is grammatical structuring and morphemic selection of specific vocabulary , then:
8. Implemented by syllable motor program external speech, articulation.
All these stages of speech production should not be imagined strictly separately and sequentially; most likely, all this - the process of generating speech - is fleeting, implemented in a fraction of a second, it happens as G. Kleist imagined,
when he wrote about "two parallel wheels on the same axle." Let's not forget the parallel stage of speech production control - the mistakes made during "failures" and their correction.
Let's move on to last stage the way of turning a thought into a detailed speech statement that interests us.
Despite the importance of this process, it should be noted that both in linguistics and in psychology, this stage has been much less studied than those we discussed above.
A feature of a detailed speech utterance is that, on the one hand, it is included in the process of live communication and the transfer of information from one person to another, and on the other hand, it includes not one sentence, but a whole chain
mutually related proposals. The statement constitutes a single integral system and has the quality of a single closed structure (coherence).
The most complex nature of the generation of a whole consistent statement, which distinguishes it from the formation of an isolated phrase, was emphasized by many authors starting from W. Humboldt (1921-1923), who pointed out that the language used in communication is not “ergon” (a means of forming signs, relating to separate things and their relations), a "energeia", in other words, that the language included in the act of communication is a complex process that unfolds over time.
The same idea can be found in many other authors (Austin, 1969; Wittgenstein, 1968; Lakoff, 1971, 1972; Grice, 1971; Rommetveit, 1968, 1970; Halliday, 1967, 1968, 1973; Wertch, 1974, 1975; and etc.).
All these authors point out that the phrases included in the composition of a detailed speech utterance are always given in a certain practical or speech context, which should correspond not only to the speaker's intention, but also to the listener's attitude to this statement; that these phrases, which are parts of a whole utterance, cannot be studied out of context, and that context-free phrases do not exist at all.
Consequently, the phrases included in the whole extended utterance have not only a referential nature (referential meaning), indicating a certain event, but also a social-context meaning (social-context meaning), which is formed in a particular communication and can be understood only on the basis of communication process.
It is precisely because of this, as the mentioned authors point out, that just a linguistic analysis of the process of forming an utterance is insufficient and should be included as a private link in a broader psychological(and perhaps also socio-psychological) analysis (Rommetveit, 1968, 1972; Halliday, 1973; Wertch, 1974, 1975), taking into account the situation of communication, the motives of the speaker, the content of the transmitted information, the attitude of the listener to it, etc.
As we have pointed out, the processes of transformation of a simultaneous scheme of primary design into a successive sequence of successive
built phrase, i.e. the transformation of a "deep syntactic structure" into a detailed "surface syntactic structure" far from exhausts the entire system of a detailed speech utterance. It also has other additional features.
In the process of utterance, both the "theme" (what will be discussed) and the "rheme" (what exactly this utterance will communicate) must be essentially expanded, those. should be divided into a whole chain of links of a certain program holistic statement. To do this, it is necessary that both the "theme" of the utterance and its "rheme" be preserved for a long time and that installation, created by the task of conveying relevant information, could withstand side, distracting influences for a long time. Otherwise, a coherent extended statement would lose the character of a "closed semantic system" and would turn into a system accessible to various extraneous influences. Below we will have the opportunity to dwell on those stages of the child's development and on those pathological conditions in which this condition is not met and the extended speech utterance ceases to obey the original task, being replaced by separate, unrelated fragments.
All this gives reason to consider the speech statement as a complex form of speech activity which has essentially the same psychological structure, like any other form of mental activity studied in detail in Soviet psychology (A.N. Leontiev, 1959, 1975; and others).
Just as in all other forms of mental activity, we must distinguish in speech activity the motive that generates it, the goal to which it obeys, and the task that arises if this goal is given under certain conditions. In this extended speech activity, we must single out individual stages or actions, and performing these actions onewalkie-talkie. All these moments should be taken into account in the psychological analysis of a speech statement, making up its "psycholinguistic units" (A.A. Leontiev, 1969, 1974).
An essential feature of the generation of a speech utterance as a special form of speech activity, in addition to a stable formulation goals statements and that specific
tasks, which the speaker faces (this task may vary depending on what situation generates the statement, what kind of information the speaker should convey and to whom exactly the message is addressed), is also a fairly wide scope random access memory and complex system "strategies" the use of which allows you to highlight the essential meaning of the statement, inhibit side associations and choose speech formulations that correspond to the task.
All this suggests that the generation of a detailed speech utterance must necessarily include in its composition not only the creation of an initial scheme that determines the sequence of links of this utterance, but also a constant control behind the flow of pop-up components of the utterance, and in the most complex cases, the conscious choice desired speech components from many alternatives. This choice can take the form of extended trials requiring special efforts, or the form of a smooth “mental action” that obeys a previously developed internal scheme, the stages of which were traced in detail in Soviet psychology by P.Ya. Galperin and his collaborators (1959, 1975).
All this gives grounds to distinguish not individual words or even phrases, but entire semantic groups as the basic units of a speech utterance. These semantic units divide the entire text of the utterance into a chain of successive semantic components or "pieces" (chunks), ensuring an adequate transition from one semantic group to another (Miller, 1967).
The psychological structure of a detailed speech utterance is different when different forms utterances (oral and written speech) and is associated both with the complexity of the task and with the degree of automation of speech processes. However, in all cases, its most important characteristic is the preservation of the semantic unity of the statement.
ONTOGENESIS OF SPEECH STATEMENT
The formation of speech utterance in childhood goes through a long dramatic path, which has become quite famous only in recent decades as a result of the work of a number of
psychologists (Leopold, 1952; Brain, 1971; Slobin, 1970; R. Brown, 1973; Halliday, 1975; etc.).
The facts show that the formation of a child's speech utterance goes through several stages, from the appearance of isolated words, and then isolated independent phrases, to a complex extended utterance.
As Halliday (1975) rightly points out, even the initial forms of a child's vocal reactions included in a known sympraxic situation are always directed at an adult and are the most primitive form of verbal communication. So, according to Halliday's observations, at an early pre-linguistic stage of development English speech in a child, the sound "uh", included in a certain situation and pronounced in an even tone, can mean "give me", "do it"; the same sound, uttered with tension and in a high tone - "do it now"; a similar sound, uttered quietly, with a falling tone - "I want to sleep" or "it's good", etc.
Thus, even at this pre-linguistic stage of speech development, the child's babble serves as the simplest form of communication, based on intonational components and understandable only with knowledge of the practical situation.
The communicative function is performed by intonational components in the child's speech and at the subsequent stages of the "one-word sentence", and then the "two-word sentence" (Brown, 1973). Despite the fact that at these stages, the child’s utterance already includes individual lexical units, which are first of a diffuse and then grammatically formed character, the “contextuality” of this speech remains pronounced, and the content of the child’s speech can be understood only taking into account the situational (sympraxical) and intonation context.
However, there is no reason to think that the development of the communicative function of children's speech ends by the time when the child begins to master the simplest grammatical forms of speech and when he answers the questions put to him in sufficient detail.
Observations show that at this stage, too, a solid "closed semantic system" of the utterance has not yet been formed, and the child's speech cannot yet obey a stable program or plan corresponding to the child's intention.
The features of a coherent speech utterance of this period can be easily traced if a child of 2.5-3 years old is given a certain semantic task, for example, to invite him to tell about what he just saw at the zoo.
Usually the child correctly begins to carry out this task, listing everything he saw in the zoo, but his orientation to a closed scheme of utterance turns out to be fragile for him and he quickly slips into secondary, uncontrollably emerging associations. “Here I saw a bear there, and he is big, they are afraid of him ... But Kolya has a small dog, she barks. He feeds her with meat…” and so on.
Only to school age both the motive and the program of the utterance gradually acquire a solid character, and the utterance begins to turn into a closed system of a complex narrative limited by a specific task. One might think that the transition to this phase of verbal utterance, as a closed semantic system, is closely connected with the formation of the child's inner speech.
It is known that a child's inner speech is formed much later than his outer speech. A child who already possesses external speech in a dialogue situation is still incapable of extended monologue speech. This is largely due to the fact that the child's inner speech, with all its predicative functions, is not yet sufficiently formed. The transition to monologue speech in a child remains impossible even when the child is fully versed in dialogic speech. Only after the process of contraction, curtailment of external speech and its transformation into internal, does it become available and reverse process- expansion of this internal speech into external, i.e. into a coherent speech utterance with its characteristic persistent "semantic unity". However, only after mastering the morphological, lexical and syntactic forms that are operating components of extended speech, the child can move on to genuine speech activity, directed by a known motive, subject to a specific task and having the character of a constantly controlled and persistent "closed semantic system".
The ontogenesis of complex, extended speech communication, subordinate to a well-known program and firmly preserving its semantic unity, remains a poorly understood process. It is to be hoped that this gap will be filled by future generations of psychologists.
We have devoted a number of pages to a relatively little-studied problem of psychology and psycholinguistics, and this explains the incompleteness of the material presented. However, we hope that we have been able to show that the process of generating a speech utterance is not a simple act of translating a finished thought into an equally ready-made system of speech formulations and then into a scheme of a detailed speech utterance. As L.S. said Vygotsky, a thought is not embodied, but is accomplished or formed in speech, and the process of the transition of thought into speech includes a number of stages. A verbal utterance is a certain type of activity (with its own motive, initial task or intention and control), the psychological structure of which is still largely mysterious. Undoubtedly, the internal plan, in which meanings understandable to the subject himself predominate, turns into operational components of a complex speech activity that performs the task of speech communication through the mechanisms of internal speech, which is predicative in its function.
Psychology still does not yet have sufficiently accurate knowledge of what characterizes the individual stages of the most complex process of generating a speech utterance. Further study of the main stages is the main task of this important section of psychological science.
On the basis of numerous experimental data and analysis of theoretical studies of the world's leading psycholinguists, A. A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating speech utterance occupies a central place *.
According to the model of A. A. Leontiev, the process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages (or “phases”).
§ The starting point (“source”) of the statement is the motive. Motivation gives rise to speech intention (intention) - the orientation of the consciousness, will, feelings of the individual to some object (in our case - to the subject of speech activity). “The starting point for any statement is a motive ... that is, the need to express, convey certain information” (123, p. 41).
Considering this stage of speech production, A. A. Leontiev gives a very successful, in his opinion, definition of J. Miller - “the image of the result”. “At this stage, the speaker has the “Image of the result” .., but does not yet have the Plan of action that he must take in order to get this result” *. According to B. Skinner, the motive of a speech statement can be: a requirement (to perform a certain action) or “mands”, an informational appeal (message) - a “tact” and, finally, a desire to express in an expanded language form (i.e., to formulate ) any thought - "cept" (342). The motive itself does not have a clearly defined content.
§ At the next stage of generating a speech statement, the motive for speech action brings to life an idea, which, in turn, is “transformed” into a generalized semantic scheme of the statement. Based on theoretical concept A. R. Luria, A. A. Leontiev believes that at the stage of conception, for the first time, the theme and rheme of the future statement are singled out and differentiated, i.e., it is determined what needs to be said (the subject of the statement or its theme) and what exactly is needed to say about this subject (situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality) is the rheme of the statement. At this stage of speech generation, these two main structural-semantic components of the utterance "exist" (and, accordingly, are perceived by the speaker) "globally", w. n. simultaneous, undivided form (123, 124).
§ The next - the key stage of generating speech - the stage of internal programming. A. A. Leontiev put forward a position on the internal programming of an utterance, considered as a process of constructing a certain scheme, on the basis of which a speech utterance is generated. Such programming can be of two types: programming of a separate concrete utterance and speech whole (122, p. 7).
Based on the views of L. S. Vygotsky concerning psychological analysis process of speech, A. A. Leontiev believes that when generating a separate RT, programming consists in two interrelated processes of operating with units of the internal (subjective) code. This includes: a) attributing to these units a certain semantic load; b) construction of a functional hierarchy of these units. The second process forms the basis of the syntactic organization of the future utterance (123, p. 183).
The main operations on the basis of which this stage of constructing a speech utterance is implemented are:
§ Operations for determining the main semantic elements (semantic "links" or units) of the subject content of a speech statement. These elements (in their potentially possible number) correspond to the really existing elements (objects) of the subject content of that fragment of the surrounding reality, which should be displayed in this speech statement. As part of these operations, the operation of choosing those units of semantic content (out of all possible ones) that are “relevant” for the speaker or writer in a given situation of speech communication is very important. The latter, in turn, is determined by the motives and target setting of the speech of the first subject of speech activity (speaking or writing).
§ The operation of determining the "hierarchy" of semantic units in the "context" of the future RW, the definition of the main and secondary, "main" and clarifying points in the content of the speech statement. At the same time, it is important what the speaker's attention is focused on (for example, on the subject or object of the statement), what are his attitudes towards the listener. “The internal program of an utterance is a hierarchy of propositions underlying it. This hierarchy is formed by the speaker on the basis of a certain strategy of orientation in the described situation, depending on the “cognitive weight” of one or another component of this situation” (139, p. 114). Thus, the well-known example of L. S. Vygotsky: “Today I saw a boy in a blue blouse and barefoot running down the street” (50, p. - secondary.
§ The operation of determining the sequence of displaying semantic elements in a speech statement.
As A. A. Leontiev points out, there are three main types of processes for operating with "units" of programming. Firstly, this is an inclusion operation, when one code unit (image) receives two or more functional characteristics of different "depth". For example: (CAT + scientist + walks). Secondly, the enumeration operation, when one code unit receives characteristics of the same “depth” (mighty + TRIB + dashing). Thirdly, this is the articulation operation, which is a special case of the inclusion operation and occurs when the functional characteristic refers simultaneously to two code units: KOLDUN + (carries + (bogatyr)) or ((sorcerer) + carries) + BOGATYR (139, with .115). Based on N. I. Zhinkin’s concept of inner speech codes, A. A. Leontiev believes that the nature (or “type”) of a programming code “can vary widely, but the most typical case is a secondary visual image that arises on a linguistic basis "(123, p. 184).
The compilation of a semantic program at the stage of internal programming is carried out on the basis of a special, very specific code of internal speech.
“The internal programming code is a subject-scheme or subject-graphic code according to N. I. Zhinkin. In other words, programming is based on an image to which a certain semantic characteristic is attributed... This semantic characteristic is the predicate for this element. ... But what happens next depends on which component is the main one for us” (139, p. 115).
§ The next stage of speech production is the stage of lexical and grammatical deployment of the statement. Within its framework, in turn, non-linear and linear stages of lexico-grammatical structuring are distinguished.
The non-linear stage consists in the translation of a compiled (semantic) program from a subjective (individual) code to an objective (generally used) language code, in “attributing” to semantic units (semantic elements) a “functional load”, which is based on grammatical characteristics. According to A. A. Leontiev, this process can be schematically represented as follows: “meaning” (a semantic unit, the carrier of which is an image-representation) - a word (as a lexeme) - the required grammatical form of a word (word form).
The main operation that implements this sub-stage is the operation of selecting words (less often whole phrases) to designate elements of the semantic program - semantic units of the subjective code. The choice of words in the process of generating speech, according to A. A. Leontiev, is determined by three groups of factors: associative-semantic characteristics of words, their sound appearance and subjective probabilistic characteristics (123, p. 186).
According to A. A. Leontiev, the stage of the lexico-grammatical deployment of RW can be correlated with the transition from the plane of inner speech to the semantic plane (according to L. S. Vygotsky). As a result of its implementation, a set of language units of an objective code is created, for example, a set of words like: “Girl / apple | red / is "*.
The "linear deployment" of RT consists in its grammatical structuring - the creation of an appropriate grammatical construction suggestions. At the same time, based on the selection of the "initial" predicative pair (subject - predicate), the syntactic "prediction" of the statement begins to be carried out. The process of grammatical structuring includes:
§ finding (choosing from the available "standards") a grammatical structure;
§ determining the place of the element (chosen by the meaning of the word) in the syntactic structure and endowing it with grammatical characteristics,
§ performance of a role determined by the grammatical form of the first (or key) word in a phrase or sentence. For example, the fulfillment of "grammatical obligations" determined by the type of phrase (the word being defined > the grammatical form of the word being defined; the "core" word > the form of the controlled word, etc.).
The successive elements of the created statement are assigned all the missing ones for the complete language characteristics parameters: a) place in the general syntactic scheme of the utterance; b) "grammatical obligations", that is, a specific morphological implementation of a place in the general scheme, plus grammatical features; c) a complete set of semantic features; d) a complete set of acoustic-articulatory (or graphic) features (139, p. 117) Endowing a word (lexeme) with grammatical characteristics involves choosing the desired word form from the appropriate series grammatical forms the words.
This stage ends smart operations semantic-syntactic "prediction" of the correspondence of the speech statement prepared for implementation to its "target setting" (in other words, it is determined whether the compiled speech statement corresponds to the tasks of speech communication). The compiled version of the speech statement is correlated with its program, the general "context" of speech and the situation of speech communication. Based on the results of such an analysis, the subject of the RD makes a decision to move to the final phase of composing a speech statement - the phase of its external implementation. There are three possible “solutions” here: the decision to “launch” RV during external plan, i.e., about his "voicing"; the decision to make "adjustments" to the content or language design of the RT and, finally, the decision to cancel the speech action. (For example, a variant of the implementation of the RD in a dialogical form, when one of the participants in the communication process, having “prepared” a clarifying question during the perception of the interlocutor’s speech, suddenly, unexpectedly receives information of interest to him from his dialogue partner. In this case, his own RT of a “clarifying nature "becomes redundant.)
§ final stage the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "on the external plane" (in "external speech"). This stage is carried out on the basis of a number of interrelated operations that provide the process of phonation, sound formation, reproduction of successive sound combinations (syllables), operations of producing entire “semantic” sound complexes (words), operations that provide the required (in accordance with the semantic program and language norm) rhythmic- melodic and melodic-intonational organization of speech. This process is carried out on the basis of the implementation of phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic "automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding pronunciation skills.
As A. A. Leontiev emphasizes, the scheme of the process of speech generation presented above “appears in a more or less complete form in spontaneous (unprepared) oral monologue speech: in other types of speech it can be reduced or significantly changed - up to the inclusion of the first signal (according to I. P. Pavlov) speech reactions” (139, pp. 113-114).
Thus, the model of speech generation proposed by A. A. Leontiev is based on the conceptual idea of “internal programming”. Scientific views A. A. Leontieva, as T. V. Akhutina points out, in many respects determined many modern research not only domestic, but also a number of foreign scientists on this issue (14, 42, 93, 98, 212, etc.).
A similar model of speech production, fundamentally close to the model of A. A. Leontiev, was proposed by I. A. Zimnyaya (1984, 2001, etc.). Defining speech as a way of forming and formulating thoughts, I. A. Zimnyaya identifies three main levels of the process of speech production: motivational-motivating, formative (with two sublevels - meaning-forming and formulating) and realizing.
The motivating level, driven by the "internal image" of the reality to which the action is directed, is "the launch of the entire process of generating speech." Here the need (in utterance) finds "its definiteness" in the object of activity. The objectified motive becomes a thought that serves as an internal motive for speaking or writing (95).
In his concept of speech activity, I. A. Zimnyaya distinguishes between motive and communicative intention. “Communicative intention is what explains the nature and purpose of a given speech act. At this level, the speaker knows only what, and not what to say, that is, he knows the general subject or topic of the statement, as well as the form of interaction with the listener (whether it is necessary to ask him about something or give out any information). What to say is realized later” (95, p. 73).
The second stage - the process of formation and formulation of thought has two functionally different and at the same time interconnected phases. The meaning-forming phase forms and deploys the general idea of the speaker - I. A. Zimnyaya correlates this sublevel with “internal programming” according to the concept of A. A. Leontiev. According to I. A. Zimnyaya, the process of consistent formation and formulation of an idea through language is aimed simultaneously at nomination (designation) and predication, i.e., establishing connections of the “new - given” type. At this level, the idea is simultaneously implemented both in the spatial-conceptual scheme that actualizes the “nomination field” and in the temporal sweep scheme that actualizes the predication field. The spatial-conceptual scheme is a "grid" of relations of concepts, caused by the internal image of the objective relations of reality, which, in turn, is determined by the motive. The time base reflects the connection and sequence of concepts, and, accordingly, the sequence of elements of the semantic program, i.e., a kind of "grammar of thought" (95, 98).
According to the concept of I. A. Zimnyaya, the actualization of the conceptual field also actualizes its verbal (verbal) expression immediately both in the acoustic (auditory) and in the motor image. Simultaneously with the process of choosing words, the operations of their placement are carried out, i.e., the grammatical and syntactic design of the statement. Thus, the formative level of speech production, carried out by the phases of meaning-formation and formulation, simultaneously actualizes the mechanism for choosing words, the mechanism for time sweep and the articulatory program; the latter directly implements (“objectifies”) the idea in the process of forming and formulating thoughts through language (95, p. 78).
T. V. Akhutina distinguishes three levels of speech programming: internal (semantic) programming, grammatical structuring and motor kinetic organization of the utterance. They correspond to three operations of choosing the elements of the statement: the choice of semantic units (units of meaning), the choice of lexical units that are combined in accordance with the rules of grammatical structuring, and the choice of sounds. The author highlights the programming of both a detailed statement and individual sentences (12, 14, 200, etc.). At the same time, T. V. Akhutina offers the following description of the successive stages (“levels”) of speech generation. At the level of the internal or semantic program of the utterance, “semantic syntaxing” and the choice of “meanings” in internal speech are carried out. At the level of the semantic structure of the sentence, semantic syntaxing and the choice of linguistic meanings of words take place. The level of the lexico-grammatical structure of the sentence corresponds to the grammatical structuring and choice of words (lexemes). Finally, motor (kinetic) programming and the choice of articles correspond to the level of the motor program of the syntagma.
The model of T. V. Chernigovskaya and V. L. Deglin (1984) was also built on neurolinguistic material. They distinguish several "deep levels of speech production". The first is the level of motive. The second one is deep-semantic, on which there is a global selection of the topic and rheme, i.e., the definition of “given” (“presuppositional”) and “new”. This is the level of “individual meanings” (according to L. S. Vygotsky). The next deep level is the level of propositioning, the identification of the figure and the object, the stage of translating "individual meanings" into generally valid concepts, the beginning of the simplest structuring of the future statement. And, finally, there is the deep-syntactic level, which forms concrete-linguistic syntactic structures (259, p. 42).
Thus, in the domestic school of psycholinguistics, the generation of a speech utterance is considered as a complex multi-level process. It begins with a motive, which is objectified in the idea, the idea is formed with the help of inner speech. Here, too, a psychological “semantic” program of the utterance is formed, which “reveals the “intention” in its initial incarnation. It combines the answers to the questions: what to say? in what order and how to say? (80, 95). This program is then implemented in external speech based on the laws of grammar and syntax. given language(98 and others).
In the works of representatives national school Psycholinguistics, in addition to studying the patterns of the process of generating individual statements, analyzes various links in the mechanism for generating a text, considered as a product of speech activity (the function of inner speech, the creation of a program of a “speech whole” in the form of successive “semantic milestones”, the mechanism for embodying an idea in a hierarchically organized system of predicative connections text, etc.). The role of long-term and operative memory in the process of generating a speech utterance is emphasized (N. I. Zhinkin, A. A. Leontiev, I. A. Zimnyaya, etc.).
Psycholinguistic analysis of the mechanism of generating speech statements is most directly related to the theory and methodology of "speech" (in particular speech therapy) work; knowledge of these patterns, as well as the basic operations that implement the process of generating speech, are, in our opinion, the necessary theoretical base, based on which a correctional teacher can effectively solve the problems of forming children's speech. Among them, first of all, is the formation of skills in compiling coherent speech statements. Thus, for the analysis of the state of coherent speech of children and the development of a system for its purposeful formation, it is of particular importance to take into account such links in the mechanism of its generation as internal design, the general semantic scheme of the utterance, the purposeful choice of words, their placement in a linear scheme, the selection of word forms in accordance with the plan and the chosen syntactic construction, control over the implementation of the semantic program and the use of language means.
A correctional teacher should take into account in his work the data of psycholinguistic studies, in which, from the standpoint of psychology and psycholinguistics, the questions of the formation of speech activity in children are highlighted. They consider, in particular, the features of mastering by children the grammatical structure of their native language, syntactic means of constructing statements (I. N. Gorelov, V. N. Ovchinnikov, A. M. Shakhnarovich, D. Slobin, etc.), planning and programming speech statements (V. N. Ovchinnikov, N. A. Kraevskaya and others). For example, the data obtained by N. A. Kraevskaya that the speech of normally developing children of 4-5 years old no longer fundamentally differ from the speech of adults in terms of the presence of an internal programming stage in it are very important (113).
The problem of generating speech is one of the "key" in psycholinguistics. This is largely due to the fact that in most psycholinguistic schools (both domestic and foreign) the processes of generation and perception of speech utterances are considered as the main subject of research in psycholinguistics. Scientists working in this field of science offer various options for the scientific interpretation of speech production processes.
At the same time, the needs of the practice of speech therapy work determine the need to choose any conceptual "model" of speech production, which could be used as a "basic" theoretical model for the methodology of "speech" work. According to T.V. Akhutina, the conceptual scheme-model developed by A.A. Leontiev.
On the basis of numerous experimental data and analysis of theoretical studies of the world's leading psycholinguists A.A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating a speech utterance occupies a central place.
According to the model of A.A. Leontiev's process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages.
The first stage in the generation of a speech utterance is the motive. Motivation gives rise to speech intention - the direction of consciousness, will, feelings of the individual on the subject of speech activity.
At the next stage of generating a speech statement, the motive for speech action brings to life an idea, which, in turn, is “transformed” into a generalized semantic scheme of the statement. Based on the theoretical concept of A.R. Luria, A.A. Leontiev believes that at the stage of conception, for the first time, the topic of the future statement is singled out and differentiated, i.e., it is determined what needs to be said (the subject of the statement or its topic) and what exactly needs to be said about this subject (situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality ).
The next is the key stage of speech production - the stage of internal programming. A.A. Leontiev put forward a position on the internal programming of an utterance, considered as a process of constructing a certain semantic scheme, on the basis of which a speech utterance is generated. Such programming can be of two types: programming of a separate concrete utterance and speech whole.
Based on the views of L.S. Vygotsky concerning the psychological analysis of the speech process, A.A. Leontiev believes that when generating a separate speech utterance, programming consists in two interrelated processes of operating with units of the internal (subjective) code. This includes:
- attributing to these units a certain semantic load;
- construction of a functional hierarchy of these units.
The main operations on the basis of which this stage of constructing a speech utterance is implemented are:
- Operations of determining the main semantic elements (semantic "links", or units) of the subject content of a speech statement. These elements correspond to the real-life elements (objects) of the objective content of that fragment of the surrounding reality, which should be displayed in this speech statement. As part of these operations, the operation of choosing those units of semantic content (out of all possible ones) that are “relevant” for the speaker or writer in a given situation of speech communication is very important. The latter, in turn, is determined by the motives and target setting of the speech of the first subject of speech activity (speaking or writing).
- The operation of determining the "hierarchy" of semantic units in the "context" of the future speech statement, the definition of the main and secondary, "main" and clarifying points in the content of the speech statement. At the same time, it is important what the speaker's attention is focused on (for example, on the subject or object of the statement), what are his attitudes towards the listener. The internal program of an utterance is a hierarchy of propositions underlying it. This hierarchy is formed by the speaker on the basis of a certain strategy of orientation in the described situation, which depends on the “cognitive weight” of one or another component of this situation.
- The operation of determining the sequence of displaying semantic elements in a speech statement.
The next stage of speech generation is the stage of lexical and grammatical deployment of the statement. This stage is possible, according to AA. Leontiev, to correlate with the transition from the plan of inner speech to the semantic plan (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Within its framework, in turn, non-linear and linear stages of lexico-grammatical structuring are distinguished.
The non-linear stage consists in the translation of a compiled (semantic) program from a subjective (individual) code to an objective (generally used) language code, in “attributing” to semantic units (semantic elements) a “functional load”, which is based on grammatical characteristics.
The main operation that implements this sub-stage is the operation of selecting words (less often, entire phrases) to designate elements of the semantic program - semantic units of the subjective code. The choice of words in the process of generating speech, according to A.A. Leontiev, is determined by three groups of factors:
- associative-semantic characteristics of words;
- sound appearance of words;
- subjective probabilistic characteristics of words.
As a result of the implementation of the non-linear stage, a set of language units of the objective code is created.
The "linear deployment" of a speech utterance consists in its grammatical structuring - the creation of an appropriate grammatical construction of the sentence. At the same time, based on the selection of the "initial" predicative pair, the syntactic "prediction" of the statement begins to be carried out. The process of grammatical structuring includes:
- finding (choosing from the available "standards") a grammatical structure;
- determining the place of the element (chosen by the meaning of the word) in the syntactic structure and endowing it with grammatical characteristics;
- fulfillment of a role determined by the grammatical form of the first (or keyword) word in a phrase or sentence.
The successive elements of the created statement are assigned all the parameters that they lack for a complete linguistic characteristic:
- place in the general syntactic scheme of the utterance;
- "grammatical obligations", that is, a specific morphological realization of a place in the general scheme plus grammatical features;
- a complete set of semantic features;
- a complete set of acoustic-articulatory (or graphic) features.
Endowing a word (lexeme) with grammatical characteristics involves the choice of the desired word form from the corresponding series of grammatical forms of the word.
This stage ends with intellectual operations of the semantic-syntactic "prediction" of the correspondence of the speech statement prepared for implementation to its "target setting" (in other words, it is determined whether the composed speech statement corresponds to the tasks of speech communication). The compiled version of the speech statement is correlated with its program, the general "context" of speech and the situation of speech communication. Based on the results of such an analysis, the subject of speech activity makes a decision on the transition to the final phase of composing a speech statement - the phase of its external implementation.
The final stage in the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "in the external plane" (in external speech). This stage is carried out on the basis of a number of interrelated operations that provide the process of phonation, sound formation, reproduction of successive sound combinations (syllables), operations of producing entire “semantic” sound complexes (words), operations that provide the required (in accordance with the semantic program and language norm) rhythmic- melodic and melodic-intonational organization of speech. This process is carried out on the basis of the implementation of phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic "automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding pronunciation skills.
Thus, on the basis of the proposed A.A. Leontiev's speech generation model is based on the conceptual idea of "internal programming". The process of generating a speech utterance was considered by him as a complex, stage-by-stage speech action that enters integral part into an integral act of activity.
Scientific views of A.A. Leontiev, as noted by T.V. Akhutin, largely determined the conduct of a number of scientific research domestic and foreign scientists on this issue.
tochastic (probabilistic) models of speech production.
Stochastic theories of communication generally assume that a set of message elements can be represented using a distribution
The simplest of these models is one that is capable of generating a chain of elements, each of which has its own probabilistic characteristic (that is, the appearance of each of these elements does not depend on the appearance of the previous ones). But such a model is completely incapable of providing anything even remotely similar to coherent speech. In such a model, the main unit is not a single element (for example, a phoneme or a word), but a certain sequence of elements (for example, a chain of 4 words), and the probabilistic characteristic of the appearance of just a sequence of elements is modeled.
Available great amount experiments in which it is shown that the process of generating speech necessarily involves, to one degree or another, the use of the probabilistic principle. For example: it was necessary to fill in the gaps in the text like: Le-al o-ate, le-al he is among the horny -uch and s-al ... Depending on how the subject began to fill in the gaps (the donkey lay - the eagle flew) , he accordingly filled in all the rest.
probabilistic models with a finite number of states. This is any model in which a grammatical class (for example, a part of speech) acts as an element and the nature of the relationship between successively appearing grammatical classes is determined. Probabilistic dependencies between words of different grammatical classes, which are revealed in a verbal associative experiment, are especially often studied.
^ According to Osgood, the process of generating speech is carried out in parallel at several levels according to its own patterns of each level, and the patterns of distribution of units higher levels take into account the patterns of distribution of units of lower levels.
^1 level of motivation. Unit - sentence (statement)
Level 2, semantic. The unit in the coding process is a functional class or phrases, i.e. the simplest elements of coherent speech, corresponding to unified and, at the moment of speech, indecomposable representations.
^3 level of sequences. Unit is a phonetic word.
Level 4, integration, Unit syllable (coding) and phoneme (decoding).
So, probabilistic models only work on relationships individual words in the processes of generating coherent speech, they are in principle not applicable for modeling the grammatical side of speech. This also applies to grammars with a finite number of states.
Models of direct components (HC).
The so-called derivation operation, i.e. successive substitution in place of a larger unit of the flow of speech of the two components of which it consists.
For example: A talented artist paints an interesting picture, we take the sentence as a whole and replace it with a combination<именная группа группа сказуемого>. Further, we also<разлагаем>each of these groups into its component parts:<талантливый художник>; <пишет (интересную картину)>and beyond<интересную картину>.
The most important difference between the NN grammar and the grammar with a finite number of states is that the generation is not only due to the sequential appearance of components, but also due to their so-called<расширения>.
^ An Abstract Grammar Model of Language Activity (Ch. Osgood). the main idea new model - in that the process of speech production is directly related to non-linguistic (cognitive) factors, in particular, to directly perceived actants (participants in the described situation)
Models based on transformational grammar.
These are mainly models based on the approach of N. Chomsky and developed within the framework of second generation psycholinguistics.
4 components:
-syntactic(includes 2 links: the lexicon and the rules for correlating the lexicon with the grammatical structure) Thus, the word play is first identified as a verb, then as an intransitive verb, and then receives a semantic interpretation.
-semantic. At this level, the person chooses the appropriate values. For example, in the word interesting it will be<запрещена>path leading to meaning<хорошенький, миловидный>, since there are no signs in the word picture<человек>and<женщина>.
-phonological. The phonological component also serves to interpret the results of the action of the syntactic component, but no longer on<глубинном>, and on<поверхностном>level.
-pragmatic. Finally, pragmatic rules are the rules for correlating grammatical structure with context (situation)
cognitive models.
In relation to psycholinguistics, a cognitive approach is an approach in which we study the role cognitive processes in speech activity.
The concept of speech understanding ^ U.Kincha based on the idea of propositions. Him a proposition consists of a predicate(this can be a verb, adjective, adverb and some others) and one or more arguments(usually nouns). The leading role belongs to the predicate. Thus, the statement is presented as a system of propositions, and the so-called<правила согласования>organize these propositions into a kind of semantic web. Finally, the structure of the W. Kinch model includes the so-called "target schema", which determines what is more and what is less important for the reader in the process of understanding the text, restoring the missed conclusions and generally determining the content<макроструктуру>statements at a deep level. U. Kinch assumes that the basis of operating with the components of the statement in its understanding and interpretation is some abstract idea of the content structure of the situation, on which, as it were, a system of propositions is superimposed.
I. Schlesinger model. Speech generation is based on a system of the simplest semantic pairs. For example, at the heart of the statement Mary had a lamb - an idea of the semantic relationship<владельца>and<имущества>I. Schlesinger calls these interrelated content characteristics<proto-verbal elements> Further, 4 types of implementation rules are attached to them:
relational rules, attributing to each proto-verbal element a grammatical and phonological characteristic;
lexicalization rules, which select the necessary tokens;
agreement rules(for example, determining agreement on the number of interrelated syntactic components);
intonation rules.
In addition, I. Schlesinger introduces the concept<communicative weighting>: the corresponding component of the model determines which of the components of the sentence is the communicative center (logical subject, topic, focus). Finally, he says that<за>Proto-verbal elements are completely non-verbal cognitive structures, from which proto-verbal elements are obtained.
^ Ch.Osgood model. It also relies on the idea of basic<естественных>cognitive structures as the basis for the generation and perception of statements. In his opinion, these cognitive structures are formed due to the interaction of linguistic and non-linguistic information. The closer the surface structure of the corresponding sentence is to these cognitive structures, the easier it is to operate with the sentence, the more<естественно>.
Psycholinguistic theory of speech generation, developed at the Moscow Psycholinguistic School.
A. R. Luria .. In general, the path from thought to speech
1) begins with a motive and a general plan (which is known to the subject from the very beginning in the most general terms),
2) passes through the stage of inner speech, which, apparently, relies on schemas semantic notation with her potential connections,
3) leads to the formation of a deep syntactic structure
4) unfolds into an external speech statement based on a surface-syntactic structure
All in all.
So, we make some assumption about the syntactic structure of this statement. This is where the syntactic control mechanism comes into play. We correlate our forecast with the different data we have: with the program, context, situation (communication situation), etc. ". In principle, two cases are possible: either there is no contradiction: then we move further from left to right, choosing the next word based on various signs, attributing to it a full description and again checking for compliance with the program and other factors; or there is a mismatch.
I.A. Zimnyaya distinguishes three levels of generation.
The first one is motivational-motivating, and she distinguishes between motive and communicative intention.
The second level or stage is the process of forming and formulating thoughts. It includes a sense-forming phase (<грамматика мысли>according to Vygotsky) and the formulating phase.
The third stage is implementing
Chekanova Marina Vladimirovna, post-graduate student.
Ural State Pedagogical University, Yekaterinburg city.
To understand the process of formation of coherent speech, the main provisions of the theory of the generation of speech utterance, developed in the works of domestic and foreign scientists, are important.
The issues of speech generation in psycholinguistics were studied by such foreign scientists as N. Chomsky, J. Miller, J. Selfridge, C. Osgood, V. Yngve, N. Johnson, V. Levelt, L. Brain, J. Engelkamp, J. Katz, J. Fodor, M. Halle, I. Schlizenger.
The theoretical basis of Russian science on the birth of speech is the work of L. S. Vygotsky, P. Ya. Galperin, Yu.S. Stepanova, N.D. Arutyunova, G.A. Zolotova, N.I. Zhinkina, A.A. Leontieva, T.V. Akhutina, I.A. Winter.
Some researchers, [T.V. Akhutina, M. Garrett, C. Osgood] proposed not one, but several "models" of the process of generating speech.
A number of researchers [L.S. Vygotsky, N.I. Zhinkin, V. Yngve, A.A. Leontiev, V. Penfield, T.V. Ryabova, L.A. Chistovich and others] put forward various schemes for the production or generation of a speech utterance. The main purpose of constructing such circuits is to penetrate through the simulation into the mechanism creative activity the brain to create a speech statement.
For the first time, a scientifically based theory of speech generation was put forward by L.S. Vygotsky. He outlined and theoretically substantiated three main levels of production of speech utterance, the first of which he defined as thought or the syntax of verbal meanings, the second as verbal syntax and grammar of words, and the third as physical sounding speech. The first two levels are combined by L.S. Vygotsky in terms of inner speech, the third is defined as external speech.
The theory of speech generation created by L.S. Vygotsky, received further development in the works of other domestic scientists [T.V. Akhutina, N.I. Zhinkin, I.A. Winter, A.R. Luria, A.A. Leontiev, L.S. Tsvetkova]. The authors note the specificity of the first stage, its psychological essence associated with the conceptual and semantic plan of the thought content. The second stage - the stage of verbal and grammatical formulation of an utterance in inner speech - is also considered by the authors with a greater or lesser degree.
N. I. Zhinkin, continuing the work of L. S. Vygotsky, suggested a universal subject code (UPC). The code has a non-verbal nature, it represents a system of signs, schemes, sensual images. According to the author, in inner speech, the movement from thought to word occurs when the non-verbal “subject-scheme” code is recoded into verbal language.
A. R. Luria believed that speech is a system of whole statements, the word is a complex coding system for denoting analysis and generalization, and for the generation and perception of speech, “thought uses language codes”. The author has developed the following stages: motive; intention; inner speech turns inner subjective meanings into a system of external expanded speech meanings”; formation of deep - syntactic structure; external speech.
In 1960-1970 at the Moscow Psycholinguistic School, a number of researchers [A. A. Leontiev, T.V. Ryabova-Akhutina and others] summarized the positions of scientists on the generation and perception of speech. The researchers determined that the speaker can choose different patterns of speech production. since the heuristic principle is at the heart of the theory of the generation of speech utterance.
A.A. Leontiev a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity was developed. The starting point of the statement is motivation and orientation. The internal program corresponds only to the content core of the future statement (subject, predicate, or object).
At the next stage - the idea, the stage of internal programming, the compilation of a semantic program based on the code of internal speech. “The internal programming code is a subject-scheme or subject-figurative code according to N.I. Zhinkin. The next stage of speech generation is the stage of lexical and grammatical deployment of the statement. The final stage in the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "in the external plan".
The process is carried out on the basis of the implementation of phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic "automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding pronunciation skills.
At the heart of the speech generation model proposed by A.A. Leontiev, lies the conceptual idea of "internal programming".
A similar model of speech production, fundamentally close to the model of A.A. Leontiev, suggested I.A. Winter.
I.A. Winter identifies three main levels of the process of speech generation: motivational-motivating, formative (with two sublevels - meaning-forming and formulating) and realizing.
At the motivational-inciting level, the need for utterance finds “its own certainty” in the subject of activity. The objectified motive becomes a thought that serves as an internal motive for speaking or writing. The second stage - the process of formation and formulation of thought has two functionally different phases.
The process of consistent formation and formulation of an idea through language is aimed simultaneously at nomination (designation) and predication, at establishing connections of the "new - given" type.
According to the concept of I.A. Zimnyaya, the actualization of the conceptual field also actualizes its verbal (verbal) expression immediately both in the acoustic (auditory) and motor image. Simultaneously with the process of choosing words, the operations of their placement are carried out, that is, the grammatical design of the statement.
T.V. Akhutina, studying aphasic disorders, also developed a model for generating a speech statement and determined the levels of speech generation: motivation; thought; internal semantic program - semantic syntaxing and choice of meanings in inner speech; semantic structure of the sentence - semantic syntactic and choice of language meanings of words; lexico-grammatical structure of the sentence - grammatical structuring and choice of words according to form; syntagma motor program - kinetic programming and choice of articles; articulation.
In models of speech generation, [T.V. Akhutina, I.A. Zimnyaya, A.A. Leontiev] the process of speech production is considered as a purposeful, motivated activity that has certain stages, levels. The internal program of the utterance is provided by various code systems (speech-motor, auditory, visual, subject-scheme code).
In the works of representatives of the Russian school of psycholinguistics, the regularities of the process of generating individual statements are being studied, various links in the mechanism of generating a text are analyzed, and the role of long-term and short-term memory in the process of generating a speech statement is emphasized [N.I. Zhinkin, I.A. Zimnyaya, A.A. Leontiev].
An analysis of the psychological and linguistic approach allows us to assert that many models of generating a speech utterance are based on the concept of L.S. Vygotsky.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, the origin of speech is preceded by a motive. This is what the statement is made for. There is always a motive in a discussion; it becomes the impetus for the beginning of any speech. It is the motive that forms in our minds a communicative intention - readiness for speech production, for communicative actions. At this stage, the speaker has a common, albeit vague, goal (intention, illocution) of the utterance.
Next comes the formation of the semantic content of the statement. In the non-verbal code of images and schemes in the studies of N.I. Zhinkin, there is a clear understanding of the general idea of the future discourse. Later, the first linguistic components of the future utterance appear. In inner speech, recoding is noted, the translation of meaning from the language of images and schemes into the national language.
In accordance with the psycholinguistic norm of textuality, according to L.S. Vygotsky, the further formation of speech has the character of unfolding a nuclear concept into a coherent, coherent text. On the this stage“The completion of thought in the word” takes place.
In research A.R. Luria the idea of the primacy of syntax in the process of forming an utterance is confirmed. The author's observations indicate that the speaker corrects not the phrase as a whole, not syntactic construction, but makes lexical substitutions.
Thus, the process of generating an utterance is stimulated by a motive. The primary stage of the formation of an utterance begins with a communicative intention, the formation of an idea in the system of a universal subject code before the beginning of verbalization. Further, in the internal program, recoding begins to work, the translation of meaning from the languages of the image and schemes into the national language. The primary verbal record of the future utterance appears. Later, the unfolding of the nuclear meaning passes into a speech whole built with the psycholinguistic norm of textuality, forming at first the syntactic scheme of the future utterance, and then the grammatical structuring and morphemic selection of a specific vocabulary is formed. After that, a syllable-by-syllable motor program of external speech is implemented.
The relative analysis of models allows us to construct the following sequence of speech utterance:
Communicative intent
Intention
Recoding, meaning translation, primary verbal recording
Unfolding the nuclear meaning (themes)
Syntactic scheme of the future statement
Selection of specific vocabulary
Motor program of external speech, articulation
All of the listed stages of speech production should not be presented separately and sequentially.
Literature:
- Akhutina T.V., Generation of speech. Neurolinguistic analysis of syntax. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1989. - 215 p.
- Vygotsky, L. S. Psychology. - M.: Publishing house "EKSMO-Press", 2000. - 1008 p.
- Vygotsky, L. S. Development of higher mental functions. - M .: Publishing House of the APN RSFSR, 1960. - 500 p.
- Gvozdev, A. N. Questions of studying children's speech. - M.: Publishing House of APN RSFSR, 1961. - 471 p.
- Zhinkin, N.I. Mechanisms of speech. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy pedagogical sciences, 1958. - 370 p.
- Zimnyaya, I. A. Linguistic psychology of speech activity: Izbr. psychol. works / - M .: Publishing House of Moscow. psychol.-social in-that; Voronezh: MODEK, 2001. (Psychologists of the Fatherland). - 432 p.
- Leontiev, A. A. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics. - M.: Meaning, 1999. - 287 p.
- Leontiev, A. A. Language, speech, speech activity. - M.: Enlightenment, 1969. - 214 p.
- Luria, A. R. Main problems of neurolinguistics. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1975. - 253 p.
10. Luria, A. R. Language and consciousness / Ed. E. D. Khomskoy. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998. - 416 p.
11. Luria, A. R., Yudovich F. Ya. Speech and development of mental processes in a child. - M.: Publishing House of the APN RSFSR, 1956. - 93 p.
12. Tsvetkova, L. S. Introduction to neuropsychology and restorative education. - Tutorial. - M.: Mosk. psycho-social. in-t, 2000. - 148 p.