Will. Physiological basis of will
Any activity, any behavior is primarily expressed in the form of certain movements of the body and its individual organs. This circumstance is so obvious and natural that some psychological directions, especially behaviorism, consider behavior to be completely derived from our muscular apparatus, believing that to explain it it is quite enough to study the work of this apparatus. But, of course, our behavior is by no means only a muscular phenomenon, because the huge role of the psyche in behavior in general, especially in voluntary behavior, is absolutely undoubted. However, it is also undoubted that hardly much in the psyche is so closely connected with the body as volitional processes. Therefore, it seems absolutely necessary to consider the general bodily foundations of the will.
The anatomical and physiological basis of the will, without which no living creature would have it, is big brain. When we act voluntarily, in a certain center of the cortex hemispheres brain, a physiological impulse occurs, transmitted through the underlying apparatus - the medulla oblongata and spinal cord - to the motor nerve and thus causing muscle contraction
and movement of the corresponding organ. This movement is voluntary, differing from the reflex movement not only in its cortical origin (whereas the reflex has a directly subcortical origin), but also in that in the case of a reflex, the physiological impulse propagates along unchanged, innate pathways, causing movements of a stereotyped nature, and in the case of volitional behavior these innate paths have no meaning - arbitrary movements always proceed in a new form, changing in accordance with the goal pursued by the subject. The zone of the left hemisphere is considered to be the center that regulates these movements, and it is clear that when it is damaged, the subject's ability to carry out meaningful, purposeful activity is reduced. The disease first described by Hugo Lipmann and named by him apraxia It manifests itself precisely in the disorder of the ability to carry out voluntary behavior: the subject shows a complete inability to perform even the simplest deliberate actions, while impulsively he easily performs the same acts. For example, he is not able to unbutton or fasten a button according to the task, however, when he himself needs to unbutton or fasten it, that is, if urgent need in this, the performance of this act does not present any difficulty for him. Apraxia is a disorder of voluntary behavior associated, as already noted, with damage to a certain area of the cortex.
Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions and deeds. The main function of the will is the conscious regulation of activity in difficult conditions of life. This regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition nervous system. In accordance with this, it is customary to single out two others as a specification of the above general 4 "function - an activating and an inhibitory one. Features will (volitional actions) are: 1. Conscious purposefulness. To accomplish something, a person must consciously set a goal and mobilize to achieve it.2. Connection with thinking. A person can achieve something and mobilize himself for this only if he has thought and planned everything well.3. Communication with movements. To achieve their goals, a person always moves, changes forms of activity. Will functions:
- choice of motives and goals
- call to action
- organization of mental processes into a system
- mobilization of mental and physical capabilities in achieving goals in a situation of overcoming obstacles
Views on the nature of the will:
Idealistic - idealists consider the will to be a spiritual force that is not connected either with the activity of the brain or with the environment. The idealistic concept of free will is philosophically and ethically false.
Materialistic - materialists believe that the will, along with other aspects of the psyche, has a material basis in the form of nervous brain processes.
It is impossible to separate the will from the matter, the brain. Materialists argue that man is intimately connected with the environment. Without proper external conditions, he cannot but maintain, continue life. Will, like all consciousness, is a reflection of objective reality by the brain.
Volitional regulation of behavior - this is the conscious direction of mental and physical efforts to achieve a goal or keep from activity.
Willpower - it is a form of moral stress and the creation of additional motives for action and achievement of the goal.
Physiological basis will
The physiological mechanisms of volitional behavior, volitional actions can be represented as follows => The motor area is located in the parietal part of the cerebral cortex. It is connected with all areas of the cortex, including the cortical ends of all analyzers. This connection ensures that excitation that has arisen in any part of the cortex has the ability to reach the motor area and cause a similar process in it.
The reflex nature of volitional regulation of behavior presupposes the creation of a focus of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex (this is a working focus in the cortex). Reticular formation plays an important role in the overall mechanism volitional regulation: a kind of filter that selects some impulses going to the cortex, and retains others that are not of vital importance.
PC. Anokhin put forward the concept action acceptor. Its essence is that nervous processes are ahead of the course of external events.
On the basis of past experience, man (and animals) anticipates and foresees future effects on the nervous system. Based on the signal in the brain, the entire complex of nerve connections is restored, the entire system of associations developed by repeated repetition.
Volitional actions
It is customary to distinguish between simple and complex volitional actions.
Simple, as a rule, have two links - goal setting and its implementation. In them, one link follows another without intermediate links.
In a complex volitional action, three links are indicated:
1. awareness of the goal - the incentives for human behavior are diverse. These can be physical needs (hunger, thirst, sleep), social needs (knowledge, entertainment, communication). The emerging need is reflected in the human mind in the form of a vague attraction. As the need grows, it turns into desire.
Desire is the existing ideal (in the human head) content of the need. Desire can be a motive for action.
2. planning - in a complex volitional action, decision-making is followed by planning ways to achieve the task.
3. execution - as soon as the ways and means are outlined, a person proceeds to the practical implementation of the decision made.
Modern theories will. Psychological studies of the will in
are currently divided between different scientific
directions: in behaviorism corresponding forms are studied
behavior, in psychology of motivation are in the spotlight
intrapersonal conflicts and ways to overcome them, in psychology
personalities The focus is on identifying and studying
relevant volitional characteristics personality. Will studies
is also psychology of self-regulation human behavior. Psychological studies of the will are currently correlated with
concepts of human behavior: reactive and active. According to
reactive behavior concept all human behavior is
is basically a response to various internal and external stimuli.
Approval of the reactive concept of behavior as the only acceptable one
scientific doctrine was influenced by the study of unconditional
reflexes and conditional (non-operant) conditioning. reflex in his
traditional understanding has always been seen as a reaction to some
stimulus. Hence the understanding of behavior as a reaction.
A task scientific study behavior within this concept is reduced to
in order to find these stimuli, to determine their connection with reactions. For such
interpretation of human behavior the concept of will is not necessary.
According to active behavior concept, human behavior
is understood as initially active, and he himself is regarded as endowed with
the ability to consciously choose its forms. The latest physiology of higher
nervous activity, studies of such scientists as N.A. Bernshtey and
P.K. Anokhin, reinforce this concept from the side of natural science. For
active understanding of behavior will and volitional regulation of behavior
necessary.
But reactive concepts of behavior, especially in the most traditional
Pavlovian physiology of higher nervous activity are still strong.
End of work -
This topic belongs to:
The formation of psychology as a science
In scientific use, the term psychology appeared for the first time in .. psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena .. the main class of mental phenomena mental processes mental states mental properties of a person ..
If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:
What will we do with the received material:
If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
tweet |
All topics in this section:
The formation of psychology as a science
4 stages are distinguished. Stage 1: Psychology as a science about the soul -> the presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life. Beginning - about 2 thousand years ago. 2 main
The role and place of psychology in the system of modern sciences
Psychology and philosophy. Philosophical and psychological problems: problems of the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of higher forms of human thought
The main branches of psychological science
The difference between industries is a set of problems and tasks that a particular scientific direction solves. Divide: Fundamental (general) - have a common meaning for understanding various and
Man as an object of scientific knowledge
Ananiev singled out 4 basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality, individuality. An individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative
The concept of the psyche. The main stages in the development of the psyche
The psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction by the subject of an inalienable picture of this world and regulation
Basic methods of psychological research
Objective Subjective Subjective methods - based on self-assessment or self-report of the subjects, as well as the opinion of the researchers. -
Physiological foundations of the human psyche. The connection between mind and brain
The human nervous system consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is made up of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
The development of the psyche of animals. Leontief-Fabry concept
AT domestic psychology long established the view that the behavior of animals is inherently instinctive behavior. Instinctive behavior is species behavior that is equally directed in
Psychomotor. Psychophysiological foundations of the organization of movements
Activity is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. This phenomenon exists due to the unity of mental and physiological processes. The connection of various mental phenomena with dvi
Structure and mechanisms of unconscious mental phenomena
Unconscious processes are processes or phenomena, the course or manifestation of which is not reflected in the human mind. 3 classes: 1. Unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions
Psychophysiological problem in psychology
There is a certain relationship between the psyche and the brain. How are physiological and mental processes related? R. Descartes, who believed that there is a pineal gland in the brain,
General characteristics and main provisions of the theory of activity
Psychological theory activities began to develop in the late 20s - early. 30 xx 20 c. Leontiev. Activity is a dynamic system of interaction between the subject and the world. Hierarchs
The concept of sensation and its physiological basis. Types of sensations
Sensation is a mental cognitive process, a sensory reflection of objective reality. The essence is a reflection of the individual properties of the subject. Physiological basis - activity
Properties
Quality - characterizing the basic information displayed by this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensation. Intensity
Perception. Properties and types of perception. Features of the perception of space, time and movement
Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Main
Development of the sensory-perceptual sphere (sensation and perception) of a person in ontogenesis
Teplov: 2-4 months - signs of object perception 5-6 months. - fixing the gaze on the object that the Zaporozhets operates: during the transition from pre-preschool to preschool age according to
Representation, types, functions
Representation is a mental process of reflecting objects or phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of our previous experience. At the heart of pre
General characteristics of attention. Attention Properties
Attention is the direction and focus of mental activity on something specific. Orientation - selective nature and the preservation of activities at some interval
Properties
resilience (ability certain time focus on the same object) switchability (consciously shifting attention from one object to another)
General concepts of memory. Types of memory
Memory is the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience. Kinds. By the nature of mental activity: Blonsky Dvigatel
Speech. Types and functions of speech. Formation of speech in children
Speech is the process of communication between people through language. Language is a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which a combination of sounds is transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people.
Thinking as the highest mental process. Types of thinking. Development of thinking in ontogeny
Thinking is the highest cognitive mental process; the generation of new knowledge based on the creative reflection and transformation of reality by man. Flow features:
Theoretical and experimental approaches to the study of thinking. The concept of intelligence
Intelligence: (in a broad sense) - a global integral biopsychic feature of a person that characterizes his ability to adapt; (in the narrow) - a generalized characteristic of the mind
Capabilities. General characteristics. The problem of innate or social conditioning of abilities
Abilities: a set of various mental processes and states; 2. a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills, skills that ensure successful
General characteristics of the imagination. Types of imagination
Imagination is a mental process of transforming ideas that reflect reality, and creating new ideas on this basis. The process of imagination takes place in the
General characteristics of consciousness. Main properties and mechanisms
Consciousness is highest level mental reflection of objective reality, as well as the highest level of self-regulation, inherent only to man as a social being. From a practical point of view
Activity. General characteristics of the activity. The role of activity in the development of the human psyche
Activity is a dynamic system of interaction between the subject and the world. A motive cause is a motive (a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine
Temperament. The physiological basis of temperament. Typologies of temperament
(Teplov) Temperament is a set of mental conditions characteristic of a given person associated with emotional excitability, i.e. the speed of the emergence of feelings, on the one hand, and with
The concept of personality. Personal development
General concepts of character. character building
Character - a set of individual mental properties that develop in activity and manifest themselves in the ways of activity and forms of behavior typical for a given person. home
Typology of character and personality accentuations
Character - a set of individual mental properties that develop in activity and manifest themselves in the ways of activity and forms of behavior typical for a given person. Personality
Modern psychological theories of personality in foreign psychology
Personality is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially determined mental characteristics, which are manifested in social relations and relationships, determine his morality.
Modern theories of personality in domestic psychology
Personality is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially conditioned mental characteristics, which are manifested in public relations and relationships, determined by
Methods for the study of personality in psychology
Personality is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially determined mental characteristics, which are manifested in social relations and relationships, determine his morality.
Self-concept of personality and self-consciousness of personality
The concept of I - the concept was born in the middle of the 19th century in line with phenomenal (humanistic) psychology, whose representatives (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, etc.) sought to consider a holistic
Periodization of human age development. Mechanisms of mental development
Development - (Petrovsky, Yaroshevsky) - is a natural and irreversible change in mental processes over time. - (Davydov) consistent, generally irreversible quantitative and qualitative
Features of the mental development of early childhood
Early childhood is divided into two periods: 1 - Infancy (from birth to 1 year). Leading activity - communication with adults. Innovations in the personal sphere. 2 - Early childhood
Features of mental development of the period of preschool childhood
preschool age(from 3 to 6-7 years). Leading activity - role-playing game. Innovations in the personal sphere. The period of active development of social space. Peculiarities:
Features of the mental development of the school period
Junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years). The leading activity is educational. Innovations in the cognitive sphere. The main change is new system requirements. Skill mo
Features of adolescence
There are two stages: 1- Adolescence (from 11-12 to 15-16). Leading activity - communication with peers. Innovation in the personal sphere. 2- Youth (from 15-16 to 17-1
Acmeological period of development. adulthood
An adult has verbal-logical thinking, arbitrary semantic memory, arbitrary attention, developed forms of speech, etc. Individual indicators of these functions fluctuate, but significantly
Gerentogenesis. Features of the period of herentogenesis
The period of gerontogenesis is a late period human life. It is customary to distinguish three phases in it: old age (for men - 60-74 years, for women - 55-74 years); senile age - 75-90 years; before
General concepts of directionality. Needs and motives of the individual
Orientation is a set of stable motives that guide the activity of the individual and are relatively independent of the current situation. Orientation is always socially conditioned and forms
Emotions and features of their manifestation
Emotions are mental processes that take place in the form of experiences and reflect personal significance and assessment of external and internal situations for human life. The characteristic is subjectivity.
emotional stress. Mechanisms of stress
Selye Stress is a non-specific response of the body to external and internal demands placed on it. Stages of stress: 1. Phase of anxiety or mobilization - immediate reaction
Human adaptations and functional states of the body
Adaptation is the process of adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Bernard - constancy internal environment. -> Cannon - homeostasis. Homeostasis is a fluid equilibrium
The main stages of the formation of a person as a subject of labor
The most famous in Russia is the periodization of human development as a subject of Klimov's labor: 1. Pre-professional development: * Pre-play stage (from birth to
Psychological support of a person's professional activity. Career guidance. Professional selection. Psychological support of activities
1. career guidance, career guidance, choice of profession or orientation to a profession (Latin professio - occupation and French orientation - installation) - a system of measures aimed at providing assistance
Communication functions. Types of communication
Communication is the process of establishing, developing and maintaining contact between people. Communication functions: Cognitive (a person learns knowledge and previously accumulated experience)
Personal and interpersonal conflicts
Conflict - “a struggle arising from a lack of power, status or means necessary to satisfy values and claims, and involving the neutralization, infringement or destruction of the goals of a rival
Psychology of groups. Types of groups, structure and their function
A group is a community of people united on the basis of some common features related to an ongoing or joint activity. Groups are: - large (can be with
Group structure. Psychological compatibility in the group
A group is a community of people united on the basis of some common features related to an ongoing or joint activity. Group structure: 1. Formal-hierarchical
Basic methods of psychology
Psychodiagnostic (aimed at collecting information) - Objective methods (intelligence tests, experiments) - Subjective (observation, survey, personality tests, right
Psychodiagnostics. Basic principles of psychodiagnostics
Psychodiagnostics of the cognitive sphere
Psychodiagnostics is understood in two ways: 1. In a broad sense, it approaches the psychodiagnostic dimension in general and can refer to any object that can be psychodiagnosed.
Psychodiagnostics of personality
Psychodiagnostics is understood in two ways: 1. In a broad sense, it approaches the psychodiagnostic dimension in general and can refer to any object that can be psychodiagnosed.
Psychological counseling. Basic principles. Types of psychological counseling
Counseling is a set of procedures aimed at helping a person solve problems and make decisions regarding a professional career, marriage, family, and personal development.
Psychotherapy. The main directions of psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is a formal process of interaction between two groups, each of which usually consists of one person, but in which there may be two or more participants, pursuing
Psychological correction. Principles and methods of psychocorrection
Psychological correction (Psychocorrection) is one of the types of psychological assistance (among others - psychological counseling, psychological training, psychotherapy); activities aimed
Parents
Diagnosis of child-parent relationships 2. Correctional and developmental work Preschoolers: - the formation of self-control and self-regulation skills in older children
Parents
Parent-Child Meetings in High School educational process It is emphasized that throughout its entire length the main task of
Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions and deeds. The main function of the will is the conscious regulation of activity in difficult conditions of life. This regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. In accordance with this, it is customary to single out two others as a specification of the above general 4 "function - an activating and an inhibitory one. Features will (volitional actions) are: 1. Conscious purposefulness. To accomplish something, a person must consciously set a goal and mobilize to achieve it.2. Connection with thinking. A person can achieve something and mobilize himself for this only if he has thought and planned everything well.3. Communication with movements. To achieve their goals, a person always moves, changes forms of activity. Will functions:
- choice of motives and goals
- call to action
- organization of mental processes into a system
- mobilization of mental and physical capabilities in achieving goals in a situation of overcoming obstacles
Views on the nature of the will:
Idealistic - idealists consider the will to be a spiritual force that is not connected either with the activity of the brain or with the environment. The idealistic concept of free will is philosophically and ethically false.
Materialistic - materialists believe that the will, along with other aspects of the psyche, has a material basis in the form of nervous brain processes.
It is impossible to separate the will from the matter, the brain. Materialists argue that man is intimately connected with the environment. Without proper external conditions, he cannot but maintain, continue life. Will, like all consciousness, is a reflection of objective reality by the brain.
Volitional regulation of behavior - this is the conscious direction of mental and physical efforts to achieve a goal or keep from activity.
Willpower - it is a form of moral stress and the creation of additional motives for action and achievement of the goal.
Physiological basis of will
The physiological mechanisms of volitional behavior, volitional actions can be represented as follows => The motor area is located in the parietal part of the cerebral cortex. It is connected with all areas of the cortex, including the cortical ends of all analyzers. This connection ensures that excitation that has arisen in any part of the cortex has the ability to reach the motor area and cause a similar process in it.
The reflex nature of volitional regulation of behavior presupposes the creation of a focus of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex (this is a working focus in the cortex). The reticular formation is of great importance in the general mechanism of volitional regulation: a kind of filter that selects some impulses that go to the cortex and retains others that are not of vital importance.
PC. Anokhin put forward the concept action acceptor. Its essence is that nervous processes are ahead of the course of external events.
On the basis of past experience, man (and animals) anticipates and foresees future effects on the nervous system. Based on the signal in the brain, the entire complex of nerve connections is restored, the entire system of associations developed by repeated repetition.
Volitional actions
It is customary to distinguish between simple and complex volitional actions.
Simple, as a rule, have two links - goal setting and its implementation. In them, one link follows another without intermediate links.
In a complex volitional action, three links are indicated:
1. awareness of the goal - the incentives for human behavior are diverse. These can be physical needs (hunger, thirst, sleep), social needs (knowledge, entertainment, communication). The emerging need is reflected in the human mind in the form of a vague attraction. As the need grows, it turns into desire.
Desire is the existing ideal (in the human head) content of the need. Desire can be a motive for action.
2. planning - in a complex volitional action, decision-making is followed by planning ways to achieve the task.
3. execution - as soon as the ways and means are outlined, a person proceeds to the practical implementation of the decision made.
Modern theories of the will. Psychological studies of the will in
are currently divided between different scientific
directions: in behaviorism corresponding forms are studied
behavior, in psychology of motivation are in the spotlight
intrapersonal conflicts and ways to overcome them, in psychology
personalities The focus is on identifying and studying
corresponding volitional characteristics of the personality. Will studies
is also psychology of self-regulation human behavior. Psychological studies of the will are currently correlated with
concepts of human behavior: reactive and active. According to
reactive behavior concept all human behavior is
is basically a response to various internal and external stimuli.
Approval of the reactive concept of behavior as the only acceptable one
scientific doctrine was influenced by the study of unconditional
reflexes and conditional (non-operant) conditioning. reflex in his
traditional understanding has always been seen as a reaction to some
stimulus. Hence the understanding of behavior as a reaction.
The task of the scientific study of behavior within the framework of this concept is reduced to
in order to find these stimuli, to determine their connection with reactions. For such
interpretation of human behavior the concept of will is not necessary.
According to active behavior concept, human behavior
is understood as initially active, and he himself is regarded as endowed with
the ability to consciously choose its forms. The latest physiology of higher
nervous activity, studies of such scientists as N.A. Bernshtey and
P.K. Anokhin, reinforce this concept from the side of natural science. For
active understanding of behavior will and volitional regulation of behavior
necessary.
But reactive concepts of behavior, especially in the most traditional
Pavlovian physiology of higher nervous activity are still strong.
Realizing the need to act and make an appropriate decision, a person does not always proceed to its implementation. It is impossible to explain this transition by motivation alone, just as it is impossible to explain why people sometimes do nothing really to implement their plans, decisions, to satisfy sometimes even keenly and emotionally experienced interests. When people of equal knowledge and skill, holding similar beliefs and outlooks on life with varying degrees of determination and intensity, set about solving the task before them, or when, when faced with difficulties, some of them stop acting, while others act with redoubled energy, these phenomena are associated with manifestations of their will.
Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions and deeds. Will correlates with the whole consciousness of a person as one of the forms of reflection of reality, the function of which is conscious self-regulation his activity in difficult living conditions. This self-regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. In accordance with this, psychologists distinguish as a specification of the above common function, the other two activating and inhibitory. Sometimes the first function is denoted by the term incentive or stimulating.
Volitional or voluntary actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of the involuntary movements are reflex ones, such as constriction and expansion of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, sneezing, etc. The same class of movements includes jerking the hand when touching a hot object, an involuntary turn of the head in the direction of a sound, etc.
Our expressive movements are usually involuntary: in surprise, we raise our eyebrows and open our mouths; rejoicing, we begin to smile; in anger, we involuntarily clench our teeth, wrinkle our forehead, etc.
The involuntary type of behavior also includes impulsive actions, unconscious, not subordinate to the general goal of the reaction, for example, to noise outside the window, to an object that can satisfy a need, etc. A specific feature of volitional behavior is in the experience of the state “I must”, and not “I want”, although, of course, one should take into account the possibility of a coincidence of volitional and impulsive behavior (“I want to do my duty”). In contrast to involuntary, conscious actions, more characteristic of human behavior, are aimed at achieving the goal. It is conscious purposefulness that characterizes volitional behavior. However, being quite complex in structure, since not every goal can be achieved immediately, volitional actions can include, as separate links, such movements that, in the course of the formation of a skill, were automated and lost their originally conscious character.
Another important sign of volitional behavior is considered to be its connection with overcoming obstacles, internal or external. Internal, subjective obstacles are caused by the behavior of a person, a subject of volitional action, and can be caused by fatigue, a desire to have fun, fear, shame, false pride, inertia, just laziness, etc.
Physiological basis of will.
In the parietal part of the cerebral cortex, there is an area that controls human motor activity. It is connected with all areas of the cortex, including the cortical ends of all analyzers. This connection ensures that the excitation that has arisen in any part of the cortex has the opportunity to reach the motor area and cause a similar process in it. The information from the analyzer, which came to the motor area, serves as a kind of trigger for the motor reaction. The connection of the motor area of the cortex with other parts of the brain is a prerequisite for conscious movements and actions of a person.
Rice. 4.2. Physiological basis of will /6/
Will has a conditioned reflex nature. On the basis of a temporary neural connection, a wide variety of associations and their systems are formed and fixed, which, in turn, creates the conditions for purposeful behavior. The brain continuously receives information about how and what is being performed at any given moment. These data are immediately included in the already developed program of action.
If the actions are consistent with the predetermined program, then no changes are made during the action. If, however, information is received that does not correspond to the program created in the cerebral cortex, then either the practical activity or the preliminary program changes. This process is based on the activity of the functional systems of the psyche and the action acceptor.
The reflex nature of volitional regulation of behavior presupposes the creation of a center of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex, which can be caused not only by the stimulus acting at the moment, but also formed on the basis of previously received influences. The center of optimal excitability existing in the cortex requires constant increased attention to itself and supplying it with energy resources, which the person controls, achieving the goals he needs (Fig. 4.2) /6/.
Volitional actions vary in their complexity. In the case when the goal is clearly visible in the motivation, directly turning into action and not going beyond the existing situation, one speaks of simple strong-willed act. Complicated volitional action suggests wedging between the stimulating impulse and the direct action of additional links. The essential moments or phases of the volitional process are: 1) the emergence of motivation and goal setting; 2) the stage of discussion and the struggle of motives; 3) decision making; 4) execution.
The main content of the first stage in the development of volitional action is the emergence of motivation and awareness of the goal. Not every impulse is conscious. Depending on how aware this or that need is, they are divided into attraction and desire. If an individual is aware only of the dissatisfaction of the current situation, and at the same time the need itself is not realized clearly enough, undifferentiated, and, therefore, the ways and means to achieve the goal are not realized, then the motive of activity is attraction. Attraction is vague, unclear: a person realizes that he is missing something or that he needs something, but what exactly he does not understand. Because of its uncertainty, attraction cannot develop into activity. Therefore, attraction is a transient phenomenon, and the need represented in it either fades away or is realized, turning into a specific desire, intention, dream, etc.
However, wishing does not mean acting. Reflecting the content of the need, desire does not contain an active element. Desire is rather the knowledge of what prompts action. Before a desire turns into a direct motive for behavior, and then into a goal, it is evaluated by a person who weighs all the conditions that help and hinder its implementation. Desire as a motive for activity is characterized by a clear awareness that gave rise to its needs. Having a motivating force, desire sharpens the awareness of the goal of the future action and the construction of its plan, while also realizing the possible ways and means to achieve the goal.
Not all wishes come true immediately. A person may have several uncoordinated and even conflicting desires at the same time, and he will find himself in a difficult position, not knowing which one to realize first.
As a result of a change in the meaning of various needs, a struggle of motives may arise in a person. The struggle of motives includes a broad mental discussion by a person of those grounds that speak of all the pros and cons of actions in one direction or another, a discussion of how exactly one should act. The struggle of motives is often accompanied by significant internal tension and is an experience of a deep internal conflict between the arguments of reason and feelings, personal motives and public interests, between “I want” and “must”, etc.
In traditional psychology, the struggle of motives and the subsequent decision was considered as the main link, the core of the volitional act.
At the same time, the internal struggle, the conflict with one's own divided soul and the way out of it in the form of an internal decision were opposed to execution as a secondary component of an act of will. For the sake of fairness, we also note the opposite trend, when the authors tend to generally exclude from volitional action the inner work of consciousness associated with choice, reflection and evaluation. Tearing off motivation from the very act of will, they turn it into pure impulsivity, deprive them of conscious control.
In reality, the struggle of motives as a link in an act of will cannot be discarded, nor should it be absolutized. A truly volitional action is an electoral act, including a conscious choice and decision. Delaying action to discuss consequences is as essential to an act of will as are impulses to it. Here, the intellectual process is included in the volitional process. Mental modeling of situations reveals that a desire generated by one need or a certain interest can only be realized at the expense of another desire, or that an action that is desirable in itself can lead to undesirable consequences.
Decision-making is the final moment of the struggle of motives: a person decides to act in a certain direction, preferring some goals and motives and rejecting others. When making a decision, a person feels that the further course of events depends on him, and this gives rise to a sense of responsibility specific to an act of will. Considering the decision-making process, W. James identified several types of determination:
1) Reasonable determination is manifested when the opposing motives begin to fade away, leaving room for one alternative, which is perceived calmly, without any effort. The transition from doubt to certainty is experienced quite passively, and it seems to a person that reasonable grounds for action follow of themselves from the essence of the matter.
2) In cases where hesitation and indecision have been too long, there may come a moment when a person is more ready to make an unsuccessful decision than not to make any. In this case, quite often some random circumstance upsets the balance, giving one of the prospects an advantage over the others, and the person, as it were, deliberately submits to fate.
3) In the absence of motivating reasons, wanting to avoid the unpleasant feeling of indecision, a person begins to act as if automatically, simply striving to move forward. What happens next is of no concern to him at the moment. This type of determination is typical for people with a vigorous desire for activity, a strong emotional temperament.
4) Changing the scale of values of motives is also capable of stopping internal fluctuations. All cases of moral regeneration, awakening of conscience, etc., belong to this type of determination. It is as if an internal turning point occurs in a person and the determination to act in a certain direction immediately appears.
5) Sometimes, having no rational grounds, a person considers a completely certain course of action to be more preferable. With the help of the will, he strengthens a motive that by itself could not subdue the rest. In contrast to the first case, the functions of the mind are performed here by the will.
The decision making process is quite complex and internal stress, which accompanies it, progressively increases. But after the decision is made, the person experiences a certain relief, as the internal tension decreases.
However, making a decision does not mean carrying it out. Sometimes the intention may not be realized and the work begun is not brought to the end.
The essence of volitional action lies not in the struggle of motives and not in making a decision, but in its execution. Only one who knows how to carry out his decisions can be considered a person with a sufficiently strong will.
The executive stage of volitional action has a complex internal structure. Actually execution of the decision is usually connected with this or that time - term. If the execution of the decision is delayed for a long time, then they say about the intention. Intention is an internal preparation for a delayed action and is a direction fixed by a decision towards the achievement of a goal. So, for example, a student can make a decision (intention) to study from next year only with "excellent". However, intention alone is not enough to carry out a volitional action. As in any other action, here we can single out the stage of planning ways to achieve the task. Planning is a complex mental activity, the search for the most rational ways and means of implementing the decision.
The plan can be detailed in varying degrees. Some people are characterized by the desire to foresee everything, to plan every step, while others are content with the most general scheme.
Usually, a plan of immediate actions is developed in more detail, the execution of remote actions is outlined more schematically or even vaguely. A planned action is not realized automatically: in order for the decision to turn into action, a conscious volitional effort is necessary. Willpower is experienced as a conscious tension that finds a discharge in volitional action. Currently, volitional effort is understood as a form of emotional stress that mobilizes a person’s internal resources and creates additional motives for action to achieve a goal. Volitional effort is characterized by the amount of energy expended to perform a purposeful action or to keep from unwanted actions. Volitional effort permeates all links of the volitional act, starting from the realization of the goal and ending with the execution of the decision. In the executive link, when a person overcomes not only internal, but also external difficulties, it becomes more accessible for observation.
Volitional effort is qualitatively different from muscular effort. In volitional effort, movements are often minimal, and internal tension can be enormous and even destructive to the body. Thus, a fighter who remains at his post, despite the intensive shelling of the enemy, may experience a strong nervous shock. Of course, it cannot be argued that muscular effort is absolutely absent - a person can strain the muscles of the face, clench his fists, etc., however, it qualitatively differs from the content of volitional effort. Studies have found that the intensity of volitional effort depends on the following factors:
1) the worldview of the individual (for example, a completely different attitude towards death will cause different behavior in battle japanese samurai, Russian hussar and warrior professing Islam);
2) moral stability. (Responsible people overcome significant obstacles to achieve the goal, while an irresponsible person is usually incapable of tension.);
3) the presence of social significance of the goals;
4) installations in relation to activity. (Depending on what the teacher says when giving a lesson to students: “so that they only read the material” or “so that they are well prepared for the essay,” the efforts expended by them on preparation will be completely different.);
5) the level of self-government and self-organization of the individual. (People who have put a lot of effort into developing their will, such as athletes, fanatics, etc., encounter external obstacles much more easily than non-cultivators.)
However, just understanding the significance of the action being performed or its conformity with moral principles is not enough to make a person struggle with difficulties. In order for understanding to give rise to a desire that suppresses many other desires, it must be supported by a sharp experience, the need to act, for example, in accordance with a sense of duty. The sense of duty is an expression of the fact that the phenomena of morality have been internalized, become the property of the individual and serve as internal motivations for her to behave in any situation where a conflict arises between selfish aspirations and public interests.
A person often, through volitional efforts, has to overcome, weaken and suppress manifestations of involuntary activity, fight against entrenched habits, and break established stereotypes. At the same time, manifestations of involuntary activity often have the opposite direction in relation to the chosen volitional action.
With the help of an effort of will, a person does not destroy involuntary activity, but only changes its form or suppresses its external manifestation. Therefore, will is also the power of a person over himself, his aspirations, feelings, passions. Will is the ability of a person to control himself, to consciously regulate his behavior and activities. In the process of implementing a volitional action, and especially after its execution, its evaluation follows. Evaluation of actions can be given in terms of socio-political, moral, aesthetic, etc., or it can express a generalized integrated attitude towards an act. The assessment reflects not only a personal attitude, but also the attitude towards the act of the reference group. It is this group assessment that is most effective for correcting the individual's behavior. Evaluation of performance is a judgment approving, justifying or condemning, condemning the decision and actions taken. The assessment is accompanied by special emotional experiences satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the action. A negative attitude to the performed action is often accompanied by an experience, regret about the perfect action, an experience of shame, remorse. Evaluation acts as a motive for continuing, correcting or terminating a follow-up activity.
The volitional action of each person carries its own special uniqueness, as it is a reflection of a relatively stable personality structure. It is the will as a conscious organization and self-regulation that allows a person to control his feelings, actions, cognitive processes. As part of individual differences of the volitional sphere, the selected parameters can characterize both the volitional sphere of a person as a whole, and individual links of a volitional act. In particular, one of the integral characteristics of the will is its strength. Strength of will manifests itself at all stages of the volitional act, but most clearly - in what obstacles are overcome with the help of volitional actions, and what results are obtained in this case. It is the obstacles that are overcome through volitional efforts that are an objective indicator of the manifestation of willpower. Willpower is also manifested in what temptations and temptations a person refuses, how he knows how to restrain his feelings, to prevent impulsive actions.
A generalized characteristic of volitional action is and purposefulness. Purposefulness is understood as a conscious and active orientation of a person to a certain result of activity.
It can be said that purposefulness is the most important motivational-volitional property of a person, which determines the content and level of development of all other volitional qualities. Distinguish strategic purposefulness, i.e. the ability of a person to be guided in all his life by certain principles and ideals, and operational purposefulness - the ability to set clear goals for individual actions and not be disconnected from them in the process of execution. A purposeful person has clear personal goals and does not trade for trifles. Such people know exactly what they want, where they are going, what they are fighting for. These people are obsessed with best sense this word.
Considering the individual links of the volitional act, we can conclude that the first starting stage of volitional action largely depends on such qualities as initiative, independence, and independence. initiative, as a rule, it is based on the abundance and brightness of new ideas, plans, rich imagination. For many people, the most difficult thing is to overcome their own inertia, change the usual course of affairs, they cannot do something on their own, without stimulation from outside. Initiative is closely related to independence. Independence volitional act is manifested in the ability not to be influenced various factors, critically evaluate the advice and suggestions of other people, act on the basis of their views and beliefs.
At the stage of stimulating volitional action, one cannot fail to note such a quality of will as excerpt. Exposure allows you to slow down actions, feelings, thoughts, inadequate situations. It is especially difficult to resist impulsive action in an emotionally charged environment. In fact, endurance is a manifestation of the inhibitory function of the will.
An individual parameter that characterizes the features of the stage of the struggle of motives and decision making is decisiveness- the ability to make and implement quick, informed and firm decisions. Decisiveness is manifested in the choice of the dominant motive, and in the choice of the right actions, and in the choice of adequate means to achieve the goal. Outwardly, decisiveness is manifested in the absence of hesitation and it may seem that a decisive person easily and freely chooses a goal. However, it is not. Decisive people comprehensively and deeply think over the goals of the action, ways to achieve them, experiencing a complex internal struggle, a clash of motives. However, by the right time, all experiences are discarded, and the right decision is made in a timely manner.
Decisiveness is also manifested in the implementation of the decision - decisive people are characterized by a quick and energetic transition from the choice of actions and means to the very implementation of the action. An essential prerequisite for decisiveness is courage as the ability to face fear and take justified risks in order to achieve one's goal. However, decisiveness does not mean recklessness. A decisive person knows how to delay, to postpone the performance of an action if circumstances do not favor it.
The most important characteristics of the executive stage are vigor and perseverance. Energetic people can concentrate all their energy on achieving goals. However, energy is often observed only at the initial stages of the performance of an action, and in cases where prolonged efforts are required, energy progressively decreases and manifests itself weakly. Therefore, energy becomes a truly valuable quality only when combined with perseverance. persistence- the ability to constantly and for a long time pursue a goal, without reducing energy in the fight against difficulties. A persistent person is able to find in the surrounding conditions exactly what will help achieve the goal.
Persistent people do not stop at failure, do not give in to doubt, do not pay attention to the reproaches or opposition of other people.
An important role in the implementation of the decision is played by self-control and self-esteem. The accepted goals will be realized only when the person controls his activity. Otherwise, commitment and specific behavior are sharply at odds. In the process of achieving the goal, self-control ensures the dominance of higher motives over lower ones, general principles- over instant impulses and momentary desires, neglect - over fatigue, etc. However, depending on self-assessment, the manifestation and adequacy of control change significantly. So, negative self-esteem leads to the fact that a person will exaggerate his negative traits, will lose faith in himself and completely refuse to work. A positive attitude towards yourself can lead to the fact that self-control turns into narcissism.
All volitional qualities are formed throughout the life and activities of a person, and a particularly important stage in volitional development is childhood. Like all mental processes, the will does not develop by itself, but in connection with the general development of the personality. Considering the main factors that ensure the formation of volitional qualities of a person in childhood First of all, the role of family home education should be noted. Most of the shortcomings of the willful behavior of children, whims, stubbornness observed in early childhood, are based precisely on mistakes in educating the will of the child, caused by the fact that parents please him in everything, satisfy his every desire, do not make him demands that must be unconditionally fulfilled, they are not taught to restrain themselves, to obey certain rules of behavior. At the same time, the readiness to use effort in order to achieve something is not given by itself, it must be specially accustomed to it, only the force of habit can alleviate the difficulty of effort.
The other extreme of family education is to overload children with overwhelming tasks that are usually not completed. As a result, a habit is formed not to complete the work begun, which is also a manifestation of weakness of will.
Given the imitative nature of the child's actions, an important factor in the formation of volitional qualities is the personal example of parents, educators and other persons who influence him. It is hardly possible to form the skills of volitional behavior in a person who did not have a single positive example in front of him in overcoming difficulties and achieving his goal.
The basis of the education of the will lies in the systematic overcoming of difficulties in everyday, everyday life. One of necessary conditions that contribute to the upbringing of the will of the child - the creation of a strictly defined and correct regime, i.e. schedule of his life. No wonder they say that the will is organized labor. For weak-willed people, the lack of a culture of work and leisure, which are laid down in childhood, is characteristic.
It should also be noted that the formation of the will is inextricably linked with the upbringing of the child's conscious discipline. Just like following the regime, the steady implementation of certain rules makes the child follow a certain line of behavior, not go beyond the generally accepted boundaries, restrain himself and thus forms the appropriate volitional qualities.
test questions
Define the will
List the main phases of the volitional process ____________
What is the essence of the concept of "willpower"? ________
What are the most effective methods and ways of developing the will do you know?_____
The specificity of the will as a mental process. Physiological basis of will. Will functions. The structure of volitional action. The concept of the speech process. Theories of the origin of speech. Types of speech. Functions of speech. Stages of speech development. The development of speech in ontogenesis. Speech pathology.
Will is a mental function that literally permeates all aspects of human life. It sets orderliness, purposefulness, consciousness of human life and activity. “A volitional action is a conscious, purposeful action by means of which a person achieves his goal, subordinating his impulses to conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his plan,” writes S.L. Rubinshtein. Will is, of course, the highest level of regulation of the psyche in relation to the levels of motivation, emotions and attention.
In the act of will, the objectification of the individual I and individual behavior takes place. In a volitional act, the subject, as it were, “falls out” of the stream of being and evaluates himself and the motives of his activity from the outside. Will is always perspective in its essence, it is directed to the future. Making a volitional act, a person thinks not about his position at the moment, but about what it will become in the future, if he does or does not do something. Will is experienced as the activity of the ego.
A.N.Leontiev believes that volitional action is the process of victory of openly social and ideal motives in the individual system of the hierarchy of motives over objective and objective and visual ones. If a person has a stimulating and inhibitory action of motives, an equiprobable alternative arises. Can win as one motive, and another. Leontiev believes that in an established personality, the social motive will always play a decisive role due to an act of will and will prevail over objective and biological ones. A.N.Leontiev calls this effect “the primacy of openly social motivation”.
The physiological mechanisms of voluntary regulation are based on complex types of afferentation, among which kinesthetic is the leading one. Voluntary actions are carried out with the participation of a complex system of arbitrary and involuntary brain mechanisms. Any movement is a complex multi-level system, in which each level has its own afferent and its own set of adjustable parameters.
The main function of the will is the conscious regulation of activity in difficult conditions of life. This regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. In accordance with this, it is customary to distinguish 2 functions: activating inhibitory
Selective function - the choice of motives and goals in their conflict; The initiating function is to fill the deficit of motivation for action in the absence of its sufficient motivation; Inhibitory function - weakening of excessive motivation when the action is undesirable; Stabilizing function - maintaining the selected level of action in the presence of interference; Arbitrary regulation of external and internal actions and mental processes.
Intelligent determination. Motives begin to fade, leaving room for an alternative that is perceived quite calmly. in cases where indecision is delayed, there is a need for a decision. In this case, a person may make the wrong decision than not make any. The person seems to be subject to fate. moral rebirth, the awakening of conscience. The scale of values changes and the internal struggle of motives stops. An internal fracture occurs in a person and a determination arises to act in a specific direction. in some cases, a person chooses a certain course of action. In this case, he strengthens the motive with the help of the will. Reason is replaced by will.
Speech is the process of communication between people through language. Language is a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. The word and speech are the most important content components of the human psyche. Speech affects the course of human mental processes. But speech is especially closely connected with thinking, since thought exists in the word and is expressed by the word. Language acts as a material shell of thought
Learning theory. Every child has the need and ability to imitate. Receiving emotional reinforcement, imitation leads to fast assimilation first sounds, then syllables, words and utterances .. thus, mastering speech comes down to learning all the elements, and imitation and reinforcement act as mechanisms for the formation of speech. the theory of specific inclinations by N. Khomsky. He argues that in the human body from birth there are some specific inclinations for the assimilation of speech. They begin to appear towards the end of the first year of a child's life up to three years. It is during this period that speech develops without complications. Outside of this period, it is either quite difficult to learn speech, or even impossible. cognitive theory of J. Piaget. according to this theory, the development of speech occurs due to the innate ability of the child to perceive and intellectually process information. The development of speech is associated with the development of thinking, because. the child begins to initially pronounce the words, the meaning of which he understands. In the period from a year to three, a progressive development of thinking takes place, which creates the prerequisites for the development of speech in this period.
The development of speech is also considered from psycholinguistic positions. According to this theory, the process speech development represents cyclically repeating transitions from thought to word and from word to thought, which become more and more conscious and rich in content. Initially, a thought is formed into a word, which is both a phrase and a sentence. Then the given word is expanded into whole phrases. As a result, the same thought can be expressed both in one word and in the whole sentence. theory of signs L.S. Vygotsky. According to his theory, at higher levels of development, visual-figurative thinking turns into verbal-logical thinking thanks to the word, which generalizes in itself all the features of a particular object. Thus, the word is a “sign” that allows human thinking to develop to the level of abstract thinking.
Oral speech is a speech that wraps thoughts in sounding words and transmits them to other people. Written speech is a speech that serves as a means of recording and storing information. Kinetic speech is speech that is used mainly as emotional and expressive elements, gestures. External speech - speech that has the corresponding external features (sound, sign-written, motor, etc.) Inner speech - speech that does not have external signs, not perceived by other people and not realized by the person who uses it Dialogic speech is speech in the generation of which two people take part.
expression function. With the help of this function, a person expresses his attitude to objects. When speaking, our speech is emotionally colored, which contributes to the best understanding by others of our attitude to the subject we are talking about. impact function. With the help of speech, a person encourages others to take action or take a certain point of view. Usually, this function is implemented through an order, appeal or persuasion. message function. This function is to ensure the implementation of contact between people. notation function. With this function, we are able to think abstractly with the help of abstract concepts. This function is the highest function of speech, its implementation became possible only on higher levels speech development.
The emergence of kinetic speech, which is very close to the language of animal communication. This form of speech is associated with primitive figurative thinking. Kinetic speech is understood as the simplest system for transmitting information using body movements. The appearance of gestures. With the gradual separation of speech movements from labor actions and their specialization as a means of communication. The appearance of sound articulate speech, which became a genuine revolution in the development of mankind, the essence of which was that sound speech and thinking could separate from the direct action of the development of writing. Initially, written signs arose and developed under the influence of kinetic speech. Later, with the emergence of sound speech, written signs began to reflect the meaning of sounds. This led to the emergence of modern writing.
The development of speech in a child goes through several stages: the period of preparation of verbal speech. This period begins from the first days of a child's life. period of initial language acquisition. This period begins at the end of the first, beginning of the second year of life. During this period, the need for verbal communication becomes one of the vital needs of the child. The speech of the child is always connected with his activity, the manipulation of objects. Moreover, the word expresses several objects at once. This one word also replaces the whole sentence. the period of development of the child's language in the process of speech practice. This period begins at two and a half years and ends at six years. During this period, the child develops verbal communication, abstracted from the specific situation. At this stage, verbal communication becomes one of the sources for the development of thinking, which, developing, forms the prerequisites for improving the child's speech capabilities. By the end of this period, children usually fully master the phonetics of the language. Their active vocabulary is 2-3 thousand words. stage of speech development in connection with language learning. Enormous shifts are taking place under the influence of learning. In the process of learning, the child masters more complex species speech: written speech, monologue speech, methods of artistic literary speech.
Speech pressure is a speech disorder expressed by pathological speech excitation, in which the patient feels a continuous need to speak and cannot stop his verbose statements. Pretentious speech - is manifested by the patient's use of unusual, obscure, often inappropriate words, accompanied by mannered gestures and grimacing. Mirror speech (echolalia) - involuntarily repeated words heard from others. Monotonous speech is a speech disorder in which there are no changes in intonation. Detailed speech - slow speech, in which the patient expounds unimportant and unimportant details in excessive detail. Perseverative speech is represented by repeated repetition by the subjects of the same word or turn of speech and the inability to find the necessary words and turns to continue the speech. Puerile speech resembles babble, burr and intonation features children's speech. Rhymed speech is a speech filled with rhymes that the patient often uses to the detriment of meaning. Scanned speech is a speech disorder in which the patient speaks slowly, pronouncing syllables and words separately.