French Resistance in World War II. "Free France Liberation Movement in France
But in general, the French resistance played one of the key roles in the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe [ ] .
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"Vichy-Resistance"
The term "Vichy-Resistance" (fr. vichysto-résistance) was born in the French press to refer to a number of prominent politicians of the Vichy regime who sympathized with the Resistance and secretly participated in its activities. These included the future President of France Francois Mitterrand, the Protestant theologian Marc Besnier and a number of others.
Allied intelligence support
The activities of the Resistance were supported by the intelligence services of the United States and Great Britain: the first agent was trained by de Gaulle and delivered to France on January 1, 1941, in total, 375 US intelligence agents, 393 British intelligence agents and 868 de Gaulle agents were delivered to France. When, by the end of 1943, the reserves of French-speaking agents were exhausted, the Allies began to form groups of three (consisting of one Englishman, one American and one Frenchman), who were dressed in military uniform and (unlike agents) openly acted in concert with partisans.
An example is Jacqueline Nearn, who, after the occupation of northern France, left for England, at the end of 1941 became an agent of the British special services and, after special training in January 1943, was abandoned in France. According to the results of her activities, she was awarded the Order of the British Empire.
Participation of foreign citizens in the French resistance movement
German anti-fascists
About three thousand German anti-fascists took an active part in the armed resistance to the invaders.
Spanish anti-fascists
Also, a significant role in the movement was played by Spanish anti-fascists (anarchists, communists, left-wing republicans, Basque nationalists), who evacuated from the defeated Spanish Republic and had military experience.
Russian emigrants and citizens of the USSR
3 thousand Soviet citizens who ended up in France took part in the resistance movement, as well as Russian emigrants living in France (A. A. Skryabina, Z. A. Shakhovskaya, I. I. Troyan, Boris Vilde, V. A. Obolenskaya, I. A. Krivoshein , A. N. Levitsky , G. Gazdanov , D. G. Amilakhvari , A. B. Katlama , K. L. Feldzer , B. R. Khreschatitsky , A. A. Bennigsen , G. L. Roshko , F. I. Eliseev and others).
Researchers at the Museum of Man in Paris Boris Vilde and Anatoly Levitsky organized a printing house in the basement of the museum, which at the end of 1940 produced the first issue of a leaflet entitled "Resist!", which gave the name to the entire patriotic movement in France. At the end of 1941, they were arrested and in February 1942, Vilde, Levitsky and five other people from this underground group were shot at the wall of Fort Mont-Valérien.
On October 15, 1943, the Central Committee of Soviet Prisoners of War in France began its activities, uniting the activities of partisan and underground groups of Soviet citizens; on November 7, 1943, the committee began publishing the newspaper "Soviet Patriot" (in Russian). By the spring of 1944, 35 Soviet partisan detachments("Dede", "Donbass", "Zheleznyak", "For Freedom", "Katrin", "Kovpak", "Kotovsky", "Paris Commune", "Motherland", "Sevastopol", "Freedom", "Chapaev" and others), and the Rodina detachment under the command of N. Lisovets consisted of women.
The 1st Soviet partisan regiment in France was created by order of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR Armed Forces dated August 22, 1944, on the basis of Armenian partisan detachments in the city of Nimes and, to a large extent, from former legionnaires of the Armenian Legion of the Wehrmacht. Major A. Ghazaryan was appointed commander of the regiment, L. Titanyan was appointed commissar of the regiment, D. Minasyan was appointed chief of staff and deputy. commander of the combat unit - B. Petrosyan. On May 1, 1945, the French government awarded the 1st Soviet Partisan Regiment a battle banner and the Order of the Military Cross with a silver star. In addition, the battalions of the partisan regiment were awarded three red banners (from the city party organizations of the communists of the cities of Leon, Marseille and Nimes), and 665 soldiers of the regiment were awarded French orders and medals.
According to incomplete data, only from the beginning of February to the end of August 1944, Soviet partisan detachments in France participated in the battles for the liberation of Paris, the cities of Toulouse, Limoges, Clermont-Ferrand, Nimes and a number of departments, destroyed 3500 and captured 650 Nazis and German accomplices, damaged 9 high-voltage power lines, blew up three railway bridges, derailed 65 military trains, destroyed 76 steam locomotives and over 1000 railway cars, platforms and tanks, captured 90 vehicles, three heavy guns, 15 mortars, 50 machine guns, as well as small arms and other trophies.
In 1960, for courage in the battles for the freedom of the French people, orders and medals of France were awarded to a group of Soviet citizens - participants in the Resistance Movement in France.
Kazakhstanis
During the Second World War, the Kazakhs fought in the ranks of the resistance movement of European countries. On the territory of France, two partisan regiments were formed from former Soviet prisoners of war.
The first operated in the area of the city of Marseille. The Ukrainian Vasily Porik, the former resident of the city of Balkhash Galina Temchenko and many others fought in this regiment.
In southern France, in the department of Gard and the region of Toulouse, the second Soviet partisan regiment operated, which liberated the cities of Florent, Villefort, Ales, Albi from the Nazis. Almost 300 Kazakhs fought in this regiment. Among them are former soldiers of the Red Army: deputy regiment commander Abu Moldagaliev, company commander, then deputy. battalion commander Uteuli Bisengaliev, S. Zhumashev (Atyrau), Kanysbaev, N. Kunaev (Saratov region), West Kazakhstan citizens Zh. Katshikov, S. Karenov, D. Karazhumin, N. Uteshev, B. Edrisov, Z. Amangaliev, Sh. Balykov , residents of Semipalatinsk N. Ilyasov, M. Nugmanov, G. M. Martynenko, K. Khangereev, B. Seksenbaev from Taldy-Kurgan, Khusainov Shamil Khasanovich (North Kazakhstan region) and others.
U. Bisengaliyev, called to active service in 1939 from the current village of Akzhayk, Chapaevsky district, served in the cavalry at the beginning of the war as assistant. squadron commander. In October 1941, in one of the heavy battles near Odessa, he was wounded and shell-shocked, in this condition he was captured. When he began to recover a little in the prisoner of war camp, he escaped and hid in the village, where he was captured by the police, surrendered to the invaders and sent to Germany along with other prisoners of war, from 1943 to France in a prisoner of war camp.
Khusainov Shamil Khasanovich, born December 7, 1918, Tatar, native of Petropavlovsk, North Kazakhstan region. He was called up in March 1940 and registered in 1945 in the Petropavlovsk GVK. Served: 747th Infantry Regiment, took part in the resistance movement "Poppies" in France, where he ended up after escaping from the captivity of the Dachau concentration camp. Squad leader, senior sergeant. Injured. Awards: Order of the Patriotic War 2nd class, Order of Glory 3rd class, medals "For the Victory over Germany", "Grand French Cross for the Republic of France", "Small French Cross for the Liberation of France", commemorative medals. He died on May 28, 1993, was buried in the city of Petropavlovsk, North Kazakhstan region.
The Nazis more than once processed the prisoners so that they would join the legion to fight against the Red Army, but when they were finally convinced that they could not be persuaded to treason, they went to the trick, trying to use the prisoners in the fight against partisans in France. However, upon arrival in France, the prisoners began to contact the resistance movement and create an underground organization to escape from captivity.
2nd Ukrainian Battalion named after Taras Shevchenko
In July 1944, as a result of the retreat of German troops from Belarus to France, the 115th and 118th security battalions, formed in occupied Ukraine from prisoners of war of the Red Army. After being transferred to France, these formations were renamed, respectively, the 63rd and 62nd Schutzmannschaft battalions as part of the 30th Grenadier Division SS (2nd Russian).
On August 21, 1944, the 62nd and 63rd battalions were merged into a single formation; new German commanders were appointed. However, the new formation did not take part in the battles against the French partisans, since already on August 27 (on the day appointed by the Germans to enter the anti-partisan positions), almost in full strength went over to the side of the French resistance movement. From the French partisans who went over to the side, the 2nd Ukrainian Battalion named after Taras Shevchenko was formed (fr. Le 2 Bataillon Ukrainien des Forces Francaices de L'Interier, Groupement Frontiere, Sous-Region D.2.) .
After the liberation of French territory, both battalions were included in the 13th demi-brigade of the French Foreign Legion, in which they fought until the end of the war. After the war, some of the fighters continued to serve in the Foreign Legion. A small part of the personnel nevertheless returned to the USSR.
Jewish Fighting Organization
French Jews also fought in the ranks of the Resistance, who created the French organization. Organization Juive de Combat. Among them were many emigrants from Russia. In the partisan southern zone, under the name "Rezhin", Sarah Knut fought and died in 1944 (nee Ariadna Skryabina), the wife of a Jewish poet and member of the Resistance, Dovid Knut. She was posthumously awarded a military cross and a resistance medal, a monument to Sarah Knut was erected in Toulouse.
Participation of the Armenian community
The Armenian community of France played an active role in the Resistance. The Armenian poet and communist Misak Manushyan became one of the leaders of the Resistance and the commander of the Manushyan group (the family of chansonnier Charles Aznavour supported Misak and his wife Meline when they were in hiding). A group under the command of Manushyan made an attempt on the commandant of Paris, General Schaumburg, who "distinguished himself" by mass executions, liquidated SS Standartenführer Julius Ritter, responsible for sending 600,000 civilians to forced labor in Germany. The Nazi "Red" poster, published in an edition of 15,000 copies, depicted Manushyan: " Manushyan, Armenian, gang leader, 56 attacks, 150 dead, 600 injured". On November 16, 1943, Manushyan was arrested by the German command at the underground headquarters, tortured, and 3 months later he was executed along with 21 members of his group. Arpen Davityan, another executed member of the Manushyan group, industrialist Napoleon Bullukyan (1905-1984), poets Gegham Atmajyan (1910-1940) and Ruben Melik were among the most famous members French Resistance. Armenian-French writer Louise Aslanyan (1906-1945) - an activist of the Resistance, was arrested with her husband in 1944, sent to a concentration camp and killed. Many of her manuscripts and diaries were confiscated by the Nazis. Alexander Ghazaryan and Bardukh Petrosyan were awarded the highest military orders of France by General Charles de Gaulle. Henri Karayan (1921-2011), member of the Manouchian Group, participated in the underground distribution of L'Humanité in Paris and engaged in armed struggle until the Liberation. In 2012, 95-year-old Arsen Shakarian, the last survivor of the Manouchian Group, was elevated to an officer in the Legion of Honor by the President of France.
The "anti-fascist underground patriotic organization" operating in the territories of the USSR, Poland and France was led by a group of Armenian officers led by Major S. A. Yagdzhyan.
Participation of French citizens in the anti-fascist resistance of European countries
French citizens took part in the anti-fascist resistance on the territory of other European countries, including in the Soviet partisan movement in the occupied territory of the USSR:
Memory
Some patriotic resistance organizations
- United Resistance Movement
- Liberation-Sud
Notable figures
Notes
- Spelling without quotes with a lowercase letter in the first word resistance movement given in the dictionary: Lopatin V. V. , Nechaeva I. V. , Cheltsova L. K. Uppercase or lowercase? Orthographic dictionary. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - S. 414. - 512 p.
- "French resistance played one of the key roles in the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe."
Historical speech de Gaulle // Russian service BBC, June 18, 2010. - Charles B. McDonald. Ordeal. American military forces in the European Theater during World War II. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1979. - S. 215-217.
CHAPTER III. FRANCE DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR
The beginning of the war
On September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany attacked Poland. France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. The Second World War began. Poland did not receive any real military assistance from its "guarantors", France and England. As a result, the Polish army was defeated by Germany in two weeks. On the Western Front, the Germans did not take any decisive action. Great Britain and France did not take the military initiative, hoping that Germany would strike the main blow in the East. Because on the Western Front fighting were not fought from September 1939 to May 1940, this time in France was called the "strange war".
In the autumn of 1939, Edouard Daladier's cabinet was still in power. In March 1940 he was replaced by a government headed by the well-known right-wing politician Paul Reynaud (March - June 1940).
The cabinets of Daladier and Reynaud, citing wartime conditions, gradually eliminated democratic freedoms. In September 1939, martial law was introduced in France. Rallies, meetings, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited. The press and radio were heavily censored. Canceled 40 hour work week and holidays. Wages were "frozen" at pre-war levels.
The conclusion of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact served as a pretext for launching an anti-communist campaign in France. The Communists were declared "agents of Moscow and Berlin." At the end of September 1939, the PCF was banned and began to operate underground.
Capitulation of France and the Vichy regime
In May 1940, Germany launched a swift offensive on the Western Front. The Germans delivered the first blow to French territory through neutral countries - Belgium and Holland. Then the main forces of the Nazi army attacked in the Sedan area, where the fortifications of the Maginot Line ended. The front was broken through, the Germans went to the rear of the Anglo-French troops and surrounded them near Dunkirk. Anglo-French fleet with great difficulty managed to evacuate the British Expeditionary Force without heavy weapons. The main body of the French army, having lost the support of the British, hastily retreated. On June 10, Italy declared war on France, and German troops were already near Paris. The Reynaud government left the capital and moved south, first to Tours and then to Bordeaux. On June 16, Reynaud's cabinet resigned. The new government was formed by 84-year-old Marshal Philippe Petain, a supporter of ending the war and concluding a truce with Germany. He immediately turned to the Germans with a request to stop hostilities and communicate peace terms.
The Franco-German armistice was signed on June 22, 1940 in Compiègne, the Franco-Italian - on June 25 in Rome.
Under the terms of the armistice, the French army and navy were disarmed and demobilized. France had to pay huge occupation payments of 400 million francs (from November 1942 - 500 million francs) daily. Two thirds of the country, including Paris, were occupied by Germany. The southern part of France (the so-called free zone) and the colonies were not occupied and were controlled by the Petain government. It settled in the small resort town of Vichy.
Formally, the Petain government retained the entire navy of the country. Great Britain, which continued the war, fearing that the French fleet might be captured by Germany, decided to disable it. On July 3, 1940, the British fleet attacked a French squadron stationed in the harbor of Mers-el-Kebir (Algeria). Most of the ships were sunk or damaged. At the same time, the British seized French ships that ended up in British ports and blocked the French squadron in the port of Alexandria (Egypt).
On the territory of France, both in the occupied and in the non-occupied zones, all political parties and major trade union associations were dissolved. Gatherings, demonstrations and strikes were strictly prohibited.
In July 1940, in the unoccupied zone, Marshal Petain published "constitutional acts" that effectively abolished the constitution of the Third Republic. The posts of President of the Republic and Chairman of the Council of Ministers were abolished. Parliamentary sessions were suspended. All the fullness of the executive and legislative power was transferred to Petain, who was declared the "head of state." The second person in the Vichy government was Pierre Laval.
The Catholic Church gained great influence in the country. Religious congregations were given back the right to teach in private schools, abolished by the 1905 law on the separation of church and state. Public funding for private schools was also restored. Vichy propaganda quickly created for Marshal Petain the halo of the "savior of France", who saved the French from continuing the war and returned peace and tranquility to the country.
Almost the entire French economy was placed at the service of Germany. By the beginning of 1944, 80% of French enterprises were fulfilling German military orders, which were paid for by occupation payments. Germany exported up to three-quarters of French raw materials and from 50 to 100% of the finished products of the main branches of French industry. Since 1942, the export of French workers for forced labor to Germany has become widespread. The occupiers deported to Germany about 1 million French.
"Free France"
Simultaneously with the defeat of France, the history of her resistance to the invaders began. It is connected, first of all, with the name of the outstanding French military, political and statesman of the 20th century. General Charles de Gaulle.
De Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 into an aristocratic family and brought up in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism. After graduating from the Saint-Cyr Higher Military School, he fought on the fields of the First World War and graduated with the rank of captain. During the interwar period, de Gaulle continued military career. However, since the mid-1920s, his activities went far beyond the scope of military service. He wrote extensively and made presentations. In four books by de Gaulle - "Discord in the camp of the enemy" (1924), "On the edge of the sword" (1932), "For a professional army" (1934) and "France and its army" (1938) ) - reflected the author's own military doctrine and his life credo. He was essentially the first in France to predict the decisive role of tank troops in a future war and presented himself as an adherent of French nationalism and a supporter of strong executive power.
De Gaulle was a staunch opponent of the defensive tactics developed at the General Staff of the French Army, which was based on the idea of the impregnability of the Maginot Line. He warned of the destructiveness of such views and called for strengthening the country's defense capability. De Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to form additional tank corps in France, equipped with vehicles the latest sample. He sought supporters in military and political circles. In 1934, he even managed to get acquainted with Paul Reynaud, but de Gaulle did not achieve effective support for his ideas.
At the beginning of World War II, de Gaulle, who served with the rank of colonel, was appointed commander of tank forces in Alsace. When Germany launched a swift offensive on the Western Front in 1940, he was ordered to lead an urgently formed armored division. Throughout May, she fought selflessly, suffering heavy losses. The enemy had a huge advantage in tanks, artillery and aircraft. For military merit, de Gaulle was promoted to the rank of brigadier general.
In Paris, Paul Reynaud, while reorganizing his cabinet, appointed de Gaulle deputy minister of war. The general immediately arrived in the capital. He stubbornly insisted on continuing the war and tried to convince Reino of this. De Gaulle suggested that the government move to the North African possessions of France and fight, relying on the country's huge colonial empire. However, the chairman of the council of ministers preferred to transfer power to Marshal Petain. Then de Gaulle made an unprecedented act. He resolutely refused to submit to the new French authorities, who took a course of surrender, and on June 17, 1940, he flew on a military plane to London.
in the English capital rebel general immediately met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and assured him of his firm intention to continue the fight. On June 18, de Gaulle delivered a famous speech to his compatriots on London radio. In it, he argued that the position of France is far from hopeless, because the war that has begun is of a world nature and its outcome will not be decided only by the battle for France. The speech ended with the following words: “I, General de Gaulle, now in London, invite French officers and soldiers who are on British territory or can be there to establish contact with me. Whatever happens, the flame of the French Resistance must not be extinguished and will not be extinguished.” So already in June 1940 the flag of French resistance to the enemy was raised.
In London, de Gaulle founded the organization "Free France", designed to fight against Nazi Germany on the side of the UK. The Vichy government sentenced de Gaulle to death in absentia for "desertion" and "treason". Nevertheless, both the military and civilians variety of political views and beliefs. At the end of 1940 there were only 7,000 of them; in less than two years, this number had grown tenfold.
On August 7, 1940, de Gaulle and Churchill signed an agreement regarding the organization and use of French volunteer forces in England. De Gaulle undertook to form these forces and exercise supreme command over them in accordance with the general directives of the British Government. Great Britain did not recognize the rights of de Gaulle to exercise state power and considered the "free French" only as volunteers in their service. However, it provided de Gaulle with regular financial support and gave him the opportunity to create a civilian body in addition to the military. An English BBC radio station was also placed at de Gaulle's disposal. Through her, the "Free France" carried out propaganda broadcasting to France.
First of all, de Gaulle directed his efforts to mastering the French colonies, mainly African ones. With the help of his supporters, he began active propaganda there in favor of continuing the war and joining the Free French. The North African administration categorically rejected such proposals and remained loyal to the Vichy government. The colonies of French Equatorial Africa behaved differently. Already in August 1940, Chad joined de Gaulle. After some time, the Congo, Ubangi-Shari, Gabon, Cameroon went over to the side of the general. Several small French possessions in the Pacific announced his recognition. It was the first big success. True, in September 1940 the Gaullists also suffered a serious defeat. The expedition of the Anglo-French squadron, which had the goal of capturing the most important port of French West Africa - Dakar, ended in failure. The garrison of the city remained on the Vichy side. Yet the Free French now have their own territorial base on the African continent. This allowed de Gaulle to start creating his own "state apparatus" and decisively dissociate himself from the Vichy government.
On October 27, 1940, de Gaulle issued a Manifesto regarding the leadership of the French during the war. In it, he condemned the activities of the Petain cabinet, spoke of the illegality of its existence and called collaborators "accidental leaders" who submitted to the enemy. De Gaulle declared that on behalf of France he would exercise power for the sole purpose of protecting the country from the enemy.
At the very end of 1940, the Free French Political Affairs Office was created. Its work was supervised by de Gaulle himself. He also defined the tasks of the Office: “To create and use information services that collect materials on the political situation in France and the Empire. Organize and support the Free French movement in France and the Empire and try to extend its activities to old and new political, social, religious, economic, professional and intellectual organizations and convince them of the need at the moment to subordinate all personal interests to one - national " . The administration consisted of General Staff and information service. Three bureaus were subordinate to them. The first defined specific tasks. The second was to carry them out on the territory of France and the colonial empire. Subsequently, it developed into the well-known Central Bureau of Awareness and Action (BSRA). The third dealt with establishing contacts with foreign countries. Its representatives were sent by de Gaulle to various regions of the world in order to achieve recognition of the "Free France" by the governments of foreign states.
In September 1941, de Gaulle issued an ordinance on the "Free France". He established the National Committee, which temporarily exercised the functions of state power. It was called upon to exist until "until a representation of the French people is created, capable of expressing the will of the nation independently of the enemy." The National Committee included commissioners appointed by its chairman, General de Gaulle: Rene Pleven (for coordinating the activities of the committee), Maurice Dejan (for foreign affairs), Rene Cassin (for justice and public education), General Legantiom (for military affairs), Admiral Muselier ( military and merchant fleet), General Valen (for aviation), Andre Dietelme (internal affairs). The commissars headed the national commissariats. Thus, within the framework of the Free French, some semblance of a government was created.
The cooperation of the "Free France" (since July 1942 - "Fighting France") with the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition was not easy at first. First of all, this concerned the development of de Gaulle's relations with the British government, before which he defended the French national interests. The head of the "Free French" sought to prevent the spread of British influence in the French colonial possessions.
In the summer of 1941, as a result of a joint military operation British with "free French" the Vichy regime was overthrown in the French colonies in the Middle East - Syria and Lebanon. In the spring of 1942, Great Britain captured the island of Madagascar and eliminated the Vichy administration there. The British wanted to establish their power in these French possessions. De Gaulle categorically prevented this and, at the cost of great efforts and difficult diplomatic negotiations, joined Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar to the Free French movement.
Immediately after the start of the Great Patriotic War, de Gaulle, on behalf of the "Free France", initiated cooperation with the USSR, which had previously maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy.
The events of June 22, 1941 found the general in Africa. On June 30, the Vichy government announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Plenipotentiary representative of the USSR under Vichy A.E. Bogomolov was immediately recalled from France. But already on July 1, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to Great Britain, I. M. Maisky, telegraphed from London to Moscow that even before the break with Vichy, he was privately visited by the representative of de Gaulle Cassin, “who, on behalf of the general, conveyed the sympathies and best wishes of the USSR” and at the same time "raised the question of establishing certain relations between the Soviet government and de Gaulle's forces." In August, Cassin and Dejean posed the same question to IM Maisky for the second time. And on September 26, 1941, the USSR Ambassador to Great Britain gave de Gaulle an official written response: “On behalf of my government, I have the honor to inform you that it recognizes you as the leader of all free French, wherever they are, who rallied around you supporting the allied cause.
Both sides decided to exchange official representatives. In early November 1941, A.E. Bogomolov was sent to Great Britain with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the USSR to the allied governments in London. The Soviet government entrusted him with the functions of maintaining communication with the Free France. Roger Garraud, Raymond Schmittlen, appointed by de Gaulle, and the military representative, General Ernest Petit, also left for Moscow.
The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy prior to entering World War II. However, the Americans were interested in using the French island colonies in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, controlled by the Free French, as their military naval and air bases.
After the US entered the war on the side of the Allies in December 1941, de Gaulle approached the United States with a proposal to establish diplomatic relations. Official Washington did not give a positive answer to the head of the "Freedom of France" for a long time. Only in March 1942 did the United States recognize the authority of the de Gaulle National Committee on the islands. Pacific Ocean. In July 1942, the US government issued a communiqué recognizing the organization headed by de Gaulle.
Resistance movement
From the second half of 1940, the first resistance groups began to form on the territory of occupied France and in the so-called free zone.
The most active role in the process of countering the invaders was played by the French Communist Party. In the Manifesto published by her on July 10, illegally distributed throughout the country, the main goals of the struggle under the created conditions were defined - the national and social liberation and revival of France, the conquest of freedom and independence by the French people. The communists launched a wide-ranging underground publication of the newspaper L'Humanite, pamphlets and leaflets. They organized acts of sabotage and assassination attempts on the invaders.
In 1941, in some cities of the country (Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Clermont-Ferrand, etc.), in addition to the communist groups, there were groups of the bourgeois-patriotic direction of the Resistance. They conducted anti-fascist propaganda, published illegal leaflets and newspapers, and collected intelligence data.
By the end of 1941, the resistance movement in France had become an impressive force. Almost all sectors of French society were represented in it.
General de Gaulle set himself the task of uniting the scattered forces of the Resistance around the Free French. In this regard, he made a number of speeches, where he outlined the program of the organization he leads. In one of them, he stated that in addition to the original motto of the Free France, "Honor and Motherland", another one is now being added: "Freedom. Equality. Brotherhood". “We want to remain true,” de Gaulle emphasized, “to the democratic principles that the genius of our nation gave our ancestors and which are the stake in this war not for life, but for death.” In order to practically begin to unite the various groups of the Resistance under his leadership, the general began to send special "political missions" to France. The main one was entrusted to the outstanding figure of the French Resistance, Jean Moulin.
In October 1941, Moulin, on his own initiative, came to see de Gaulle in London. He presented him with a report on the situation in France. Moulin considered the decisive condition for all further successes of the Resistance to be immediate and comprehensive assistance from the British government and General de Gaulle. He asked to provide political and moral support to the Resistance organizations, to provide them with means of communication and financial assistance. Moulin made a strong impression on the head of the Free French. Thanks to him, for the first time, he received reliable information about the movement unfolding in his homeland. De Gaulle decided to entrust this man with a responsible mission - to unite all the Resistance groups and ensure their submission to his leadership. In January 1942, Moulin parachuted into southern France.
Beginning in 1942, the connections of the London organization with the resistance movement began to acquire a systematic character. Under the London National Committee, a commissariat for information was created, headed by Jacques Soustelle. Its functions were mainly to supply information about the activities of the "Free France" to various radio stations of the world, as well as underground publications that appeared on French territory.
At first, not all the leaders of the Resistance stood up for the subjugation of the Free French. However, gradually many began to lean towards this. The leaders of various resistance groups sought to get to London in order to personally get to know de Gaulle. During 1942 he was visited by representatives of political parties that had gone underground, the socialists Pierre Brossolet, Felix Gouin, Christian Pinault, André Philip, and the radical Pierre Mendes-France.
Pino's visit to the British capital in the spring of 1942 was of great importance. In the draft of the Manifesto he compiled, the head of the Free French was called the representative of the French people. De Gaulle personally revised the Manifesto, and Pino took it to France. In June 1942 it was published in the underground press. The Manifesto condemned the regime of the Third Republic, which led the country to disaster, and the Vichy regime, collaborating with the Nazis. The restoration of the integrity of the territory of France and its empire at the end of the war was declared. “As soon as the French are freed from enemy oppression,” the document emphasized, “all their internal freedoms must be returned to them. After the enemy has been expelled from our territory, all men and women will elect a National Assembly, which will decide the fate of our country.” In essence, the text testified to the recognition by the head of the "Free France" of the basic democratic principles. It promised to convene, after the liberation, a competent parliament and restore democratic freedoms in the country.
The appearance of the Manifesto had the most positive effect on the relations of the Free French with the internal Resistance. Non-communist organizations now sided with de Gaulle one after another. The general also sought to enlist the support of the communists, realizing that it was the PCF that was the effective force of the Resistance. At the insistence of de Gaulle, the Communists sent their representative Fernand Grenier to him in London at the end of 1942. The general did not share many of the views of the communists, but agreed to cooperate with them, realizing that at the moment it was absolutely necessary.
French Committee of National Liberation
After the defeat of the Nazi troops near Stalingrad, there was a radical change in the course of the war. The defeat of Germany and its allies on the Eastern Front created favorable conditions for the opening of a second front in Western Europe, which England and the United States promised to do back in 1942. However, instead they decided to land troops in Algiers and Morocco, where the Vichy troops were stationed. The Americans believed that it was necessary to act in agreement with the Vichy authorities, and sought to find some high-ranking French military man who could carry the Vichy administration and army with him. The commander of the French fleet, Admiral Darlan, was quite suitable for such a role. In early November, he was in Algiers. The Americans also worried about a fallback - another French military man, General of the Army Giraud, was at the ready. The allies predicted one or the other to take the place of de Gaulle, who, in their opinion, was too intractable and ambitious. He was not even warned about the upcoming military operation.
On November 8, 1942, large Anglo-American forces landed on the territory of Algiers and Morocco. The Vichy troops laid down their arms after a short resistance. In response, Germany occupied the southern, "free" zone of France. The American command proclaimed Admiral Darlan the high commissioner of North Africa. However, on December 24, he was shot dead. A few days later, General Giraud was appointed to replace Darlan, who received the title of "civilian and military commander in chief." His entourage consisted mainly of the Vichy who had defected to the United States. The general himself was clearly sympathetic to the Vichy regime. He saw his main task only in winning the war.
Giraud did not object to joining with the Fighting France, but, commanding a large army and far superior in rank to Brigadier General de Gaulle, he took it for granted that the comparatively weak forces of the Fighting France should come under his command. Giraud took a clearly pro-American position, acted on orders from US President Franklin Roosevelt and was supported by him in his intentions regarding the London organization. In January 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill held a conference in Casablanca (Morocco). On it, in particular, the "French question" was considered. The American President and the British Prime Minister decided to unite the groups led by de Gaulle and Giraud, but faced serious difficulties. Both generals met in Casablanca, but did not come to an agreement, since de Gaulle categorically refused to have the National Committee headed by him be in a subordinate position. Thus, Giraud continued to be the only head of administration in North Africa, and de Gaulle had to return to London.
As a result, in the spring of 1943, the head of the "Fighting France" again began to fight for his recognition. He decided that he could count on success only by enlisting the support of his most important ally in the anti-Hitler coalition - the USSR - and the resistance movement.
De Gaulle wanted to visit the Soviet Union and see I.V. Stalin. Moscow has so far refused to accept the head of the Fighting France. However, the Soviet government made it clear that it preferred de Gaulle over Giraud.
De Gaulle's contacts with representatives of various groups and political directions of the Resistance were constantly expanding. In the first half of 1943, the general was visited in London by the socialists Vincent Auriol and André Le Trocker, the radical Henri Kay, and the leader of the Republican Federation, Louis Marin.
A new important political mission was entrusted by de Gaulle to Moulin. He was supposed to unite all the organizations of the Resistance and the parties that opposed the occupiers and Vichy, in a single National Council of the Resistance. He managed to do this in May 1943. The National Council of the Resistance included representatives of 16 major organizations that fought for the liberation of France. Among them were the Communist and Socialist parties, the General Confederation of Labor, Christian trade unions, and the main bourgeois-patriotic groups. Jean Moulin became the first chairman of the council. After his arrest and tragic death in the dungeons of the Gestapo, this post was taken by the head of the Combat Resistance group, Georges Bidault.
Enlisting the support of the internal Resistance, de Gaulle began negotiations with Giraud about the need for their meeting and unification. The US and British governments advised Giraud to agree, and he invited de Gaulle to Algiers. Just before leaving London, the head of the "Fighting France" received a telegram from Moulin, which said that the preparations for the creation of the National Council of the Resistance were completed. It also stated that "the French people will never allow General de Gaulle to be subordinated to General Giraud and demand the swiftest establishment of a Provisional Government in Algiers under the chairmanship of General de Gaulle." Thus, having appeared before public opinion as a national leader supported by the Resistance movement, the general appeared in Algeria at the end of May 1943.
De Gaulle and his supporters initiated the creation of a government body headed by two chairmen. The leaders of the United States and England, as well as General Giraud, agreed to such a proposal. As a result, on June 3, 1943, in Algiers, de Gaulle and Giraud signed an ordinance establishing the French Committee of National Liberation (FKNO). The committee included de Gaulle and Giraud as chairmen, as well as 5 more people - Generals Catrou and Georges, André Philip, Rene Massigli and Jean Monnet.
The FKNO saw its tasks in continuing the struggle together with the allies “until full release French and Allied territories, until victory over all hostile powers." The FCL undertook to "restore all French freedoms, the laws of the republic and the republican regime".
On June 7, the commissariats (ministries) of the FKNO were formed, and its composition was expanded. At the suggestion of de Gaulle, it included Rene Pleven, Henri Bonnet, André Diethelme and Adrien Tixier, at the suggestion of Giraud - Maurice Couve de Murville and Jules Abadie. Now there are 14 members of the committee, and 9 of them belonged to the "Fighting France". Monnet and Couve de Murville also declared support for de Gaulle. Thus, the balance of power was in his favor. During 1943, de Gaulle gradually removed Giraud from business and became the sole chairman of the FKNO.
Under the leadership of de Gaulle, the FKNO took a number of measures to eliminate the Vichy order in French North Africa. This increased his prestige in the eyes of the members of the Resistance. This circumstance predetermined the question of his diplomatic recognition. At the end of August 1943, declarations of recognition of the FKNO were simultaneously published by the USSR, England, the USA, and in the following weeks by 19 more states.
On the initiative of de Gaulle, in September 1943, the FKNO adopted an ordinance on the establishment in the Algerian capital of a representative body like a parliament - the Provisional Consultative Assembly. It was formed from 94 people, representatives of resistance organizations, former parliamentarians and delegates from the population of the liberated territories.
In early November, the FKNO decided to introduce representatives of the main political movements and organizations of the Resistance into its membership. It now included from the Resistance organizations Emmanuel d "Astier, Francois de Manton, Henri Frenet, Rene Capitan, André Philip, André Le Trocker, Pierre Mendes-France, Henri Kay and others. The question of joining the FKNO of the Communists was discussed. But he FKP representatives François Billoud and Fernand Grenier did not become members of the committee until mid-1944.
At the first meeting of the assembly in early November 1943, de Gaulle delivered a speech to the assembled deputies. In it, he announced the reform program that he was going to implement after the liberation of France.
In January 1944, de Gaulle signed an ordinance on the creation of the institution of regional commissioners of the republic, which authorized the division of the entire territory of France into regional commissariats headed by commissioners, corresponding to the pre-existing regional prefectures. “The regional commissioners,” the ordinance stated, “are entrusted with taking all necessary measures, with the exception of functions within the competence of the military authorities, to ensure the security of the French and allied armies, to organize the administration of the territory, restore republican legality, and also take care of meeting the needs population". The commissioners were to replace the Vichy prefects throughout the country. It was on them that de Gaulle hoped to rely in the provinces.
The chairman of the FKNO was finally recognized by the National Council of the Resistance, which published its program in March. In it, along with an indication of the need for fundamental democratic reforms in France, a demand was put forward for the creation of a Provisional Government of the Republic headed by de Gaulle.
The general, while in Algeria, also outlined his political program of action. Addressing the deputies of the assembly in March 1944, he declared that “the essence and form of the French society of tomorrow ... can only be determined by the representative body of the nation, elected on the basis of universal, direct and free elections ... As for the government, which If the national representation entrusts the functions of the executive power, then for their implementation it must have strength and stability, as required by the authority of the state and the role of France in international affairs. Four months later, on the eve of the liberation of the country, de Gaulle defined the immediate tasks for France even more specifically. “As regards the political system,” he stressed, “we have made our choice. We have chosen democracy and republic. To give the people their say, in other words, to lay in the shortest possible time the foundations of freedom, order and respect for rights, and thereby create the conditions for holding a general election, as a result of which the National Constituent Assembly will be convened - this is the goal to which we aspire.
In June 1944, groups of Anglo-American troops under the command of General Eisenhower landed in northern France, and in August - in the south. De Gaulle obtained the consent of England and the United States to participate in the liberation of the country by the troops of the FKNO and received the opportunity to introduce their representatives into the inter-allied command. They were the French generals Koenig, Cochet and Leclerc. The military units of the FKNO entered the soil of France behind the Anglo-American troops. The French Committee of National Liberation itself was renamed in August 1944 into the Provisional Government of the French Republic. De Gaulle became its chairman.
The news of the landing of the Allied armies served as a signal for a national uprising advocated by the French Communist Party. This idea was also supported by General de Gaulle, who feared that otherwise the Allies would want to control liberated France with the help of their military administration. The national uprising quickly engulfed 40 of the country's 90 departments.
Under the leadership of the Communists, an armed uprising was also being prepared in Paris. This fact excited de Gaulle, who believed that the PCF could "stand at the head of an uprising like a kind of Commune." De Gaulle's representatives operating in France also feared this. They concentrated combat groups of bourgeois-patriotic organizations in Paris and agreed on their support by the forces of the Parisian police and gendarmerie, who had already agreed to go over to the side of the Provisional Government. De Gaulle's supporters wanted the Allied troops to approach Paris as quickly as possible and prevent the uprising. Nevertheless, it began before their appearance in the French capital.
On August 24, when Leclerc's tanks entered Paris, the bulk of it had already been liberated by the French patriots. The next day, the commander of the troops of the Paris region, the Communist Rolle-Tanguy, and General Leclerc, accepted the official surrender of the German garrison. On the same day, de Gaulle arrived in Paris.
From the station, the head of the Provisional Government went to the Ministry of War to meet with the official authorities of the city and from there to issue an order to restore public order and supplies in the capital. After that, he went to the town hall, where representatives of the National Council of the Resistance and the Paris Liberation Committee were waiting for him.
On August 26, Paris rejoiced. A grand demonstration took place on the Champs Elysees on the occasion of the liberation. A crowd of thousands filled the entire avenue. De Gaulle, accompanied by General Leclerc, drove up to the Arc de Triomphe, where, in the presence of members of the government and the National Council of the Resistance, he lit a fire on the tomb of the Unknown Soldier, extinguished more than four years ago by the invaders.
During the autumn, almost the entire territory of France was liberated. In October 1944, the Provisional Government headed by de Gaulle was recognized by the USSR, Britain and the USA. After that, de Gaulle directed his efforts to strengthening France's position on the world stage.
In November-December 1944, a French government delegation headed by de Gaulle paid an official visit to the Soviet Union. The negotiations between the chairman of the Provisional Government of France and JV Stalin ended with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance between the two countries.
At the conference of the three victorious countries in Yalta, held in February 1945, it was decided to allocate an occupation zone in Germany for France and include it in the Allied Control Council along with the USSR, the USA and England. France also received one of the five seats of permanent members of the Security Council of the United Nations being created. At the Berlin (Potsdam) conference (July-August 1945), France, together with the three great powers, was included in the Council of Foreign Ministers, which was supposed to solve the problems of a peaceful settlement.
Fighting France
On the eve of the holiday on July 14, 1942, de Gaulle decides to rename the Free France he leads as Fighting France. He announces that he thereby includes in his organization all the forces fighting against a common enemy, that is, all groups of the Resistance movement. In a BBC speech, the general urges the French of the unoccupied zone to celebrate the main national holiday: “Let every house be decorated with the tricolor national banner tomorrow. French women, gather in every city and every village in one place and sing the Marseillaise in full voice, in one breath, with tears in your eyes ”(208). Indeed, many inhabitants of France heard the call from London and fulfilled de Gaulle's wishes.
On July 28, the general, in confirmation of his idea of expanding the organization he had created, introduced the socialist Andre Philip, who had come from France, to the French National Committee. He was appointed Commissioner of the Interior.
Committee meetings were held in London at Carlton Gardens 4. Here is how Jacques Soustel described them. “De Gaulle always tried to make the meetings of the committee at least more or less resemble the meetings of the Council of Ministers. But the atmosphere that reigned in them did not resemble, as there, a funeral. De Gaulle presided. He sat in a wood-panelled room under a large wall clock. On the table in front of him were scattered cigarettes, which he lit one after another. The discussions were very lively. Everyone present vigorously defended his point of view, and the chairman himself did not neglect to participate in the discussions. Upon returning to his office, he patiently considered thousands of requests and complaints that came to him from the "free French" (among them there were even complaints from wives upset by the windy behavior of their husbands). Then he, together with his employees and visitors, discussed the military and political situation” (209).
Tobacco was de Gaulle's real passion. He smoked forty cigarettes a day plus two cigars. The general also always had a flask of light, sweet, almost non-alcoholic champagne with him. From time to time he sipped from it a small sip (210).
From the beginning of August to the end of September 1942, de Gaulle made a long journey through the territories of the "fighting French" in Africa and the Middle East. On August 5, he leaves for Cairo. The general arrived in the Egyptian capital almost simultaneously with Churchill, who was on his way to Moscow via Tehran to meet with Stalin.
The head of the Fighting France also wanted to visit Moscow. On August 8 in London, Professor Dejan appeared on his behalf to Bogomolov and declared: “If the Soviet government wants to invite de Gaulle to Moscow for a personal meeting, then he will be very glad to accept such an invitation, using his stay in the Middle East as an opportunity for a visit to USSR" (211). On the same day, Roger Garraud met in Moscow with Deputy People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vladimir Georgievich Dekanozov and said: “De Gaulle is in Cairo. He would be ready, if the Soviet government considers it desirable, to arrive in Moscow for 2-3 days" (212). However, de Gaulle did not receive an invitation to come to the capital of the USSR. Garro complained about this to the Secretary of the Comintern, Andre Marty. “What a pity,” he stressed in the conversation, “that de Gaulle's request to invite him here did not give him any answer. This is the only case in my thirty-year career that since August 8 I have not received any answer after meeting with Dekanozov. I understand when they explain to me that the situation is unsuccessful. But what does the general think now, without receiving any answer from me on his request? (213)
Indeed, Stalin had no time for de Gaulle. The Germans went to Stalingrad. And Great Britain, because of the great danger on the northern seas, temporarily refused to send convoys with military cargo to Arkhangelsk. The question of opening the Second Front was also postponed. Stalin talked about all this with Churchill in Moscow on August 12. And so far de Gaulle has been able to obtain from the USSR only permission to create the French Normandy squadron for its subsequent dispatch to the Eastern Front.
Having traveled around his African possessions, on September 25, 1942, de Gaulle returned to London. He was not happy with the position of the Fighting France. The situation with Lebanon, Syria and Madagascar remained a stumbling block between him and the allies. The general stubbornly sought to have Britain and the United States recognize his authority over these territories. But Churchill and Roosevelt were in no hurry to do this and generally considered de Gaulle's claims unfounded.
On September 30, the head of the Fighting France once again, in a personal meeting, tried to demand from the Prime Minister of England the recognition of priority rights to Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar. However, Churchill did not give in. De Gaulle was furious and declared that he would put an end to their cooperation. Then the British Prime Minister shouted:
“You say you are France! In fact, you are not France! I do not recognize you as France. Where is your France?
De Gaulle tried to restrain himself, but nevertheless did not fail to remark: “If I am not France, then why are you having this conversation with me?” But Churchill did not let up: “Your worst enemy is yourself. It's impossible to work with you. You sow discord wherever you appear ... Instead of waging war with Germany, you are waging it with Great Britain ”(214). The interlocutors parted, without agreeing on anything.
In his memoirs, Churchill described de Gaulle as follows: “I knew that he was not a friend of England, but I always recognized in him the spirit and idea that would forever establish the word “France” on the pages of history. I understood him and, indignantly, at the same time admired his arrogant behavior. An emigrant who left his country, sentenced to death, he was completely dependent on the goodwill of the British government, and then the government of the United States. The Germans took over his homeland, he had nowhere real point supports. However, he resisted everything. Always, even when he acted in the worst way, he seemed to express the individuality of France, the great state with all its pride, power and ambition ”(215). But these lines were written after the war, when both politicians were no longer in business. In the meantime, the head of the Fighting France will have to defend its right to exist before the allies more than once.
In October, de Gaulle received the leaders of the Resistance in London. In France, Jean Moulin in the southern zone and Gilbert Renault (known under the pseudonym of Colonel Remy) in the part of the country occupied by the Germans were engaged in the unification of various groups into a single whole. De Gaulle instructed Remy to get in touch with the Communists, who played a decisive role in the resistance movement, and ask them to send their representative to London. However, the leader of the underground PCF, Jacques Duclos, who received directives from Moscow from the leaders of the Comintern, Georgy Dimitrov and Andre Marty, and Maurice Thorez, who was in the USSR, has not yet contacted the Gaullists.
At the end of October, de Gaulle traveled with inspections to the British ports where they were based naval forces"Fighting French". The general saw his son, was able to spend a little time with him, to rest and relax. They passed at dusk along the harbor of Portsmouth. De Gaulle thoughtfully, as in his youth, looked into the distance. He so wanted to see the French coast. How many seas he has seen during the war years! The general recalled the huge blue and white waves of the Atlantic Ocean approaching the capital of Gabon, Libreville, the azure waters of the Mediterranean Sea, splashing off the coast of Beirut. And now these harsh gray waves, breaking to smithereens on the British cliffs. Looking at them, de Gaulle quietly read to his son the lines of Hugo's poem:
Darkness hears
How does he breathe
In space
November brought new trials to the head of the Fighting France, in comparison with which the previous ones seemed not so serious. On November 8, 1942, a large Anglo-American landing began under the command of General Dwight Eisenhower in Algiers. Roosevelt and Churchill decided to seize French North Africa, where there was a large Vichy military contingent. The Americans found two high-ranking French soldiers who, according to their plan, were supposed to help them win over the Vichy officers and soldiers in Algeria to the side of the Allies. The first was Admiral François Darlan, Deputy Prime Minister of the Vichy government, commander of the surviving part of the French squadron. The second is Army General Henri Giraud, who fled from German captivity and settled in the southern zone. Darlan was in Algiers allegedly by accident. The Americans themselves took Giraud out of France. The admiral ordered the troops in North Africa not to resist the formations of the allies and declared that he was taking power "in the name of the marshal." The Americans immediately appointed him High Commissioner for North Africa. In response to this german army occupied the southern zone of France, Corsica and Tunisia.
The allies did not even warn de Gaulle about the impending operation, he simply faced the fact of their actions behind his back. The general's mood was subdued. He understood that everything that happened was planned and carried out by the Americans. On November 14, de Gaulle indignantly wrote to Churchill: “The coming to power of Darlan in North Africa with the help of the Americans and “on behalf of the marshal” is, in my opinion, one of the main events of this war. I think that this fact will have more serious consequences for the French nation than the capitulation of Bordeaux. The French people now understand that the United States no longer only recognizes a power based on the betrayal of France and its allies, tyrannical, inspired by the Nazis and consisting of people collaborating with the Germans, but has itself joined this power, this regime and these people. 217). However, de Gaulle also had no illusions about Churchill. He understood that everything was done with his consent. The general had long considered the British prime minister "Roosevelt's lieutenant" (218).
On November 19, the head of the Fighting France sent a message to all allied governments: “It is quite obvious that the anger, bitterness and stunnedness provoked in France by this political operation made such a terrible impression on the resistance of the French people and their confidence in the allies that it was even impossible imagine” (219).
After such statements, de Gaulle was deprived of the opportunity to speak on the BBC. He had to use radio stations in Beirut and Brazzaville to broadcast. True, on December 14 Eden finally signed an agreement with the general on the transfer of power in Madagascar to the French National Committee. The head of the Fighting France was satisfied with this event. However, with all his thoughts, he had already rushed to Algeria. De Gaulle understood that they were trying to remove him from participation in important events, he, the only Frenchman who called on his people to continue to fight, the founder of Free France, who achieved so much in two and a half years solely by his own efforts, will and perseverance! No, he won't let that happen.
And the general begins to act again. He knew that there were also his supporters in Algeria. In addition, almost all the forces of the Resistance movement are behind him. Darlan, like any other Vichy, was considered by de Gaulle to be a traitor with whom nothing could be done. But the general wanted to meet with Giraud, but he refused. Then the head of the Fighting France succeeded in sending his representative, General Francois d'Astier de La Vigerie, brother of the writer Emmanuel, to Algeria. In the Algerian capital, Darlan's entourage included another of their brothers, Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie. De Gaulle's envoy was to study the situation on the spot and report it to the general.
François d'Astier de La Vigerie stayed in Algiers from 19 to 22 December. And on December 24, Admiral Darlan was shot dead in his office by a student at the University of Algiers, Fernand Bonier de La Chapelle. The next day, the student was shot without trial or investigation. Who was behind the assassination of the admiral? So far, it has not been possible to unravel the intricacies of the Algerian events of the distant December 1942. Bonnier de La Chapelle's friend Philippe Raguenaud claimed that at that time they decided with their small student group of patriots that they would kill the traitor admiral. They drew lots. It fell to Fernand (220) to go "to an appointment" with the High Commissioner. De Gaulle himself emphasized many years later that Vichy Darlan "was not killed, but executed" (221). Be that as it may, the head of the Fighting France did not grieve over the death of the admiral. He took this fact calmly, like a Christian and a military man. Even when in 1916 and 1940 the units entrusted to him suffered heavy losses, he simply said: "Our regiment has lost enough feathers" (222). Darlan, of course, was not a feather, but a large bird. Well, so what? They sent him to the forefathers, and now only God can judge him.
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The French Resistance Movement is the common name for several national liberation movements that operated on the territory of the occupied country in 1940-1944. common goal resistance participants was the struggle for the liberation of the republic from the Germans.
Until 1943, there were several leading centers, which were then united under one French Committee of National Liberation.
Members of the Resistance
The exact number of people who took part in the struggle for the liberation of France is still unknown to historians. Archival documents and memoirs of members of the Resistance Movement allow scientists to name data of 350-500 thousand people. These are very approximate figures, since a huge number of organizations, absolutely unrelated to each other, fought against the fascist regime.
Among the main currents that were represented in the Resistance, it is worth noting such as:
- Communist, represented by members of the Communist Party of France;
- The partisan movement, which was called "Maki";
- The Vichy movement, which included supporters of the Vichy puppet government. Members of this direction supported the French resistance, giving it all kinds of support, but officially they were on the side of Vichy;
- Free French Movement led by General Charles de Gaulle.
Separately, in the Resistance it is necessary to single out representatives of other nationalities:
- German anti-fascists;
- Spaniards, who were represented by various national and political forces (Basques, Catalans, supporters of the left, etc.);
- Former Soviet prisoners of war who organized about 35 partisan detachments in France;
- Ukrainians;
- Jews;
- Armenians;
- Kazakhs.
People from different countries of the world fell into the Resistance after they managed to escape from German concentration camps. Some representatives of national minorities, for example, Armenians and Jews, living in the country, in response to persecution by the Germans, created their own combat units.
"Poppies" and "Free France"
The key players in the Resistance Movement were the Maquis partisan detachments and the Free French national liberation movement.
The "Maki" partisans were created mainly in the mountains of the country, where the citizens of the republic fled in order not to get into the Vichy labor detachments. At first, people created small, unconnected groups. They had practically no weapons and leaders. After a while, the partisan detachments turned into well-organized structures that fought against the Nazis. Although initially the "poppies" sought to simply preserve personal freedom and life. The detachments included many Jews, Englishmen, as well as those who were persecuted by Vichy supporters or the German occupation authorities.
The main regions of partisan activity were:
- Alps;
- Mountainous Brittany;
- Southern France;
- Limousin.
The partisans wore the so-called Basque berets, which distinguished them from other members of the Resistance.
French political and military forces organized in 1940 an organization that went down in history under the name "Free France". The patriotic trend was led by the General of the French Army, Charles de Gaulle, who led the detachments from London, where the headquarters of the organization was located. Her task was to liberate the country from the Nazis and the Vichy collaborationist government. Unlike the Maquis partisans, the members of the Free French were well armed, trained, and had combat experience. Charles de Gaulle and his subordinates were officially recognized as member countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, which allowed the general to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, England and the United States. Based on the organization of de Gaulle in 1943-1944. a provisional government of France was formed.
Main stages of activity
- 1940-1941 - organizational design of the Movement, establishing contacts between the currents. At the same time, the intelligence of the puppet state began to monitor the small groups of the Resistance, which by June 1941 were already more than 100 throughout France. In 1940, a mass demonstration of students and young people took place on the Champs Elysees, who protested against the closure of the university in Paris. The demonstration was also supported by ordinary Parisians, who gradually joined the ranks of the demonstrators. The Germans opened fire on the activists, many of whom were armed. The demonstration ended with mass arrests, the death of civilians and invaders. The next highlight in the Resistance Movement was the miners' strike in Pas de Calais (May 1941);
- From 1941 to 1943 - the national liberation trend becomes massive, structured, the goals of the Movement begin to change. The liberation of the country from collaborators and Germans comes to the fore. The number of participants in the current grew every day, which was associated with events on the fronts of the Second World War;
- 1943-1944 - the creation of the Committee of National Liberation, headed by Charles de Gaulle. Military issues were dealt with by a specially created Military Council. Numerous committees were set up throughout France to deal with issues of national liberation. They included representatives from all political forces, parties, military structures and organizations, partisan detachments and the underground.
Fighting methods
- Attack on German and French soldiers, policemen, representatives of the Vichy government;
- Numerous sabotage actions on railways, production;
- Undermining bridges and railways;
- Destruction of military materials that the German army needed;
- Attack on military factories;
- Actions of civil disobedience were frequent;
- Help for victims of political, racial and religious persecution;
- Public strikes.
Members of the French Resistance helped bring down the Vichy regime and liberate France from the invaders. In May 1944 de Gaulle's provisional government was formed. Most members of the Movement then joined the ranks of the regular units of the Allied armies in order to continue the struggle against the fascist regime of Hitler.
On June 3, 1943, in Algeria, after negotiations between the head of the French National Committee, General Charles de Gaulle, and the head of the French administration and army commander in North Africa, Henri Giraud, an organ of central French power, the French Committee of National Liberation (FKNO), was established.
The committee represented the state interests of the French Republic in the international arena and led the actions of the French in the fight against the Nazis and collaborators. On August 26, 1943, the French Committee recognized the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. The FKNO expressed its readiness to fight the fascist regimes until complete victory, and then restore the former republican system, legislative, executive and judicial system in France. In November 1943, the committee included representatives of some organizations of the internal Resistance Movement. The power of the FKNO was recognized by almost all French colonies and a significant part of the armed forces. On June 2, 1944, the FKNO was transformed into the Provisional Government of the French Republic.
From France during World War II
France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, after Germany attacked Poland on September 1. However, France and England, believing that Berlin would start a war with Moscow, did not conduct real hostilities on the Western Front - the so-called Strange War was going on. The German military-political leadership initially justified the hopes of the allies - all their main forces were occupied with the occupation of Poland, and the German troops did not take any decisive action on the Western Front. However, Hitler was not going to fight with the USSR, leaving behind the Anglo-French group mobilized and ready to strike.
Responsibility for the defeat of France in World War II lies with the French ruling elite, including the governments of Edouard Daladier (French Prime Minister in 1933, 1934, 1938-1940). France had significant military, economic, economic resources (including a colonial empire) to prevent or nip war in the bud. France had many allies in Europe - Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece and other states, relying on which it was possible to prevent Germany's aggression. However, France, together with England, consistently "appeased" (contributed to) the aggressor, surrendering one position after another, giving entire countries to the sphere of influence of Germany. Even when the Second World War began, England and France had the strength to defeat Germany, as long as she was tied up in a war with Poland. And the rapid defeat of the allies in the French campaign on May 10 - June 22, 1940 raises a number of questions. With more competent and decisive resistance, France, England, Belgium and the Netherlands had all the resources to at least drag out the war, to make it not a walk for the Germans, but a difficult and bloody conflict. Therefore, it is quite possible that part of the French elite simply “leaked” the country, which was more in this - stupidity, or betrayal national interests, for the sake of the interests of international (cosmopolitan) elite groups, is another matter.
The cabinets of Daladier and Paul Reynaud (headed the government March 21 - June 16, 1940), referring to the wartime situation, gradually eliminated democratic freedoms. In September 1939, martial law was introduced on the territory of the French state. Demonstrations, meetings, rallies and strikes were banned. The media were heavily censored. Holidays and the 40-hour work week were abolished. Wages were "frozen" at pre-war levels.
It must be said that Paul Reynaud was one of the rare sensible politicians in the pre-war history of France who called for rearmament and warned of the threat of strengthening Nazi Germany. He supported Charles de Gaulle's theory of mechanized warfare as opposed to the doctrine of passive defense, which was supported by most politicians and the military, influenced by the successes of the army in the First World War. He offered to improve relations with the USSR as opposed to Germany. Reynaud also opposed the German appeasement policy. As Minister of Finance in 1938-1940. he carried out successful transformations that led to significant industrial growth and an increase in the country's cash reserves. The battle for France began less than two months after Reynaud took office, so he no longer had the opportunity to change the situation. Everything that could be done to ensure that France was defeated and ceased to be a threat to Nazi Germany, had already been done.
On May 10, 1940, German troops crossed the border between the Netherlands and Belgium. Then the main forces of the Wehrmacht struck in the Sedan area, where the main fortifications of the Maginot Line ended. The front was broken through and the German troops went to the rear of the Anglo-French grouping and surrounded it near Dunkirk. But Hitler did not destroy the British troops, allowing them to evacuate, leaving behind heavy weapons. The German military-political leadership hoped for a political agreement with England; there was a powerful English party in the German elite. In general, Great Britain with its colonial empire was an example, a model of the "New World Order" that the Nazis planned to build. And England was to become part of the "Eternal Reich".
The French troops, having lost the support of the British Expeditionary Force, hastily retreated. May 25 Commander-in-Chief of the French armed forces General Maxim Weygand informed the government that it was necessary to capitulate. On June 10, German troops occupied Paris without a fight, and the French government moved to Bordeaux.
Prime Minister Paul Reynaud and Interior Minister Georges Mandel offered to fight to the end - to take the government and parliament to Algeria, to fight the Germans in Brittany, southern France and the colonies. But neither the President of the French Republic, nor the absolute majority of deputies wanted to go to North Africa. Weygand and Marshal Pétain were against the fight. Thus, France, not having exhausted all possibilities for resistance, went to a separate agreement with Germany. Reynaud refused to participate in the betrayal of the country and resigned on June 16. Until the end of the war, he was in a concentration camp, Mendel also ended up in a concentration camp and was killed by collaborators.
The new government was headed by Henri Philippe Pétain. He finished the First World War with the rank of marshal, was considered one of the heroes of this war. In the 1930s, he was proposed by the right as the leader of France. On June 17, the new French government asked Germany for an armistice. On June 22, 1940, the Second Compiegne Armistice was concluded, France capitulated to Germany. On June 25 hostilities officially ended. Approximately 60% of the territory of France, including the north and west of the country, Paris and the entire Atlantic coast, was occupied by German troops. The French army was disarmed, handing over heavy weapons to the Wehrmacht, and minimal formations were maintained to maintain order, the number of which was determined by Germany and Italy. French prisoners of war (about 1.5 million people) were to remain in the camps until the end of hostilities in Western Europe. France paid a large indemnity. In the south, a puppet state was created - the Vichy Regime (official name - the French State). In the resort town of Vichy, in July 1940, the National Assembly was assembled, which transferred dictatorial power to Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain. This led to the official end of the Third Republic. The posts of President of the Republic and Chairman of the Council of Ministers were abolished. The sittings of Parliament have been suspended.
The Pétain government in domestic policy was guided by traditional conservative values, and in foreign policy - by an alliance with Germany. The "National Revolution" was announced, the motto "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity" was replaced by "Labour, Family, Fatherland". Repressions were carried out against Jews, Gypsies, Communists, Masons. Both the German punitive structures - the SS and the Gestapo, and their own - the "Militia" operated in the "Free Zone". There was a supply of labor to Germany (a total of about 1 million people), in exchange, Berlin freed some of the prisoners. Almost the entire economy served the interests of the Third Reich. Up to 80% of all French enterprises carried out military orders from Germany. Up to three-quarters of French raw materials and 50-100% of finished products from enterprises in the main industries were exported to the Reich. All political parties and major trade unions were disbanded. All meetings, demonstrations, rallies and strikes were strictly prohibited. All the fullness of the executive and legislative power was transferred to the head of state - Pétain. The senior leadership included Admiral Francois Darlan, Pierre Laval, Pierre-Etienne Flandin and Charles-Leon-Clement Huntziger.
The Vichy regime was initially able to retain most of its overseas possessions. True, some of them were later captured by Britain, others came under the control of the pro-British "Free (Fighting) France" of General de Gaulle. Insignificant French military formations, as well as volunteers, fought on the side of Germany on the Eastern Front against the USSR.
Formally, the Pétain government also received the entire fleet. Part of it was destroyed and captured by the British (Operation Catapult). In England itself, two old battleships, two destroyers, several torpedo boats and submarines were captured. On July 3, 1940, the British attacked the French squadron at Mers-el-Kebir, but could not destroy it. Most of ships broke into France. The main body of the French navy was scuttled at Toulon on November 27, 1942, with the sanction of the Vichy government, so that they would not fall into Germany.
"Free France"
Simultaneously with the existence of Vichy collaborators, the history of its Resistance Movement began. It was associated with the name of an outstanding French military, political and statesman, "the last great Frenchman" - General Charles de Gaulle. Charles de Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 into a noble family. He was brought up in the spirit of faith and patriotism. Participated in the First World War, in the rank of captain was seriously wounded and taken prisoner, where he remained until the end of the war. After captivity, he taught the theory of tactics in Poland, and even took part in the Soviet-Polish war a little. In the 1930s, lieutenant colonel, and then colonel de Gaulle became famous as a military theorist, author of a number of works, where he pointed out the need for a comprehensive development mechanized troops, as the main tool in a future war. He was a resolute opponent of the defensive tactics developed at the General Staff of the French Army, which was based on the idea of the impregnability of the "Maginot Line" and warned of the destructiveness of such views. According to his ideas, P. Reino prepared a military reform plan, but it was rejected. By the beginning of World War II, he was the commander of tank troops. On May 14, 1940, de Gaulle was given command of the emerging 4th tank division, and from June 1, he temporarily acted as a brigadier general. On June 6, Prime Minister Paul Reynaud appointed de Gaulle as deputy minister of war. The general was an active supporter of the idea of continuing the war, based on the colonies, the evacuation of the government to Africa. However, Reynaud and de Gaulle lost to the defeatist party.
At the time of Reynaud's resignation de Gaulle was in England. He didn't admit defeat. On June 18, his speech was broadcast, in which the general called for resistance. He accused the Pétain regime of betrayal and declared that "with a full sense of duty he speaks on behalf of France." He asked all the French to unite around him "in the name of action, self-sacrifice and hope." This is how the "Free France" appeared - an organization that was supposed to resist the invaders and the Vichy collaborationist regime, to recreate the republic. The collaborationist regime sentenced the general to death in absentia for "desertion" and "treason."
At first, de Gaulle had to face enormous difficulties. In fact, he was alone and had no financial means, no name, no legitimacy. Churchill's support played a decisive role. This determined the pro-British nature of the organization. De Gaulle was forced to take this step because there was no choice. The British sought to create an alternative to the Vichy government. This center was a military tool - it attracted French officers, soldiers, specialists who were ready to continue the fight. It also became a political solution to the problem - on June 28, 1940, de Gaulle was recognized as "the head of all free French." It should be noted that de Gaulle did not become an obedient tool in the hands of London, he was a real patriot who tried to defend the interests of France.
If at the end of 1940 there were only 7 thousand people in the movement, then in less than two years this number increased tenfold. On August 7, 1940, de Gaulle and Churchill signed an agreement that dealt with the organization and use of French volunteer units in England. Their supreme commander was a French general, and they had to act in accordance with the general directives of the British government. The British provided de Gaulle with regular financial support, allowed him to create a civil and military organization, and also through the BBC radio station to carry out propaganda broadcasts to France.
Initially, de Gaulle directed his main efforts to establishing control over the French colonies, primarily in Africa. The general began active campaigning in favor of continuing the struggle and joining the Free French. But the civil administration in North Africa categorically refused to join the Free French, supporting the Vichy regime. The colonies of French Equatorial Africa were set up differently. Already in 1940, Chad, Congo, Ubangi-Shari, Gabon, Cameroon crossed over to the Free French side. Also supported several small holdings in the Pacific. This was de Gaulle's first great success. True, in September 1940 there was a big failure - the expedition to capture Dakar failed. Nevertheless, General de Gaulle received his own territorial base in Africa and was able to start creating a state apparatus.
On October 27, 1940, de Gaulle issued a Manifesto regarding the leadership of the French during the war, where he criticized the cabinet, where he criticized the Pétain cabinet. At the end of 1940, the Department of Political Affairs was created. It consisted of the General Staff and the Information Service. Three bureaus were subordinate to them: the first determined the current tasks; the second was the executive body (Central Bureau of Information and Action); the third - to establish ties with foreign countries. In September 1941, the general established a body temporarily exercising the functions of state power - the National Committee. It became a provisional government. The committee included: Rene Pleven - coordinated the activities of the committee, Maurice Dejan - was responsible for relations with other states, Paul Legantiom - military affairs, etc.
In the summer of 1941, the British occupied Syria and Lebanon, previously controlled by France. In the spring of 1942, England captured Madagascar. London planned to establish its power in these French possessions. But de Gaulle showed great perseverance and, at the cost of enormous efforts, joined Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar to the Free French movement. Gradually, de Gaulle was recognized as a leader by many organizations and groups of the internal Resistance. The general went to cooperate with the French communists.
The German attack on the USSR and the rupture of diplomatic relations between the Vichy regime and the Soviet Union led to another victory for de Gaulle. On September 26, 1941, Moscow recognized de Gaulle as the leader of all free French. A. E. Bogomolov, who was the plenipotentiary representative of the USSR under Vichy, in early November 1941 received the status of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Soviet Union to the allied governments in London. He began to maintain ties with the Free French. De Gaulle was represented in Moscow by Roger Garrot, Raymond Schmittlen and the military representative, General Ernest Petit. The United States recognized the authority of the National Committee in the Pacific Islands only in March 1942. And in July 1942, the American government published a communiqué recognizing the organization headed by General de Gaulle.
French Committee of National Liberation
Britain and the United States promised the USSR to land troops in Western Europe, but instead they decided to land landing forces in Algiers and Morocco, which were controlled by the Vichy troops. The Americans did not want to get involved in the conflict and were looking for a person who could solve the matter peacefully. For this role, they had two candidates - Admiral Francois Darlan and Henri Giraud. The Americans were ready to put this or that military man in the place of de Gaulle, who was too intractable and ambitious.
On November 8, 1942, Operation Torch began - Anglo-American forces landed on the territory of Algeria and Morocco. Vichy troops put up minimal resistance. Darlan ordered the French troops to cease hostilities and received the post of High Representative of France in North and West Africa. However, on December 24, he was assassinated by a monarchist. His post was taken by Giraud. Thus, some of the high-ranking Vichy went over to the side of the Allies. Majority French forces in Africa supported Darlan (Giraud), but some joined the German troops in Tunisia. The Germans, in response to this operation, occupied the southern part of France and an effort to have a military presence in Africa (occupied Tunisia).
Giraud was a protege of the United States and supported by Roosevelt. Giraud was not opposed to uniting with the "Fighting France", but having the support of the Americans behind him, a large military group in Africa and surpassing Brigadier General de Gaulle in rank, he believed that he should head the provisional government. In January 1943, a conference of great powers was held in Casablanca, and the "French question" was also raised at it. The United States and Great Britain decided to unite the groups led by de Gaulle and Giraud. But they ran into difficulties. De Gaulle refused to allow the National Committee he headed to be in a subordinate position.
De Gaulle began a new struggle for recognition. De Gaulle wanted to visit Moscow, enlist the support of his most important ally in the anti-Hitler coalition. However, Moscow did not accept him, although it made it clear that it preferred de Gaulle over Giraud. In May 1943, he managed to unite in the National Council of the Resistance representatives of the 16 main organizations that fought for the liberation of France. It included the Communist and Socialist parties, the General Confederation of Labor, Christian trade unions, and the main right-wing patriotic movements. Jean Moulin became the first chairman of the council, and after his death, Georges Bidault. The Internal Resistance had a negative attitude towards Giraud and refused to obey him.
Having learned the support of the internal Resistance, de Gaulle was able to continue negotiations on unification with Giraud. The Americans and the British invited Giraud to agree to de Gaulle's proposal. De Gaulle and his supporters announced a compromise solution - to create a government institution to be headed by two chairmen. The leaders of the United States and Great Britain, as well as General Giraud, agreed to such a proposal. On June 3, 1943, in Algiers, de Gaulle and Giraud signed a document that created the French Committee of National Liberation (FKNO). It included de Gaulle and Giraud as chairmen, as well as 5 more people - Generals Catrou and Georges, André Philip, Rene Massigli and Jean Monnet. The French committee set the task of complete liberation of French lands, war until victory over all hostile powers and the restoration of the republic. In 1943, they created a kind of parliament - the Provisional Consultative Assembly. At the end of August 1943, the FKNO was simultaneously recognized by the USSR, England, the USA, and over the next weeks about 20 more states.