The main phase of generating a speech utterance. Stages of generating a speech statement and the specifics of their violation in various forms of speech pathology
§ 6. Model of the generation mechanism speech utterance by a. A. Leontiev
On the basis of numerous experimental data and analysis of theoretical studies of the leading psycholinguists of the world, A. A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating speech utterance occupies a central place *.
According to the model of A. A. Leontiev, the process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages (or “phases”).
§ The starting point (“source”) of the statement is the motive. Motivation gives rise to speech intention (intention) - the orientation of the consciousness, will, feelings of the individual to some object (in our case - to the subject of speech activity). “The starting point for any statement is a motive ... that is, the need to express, convey certain information” (123, p. 41).
Considering this stage of speech production, A. A. Leontiev gives a very successful, in his opinion, definition of J. Miller - “the image of the result”. “At this stage, the speaker has the “Image of the result” .., but does not yet have the Plan of action that he must take in order to get this result” *. According to B. Skinner, the motive of a speech statement can be: a requirement (to perform a certain action) or “mands”, an informational appeal (message) - a “tact” and, finally, a desire to express in an expanded language form (i.e., to formulate ) any thought - "cept" (342). The motive itself does not have a clearly defined content.
§ At the next stage of generating a speech statement, the motive for speech action brings to life an idea, which, in turn, is “transformed” into a generalized semantic scheme of the statement. Based on theoretical concept A. R. Luria, A. A. Leontiev believes that at the stage of conception, for the first time, the theme and rheme of the future statement are singled out and differentiated, i.e., it is determined what needs to be said (the subject of the statement or its theme) and what exactly is needed to say about this subject (situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality) is the rheme of the statement. At this stage of speech generation, these two main structural-semantic components of the utterance "exist" (and, accordingly, are perceived by the speaker) "globally", w. n. simultaneous, undivided form (123, 124).
§ The next - the key stage of generating speech - the stage of internal programming. A. A. Leontiev put forward a position on the internal programming of an utterance, considered as a process of constructing a certain scheme, on the basis of which a speech utterance is generated. Such programming can be of two types: programming of a separate concrete utterance and speech whole (122, p. 7).
Based on the views of L. S. Vygotsky concerning psychological analysis process of speech, A. A. Leontiev believes that when generating a separate RT, programming consists in two interrelated processes of operating with units of the internal (subjective) code. This includes: a) attributing to these units a certain semantic load; b) construction of a functional hierarchy of these units. The second process forms the basis of the syntactic organization of the future utterance (123, p. 183).
The main operations on the basis of which the this stage constructing a speech utterance are:
§ Operations for determining the main semantic elements (semantic "links" or units) of the subject content of a speech statement. These elements (in their potentially possible number) correspond to the really existing elements (objects) of the subject content of that fragment of the surrounding reality, which should be displayed in this speech statement. As part of these operations, the operation of choosing those units of semantic content (out of all possible ones) that are “relevant” for the speaker or writer in a given situation of speech communication is very important. The latter, in turn, is determined by the motives and target setting of the speech of the first subject of speech activity (speaking or writing).
§ The operation of determining the "hierarchy" of semantic units in the "context" of the future RW, the definition of the main and secondary, "main" and clarifying points in the content of the speech statement. At the same time, it is important what the speaker's attention is focused on (for example, on the subject or object of the statement), what are his attitudes towards the listener. “The internal program of an utterance is a hierarchy of propositions underlying it. This hierarchy is formed by the speaker on the basis of a certain strategy of orientation in the described situation, depending on the “cognitive weight” of one or another component of this situation” (139, p. 114). Thus, the well-known example of L. S. Vygotsky: “Today I saw a boy in a blue blouse and barefoot running down the street” (50, p. - secondary.
§ The operation of determining the sequence of displaying semantic elements in a speech statement.
As A. A. Leontiev points out, there are three main types of processes for operating with "units" of programming. Firstly, this is an inclusion operation, when one code unit (image) receives two or more functional characteristics of different "depth". For example: (CAT + scientist + walks). Secondly, the enumeration operation, when one code unit receives characteristics of the same “depth” (mighty + TRIB + dashing). Thirdly, this is the articulation operation, which is a special case of the inclusion operation and occurs when the functional characteristic refers simultaneously to two code units: KOLDUN + (carries + (bogatyr)) or ((sorcerer) + carries) + BOGATYR (139, with .115). Based on N. I. Zhinkin’s concept of inner speech codes, A. A. Leontiev believes that the nature (or “type”) of a programming code “can vary widely, but the most typical case is a secondary visual image that arises on a linguistic basis "(123, p. 184).
The compilation of a semantic program at the stage of internal programming is carried out on the basis of a special, very specific code of internal speech.
“The internal programming code is a subject-scheme or subject-graphic code according to N. I. Zhinkin. In other words, programming is based on an image to which a certain semantic characteristic is attributed... This semantic characteristic is the predicate for this element. ... But what happens next depends on which component is the main one for us” (139, p. 115).
§ The next stage of speech production is the stage of lexical and grammatical deployment of the statement. Within its framework, in turn, non-linear and linear stages of lexico-grammatical structuring are distinguished.
The non-linear stage consists in the translation of a compiled (semantic) program from a subjective (individual) code to an objective (generally used) language code, in “attributing” to semantic units (semantic elements) a “functional load”, which is based on grammatical characteristics. According to A. A. Leontiev, this process can be schematically represented as follows: “meaning” (a semantic unit, the carrier of which is an image-representation) - a word (as a lexeme) - the required grammatical form of a word (word form).
The main operation that implements this sub-stage is the operation of selecting words (less often whole phrases) to designate elements of the semantic program - semantic units of the subjective code. The choice of words in the process of generating speech, according to A. A. Leontiev, is determined by three groups of factors: associative-semantic characteristics of words, their sound appearance and subjective probabilistic characteristics (123, p. 186).
According to A. A. Leontiev, the stage of the lexico-grammatical deployment of RW can be correlated with the transition from the plane of inner speech to the semantic plane (according to L. S. Vygotsky). As a result of its implementation, a set of language units of an objective code is created, for example, a set of words like: “Girl / apple | red / is "*.
The "linear deployment" of RT consists in its grammatical structuring - the creation of an appropriate grammatical construction of the sentence. At the same time, based on the selection of the "initial" predicative pair (subject - predicate), the syntactic "prediction" of the statement begins to be carried out. The process of grammatical structuring includes:
§ finding (selection from the available "standards") grammatical construction;
§ determining the place of the element (chosen by the meaning of the word) in the syntactic structure and endowing it with grammatical characteristics,
§ performance of a role determined by the grammatical form of the first (or key) word in a phrase or sentence. For example, the fulfillment of "grammatical obligations" determined by the type of phrase (the word being defined > the grammatical form of the word being defined; the "core" word > the form of the controlled word, etc.).
The successive elements of the created statement are assigned all the parameters that they lack for a complete linguistic characteristic: a) a place in the general syntactic scheme of the statement; b) "grammatical obligations", that is, a specific morphological realization of a place in general scheme a plus grammatical features; c) a complete set of semantic features; d) a complete set of acoustic-articulatory (or graphic) features (139, p. 117) Providing a word (lexeme) with grammatical characteristics involves choosing the desired word form from the corresponding number of grammatical forms of the word.
This stage ends with intellectual operations of the semantic-syntactic "prediction" of the correspondence of the speech statement prepared for implementation to its "target setting" (in other words, it is determined whether the composed speech statement corresponds to the tasks of speech communication). The compiled version of the speech statement is correlated with its program, the general "context" of speech and the situation of speech communication. Based on the results of such an analysis, the subject of the RD makes a decision to move to the final phase of composing a speech statement - the phase of its external implementation. There are three possible “solutions” here: the decision to “launch” RV during external plan, i.e., about his "voicing"; the decision to make "adjustments" to the content or language design of the RT and, finally, the decision to cancel the speech action. (For example, a variant of the implementation of RD in a dialogical form, when one of the participants in the communication process, who “prepared” a clarifying question during the perception of the interlocutor’s speech, suddenly, unexpectedly receives information of interest to him from his dialogue partner. In this case, his own RT of a “clarifying nature "becomes redundant.)
§ final stage the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "on the external plane" (in "external speech"). This stage is carried out on the basis of a number of interrelated operations that provide the process of phonation, sound formation, reproduction of successive sound combinations (syllables), operations of producing entire “semantic” sound complexes (words), operations that provide the required (in accordance with the semantic program and language norm) rhythmic- melodic and melodic-intonational organization of speech. This process is carried out on the basis of the implementation of phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic "automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding pronunciation skills.
As A. A. Leontiev emphasizes, the scheme of the process of speech generation presented above “appears in a more or less complete form in spontaneous (unprepared) oral monologue speech: in other types of speech it can be reduced or significantly changed - up to the inclusion of the first signal (according to I. P. Pavlov) speech reactions” (139, pp. 113-114).
Thus, the model of speech generation proposed by A. A. Leontiev is based on the conceptual idea of “internal programming”. Scientific views A. A. Leontieva, as T. V. Akhutina points out, largely determined many modern studies of not only domestic, but also a number of foreign scientists on this issue (14, 42, 93, 98, 212, etc.).
A similar model of speech production, fundamentally close to the model of A. A. Leontiev, was proposed by I. A. Zimnyaya (1984, 2001, etc.). Defining speech as a way of forming and formulating thoughts, I. A. Zimnyaya identifies three main levels of the process of speech production: motivational-motivating, formative (with two sublevels - meaning-forming and formulating) and realizing.
The motivating level, driven by the "internal image" of the reality to which the action is directed, is "the launch of the entire process of generating speech." Here the need (in utterance) finds "its definiteness" in the object of activity. The objectified motive becomes a thought that serves as an internal motive for speaking or writing (95).
In his concept of speech activity, I. A. Zimnyaya distinguishes between motive and communicative intention. “Communicative intention is what explains the nature and purpose of a given speech action. At this level, the speaker knows only what, and not what to say, that is, he knows the general subject or topic of the statement, as well as the form of interaction with the listener (whether it is necessary to ask him about something or give out any information). What to say is realized later” (95, p. 73).
The second stage - the process of formation and formulation of thought has two functionally different and at the same time interconnected phases. The meaning-forming phase forms and deploys the general idea of the speaker - I. A. Zimnyaya correlates this sublevel with “internal programming” according to the concept of A. A. Leontiev. According to I. A. Zimnyaya, the process of consistent formation and formulation of an idea through language is aimed simultaneously at nomination (designation) and predication, i.e., establishing connections of the “new - given” type. At this level, the idea is simultaneously implemented both in the spatial-conceptual scheme that actualizes the “nomination field” and in the temporal sweep scheme that actualizes the predication field. The spatial-conceptual scheme is a "grid" of relations of concepts, caused by the internal image of the objective relations of reality, which, in turn, is determined by the motive. The time base reflects the connection and sequence of concepts, and, accordingly, the sequence of elements of the semantic program, i.e., a kind of "grammar of thought" (95, 98).
According to the concept of I. A. Zimnyaya, the actualization of the conceptual field also actualizes its verbal (verbal) expression immediately both in the acoustic (auditory) and in the motor image. Simultaneously with the process of choosing words, the operations of their placement are carried out, i.e., the grammatical and syntactic design of the statement. Thus, the formative level of speech production, carried out by the phases of meaning-formation and formulation, simultaneously actualizes the mechanism for choosing words, the mechanism for time sweep and the articulatory program; the latter directly implements (“objectifies”) the idea in the process of forming and formulating thoughts through language (95, p. 78).
T. V. Akhutina distinguishes three levels of speech programming: internal (semantic) programming, grammatical structuring and motor kinetic organization of the utterance. They correspond to three operations of choosing the elements of the statement: the choice of semantic units (units of meaning), the choice of lexical units that are combined in accordance with the rules of grammatical structuring, and the choice of sounds. The author highlights the programming of both a detailed statement and individual sentences (12, 14, 200, etc.). At the same time, T. V. Akhutina offers the following description of the successive stages (“levels”) of speech production. At the level of the internal or semantic program of the utterance, “semantic syntaxing” and the choice of “meanings” in internal speech are carried out. At the level of the semantic structure of the sentence, semantic syntaxing and the choice of linguistic meanings of words take place. The level of the lexico-grammatical structure of the sentence corresponds to the grammatical structuring and choice of words (lexemes). Finally, motor (kinetic) programming and the choice of articles correspond to the level of the motor program of the syntagma.
The model of T. V. Chernigovskaya and V. L. Deglin (1984) was also built on neurolinguistic material. They distinguish several "deep levels of speech production". The first is the level of motive. The second one is deep-semantic, on which there is a global selection of the topic and rheme, i.e., the definition of “given” (“presuppositional”) and “new”. This is the level of “individual meanings” (according to L. S. Vygotsky). The next deep level is the level of propositioning, the identification of the figure and the object, the stage of translating "individual meanings" into generally valid concepts, the beginning of the simplest structuring of the future statement. And, finally, there is the deep-syntactic level, which forms concrete-linguistic syntactic structures (259, p. 42).
Thus, in the domestic school of psycholinguistics, the generation of a speech utterance is considered as a complex multi-level process. It begins with a motive, which is objectified in an idea, the idea is formed with the help of inner speech. Here the psychological “semantic” program of the utterance is formed, which “reveals the “intention” in its initial incarnation. It combines the answers to the questions: what to say? in what order and how to say? (80, 95). This program is then realized in external speech on the basis of the laws of grammar and syntax of the given language (98, etc.).
In the works of representatives of the Russian school of psycholinguistics, in addition to studying the patterns of the process of generating individual statements, various links in the mechanism for generating a text, considered as a product of speech activity, are analyzed (the function of inner speech, the creation of a “speech whole” program in the form of successive “semantic milestones”, the mechanism for translating the idea into hierarchically organized system of predicative links of the text, etc.). The role of long-term and short-term memory in the process of generating a speech utterance is emphasized (N. I. Zhinkin, A. A. Leontiev, I. A. Zimnyaya, etc.).
Psycholinguistic analysis of the mechanism of generating speech statements is most directly related to the theory and methodology of "speech" (in particular speech therapy) work; knowledge of these patterns, as well as the basic operations that implement the process of generating speech, are, in our opinion, the necessary theoretical base, based on which a correctional teacher can effectively solve the problems of forming children's speech. Among them, first of all, is the formation of skills in compiling coherent speech statements. Thus, for the analysis of the state of coherent speech of children and the development of a system for its purposeful formation, it is of particular importance to take into account such links in the mechanism of its generation as the internal plan, the general semantic scheme of the utterance, the purposeful choice of words, their placement in a linear scheme, the selection of word forms in accordance with the plan and selected syntactic construction, control over the implementation of the semantic program and the use of language tools.
A correctional teacher should take into account in his work the data of psycholinguistic studies, in which, from the standpoint of psychology and psycholinguistics, the questions of the formation of speech activity in children are highlighted. They consider, in particular, the features of children's mastery of the grammatical structure mother tongue, syntactic means of constructing statements (I. N. Gorelov, V. N. Ovchinnikov, A. M. Shakhnarovich, D. Slobin, etc.), planning and programming speech statements (V. N. Ovchinnikov, N. A. Kraevskaya and etc.). For example, the data obtained by N. A. Kraevskaya that the speech of normally developing children of 4-5 years old no longer fundamentally differ from the speech of adults in terms of the presence of an internal programming stage in it are very important (113).
Based on numerous experimental data and analysis theoretical research leading psycholinguists of the world, A. A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating speech utterance occupies a central place *.
According to the model of A. A. Leontiev, the process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages (or “phases”).
§ The starting point (“source”) of the statement is the motive. Motivation gives rise to speech intention (intention) - the orientation of the consciousness, will, feelings of the individual to some object (in our case - to the subject of speech activity). “The starting point for any statement is a motive ... that is, the need to express, convey certain information” (123, p. 41).
Considering this stage of speech production, A. A. Leontiev gives a very successful, in his opinion, definition of J. Miller - “the image of the result”. “At this stage, the speaker has the “Image of the result” .., but does not yet have the Plan of action that he must take in order to get this result” *. According to B. Skinner, the motive of a speech statement can be: a requirement (to perform a certain action) or “mands”, an informational appeal (message) - a “tact” and, finally, a desire to express in an expanded language form (i.e., to formulate ) any thought - "cept" (342). The motive itself does not have a clearly defined content.
§ At the next stage of generating a speech statement, the motive for speech action brings to life an idea, which, in turn, is “transformed” into a generalized semantic scheme of the statement. Based on the theoretical concept of A. R. Luria, A. A. Leontiev believes that at the stage of conception, for the first time, the theme and rheme of the future statement are identified and differentiated, i.e., what needs to be said is determined (the subject of the statement or its topic) and what exactly needs to be said about this subject (situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality) - the rheme of the statement. At this stage of speech generation, these two main structural-semantic components of the utterance "exist" (and, accordingly, are perceived by the speaker) "globally", w. n. simultaneous, undivided form (123, 124).
The model of the mechanism for generating a speech statement according to A.A. Leontiev
Part 1. Psycholinguistic theories of the speech production process
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF PROCESSES OF GENERATION AND PERCEPTION OF SPEECH
The problem of generating speech is one of the "key" in psycholinguistics. This is largely due to the fact that in most psycholinguistic schools (both domestic and foreign) the processes of generation and perception of speech utterances are considered as the main subject psycholinguistic research. Scientists working in this field of science offer various options for the scientific interpretation of speech production processes. Some researchers, in particular C. Osgood, M. Garrett, E. Bates, B. McVinney, T.V. Akhutina et al. (13, 315, 272 et al.), proposed not one, but several "models" of the process of generating speech, total number of which there are several dozen. A fairly complete review and scientific analysis of these models was made by A.A. Leontiev and T.V. Akhutina (13, 119 and others).
At the same time, the needs of the practice of speech therapy work determine the extreme importance of choosing any conceptual "model" of speech production, which could be used as a "basic" theoretical model for the methodology of "speech" work. According to T.V. Akhutina, the conceptual scheme-model developed by A.A. Leontiev (119, 133 and others); its hallmarks are the harmonious combination of deep scientific analysis and relative simplicity, clarity of presentation of the subject content, integrity and clear structural construction. According to T.V. Akhutina, speech generation model by A.A. Leontiev is in the full sense of the word a “promising”, “open” model, since several new interesting models have been created on its basis in domestic and foreign psycholinguistics over the past three decades (13).
Based on numerous experimental data and analysis of theoretical studies of the world's leading psycholinguists A.A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating a speech utterance occupies a central place.
According to the model of A.A. Leontief's process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages (or "phases").
The starting point ("source") of the statement is motive. Motivation generates speech intention (intention)- the orientation of consciousness, will, feelings of the individual on any object (in our case - on the subject of speech activity). “The starting point for any statement is a motive, that is, the need to express, convey certain information” (119, p. 41).
Considering this stage of speech generation, A.A. Leontiev cites a very successful, in his opinion, definition of J. Miller - "the image of the result." “At this stage, the speaker has an “Image of the Result”, but does not yet have an Action Plan, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ he must produce in order to given result get". According to B. Skinner, the motive of a speech statement can be: requirement(to perform a certain action) or “mands”, informational appeal (message) -“tact” and, finally, the desire to express in an expanded language form (i.e., formulate) some thought -"cept" (327). The motive itself does not have a clearly defined semantic content.
At the next stage of generating a speech utterance, the motive for speech action brings to life idea, which, in turn, "transforms" into a generalized semantic scheme of the utterance. Based on the theoretical concept of A.R. Luria, A.A. Leontiev believes that at the stage intent for the first time there is a selection themes and rhemes future statement and their differentiation, that is, it is determined - about what need to say(the subject of the utterance or its topic) and what exactly what needs to be said about this subject.(situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality) - rheme statements. At this stage of speech production, these two basic structural-semantic components of the utterance "exist" (and, accordingly, are perceived by the speaker) "globally", in the so-called. simultaneous, undivided form (119, 120).
The next - a key stage in the generation of speech - the stage internal programming. A.A. Leontiev put forward a position on the internal programming of an utterance, considered as a process of constructing a certain semantic scheme, on the basis of which a speech utterance is generated. Such programming can be of two types: programming of a separate concrete statement and speech whole (118, p. 7).
Based on the views of L.S. Vygotsky concerning the psychological analysis of the speech process, A.A. Leontiev believes that when generating a separate RT, programming consists in two interrelated processes of operating with units of the internal (subjective) code. This includes: a) attributing to these units a certain semantic load; b) construction of a functional hierarchy of these units. The second process forms the basis of the syntactic organization of the future utterance (119, p. 183).
The main operations on the basis of which this stage of constructing a speech utterance is implemented are:
– Operations for determining basic semantic elements(semantic "links", or units) of the subject content of the speech utterance. These elements (in their potentially possible number) correspond to the real elements (objects) of subject content of that fragment of the surrounding reality, which should be displayed in this speech statement. As part of these operations, the operation of choosing those units of semantic content (from among all possible) that are “relevant” for the speaker or writer in a given situation of speech communication is very important. The latter, in turn, is determined by the motives and purpose of speech first subject speech activity (speaking or writing).
– The operation of determining the “hierarchy” of semantic units in the “context” of the future RT, the definition of the main and secondary, “main” and clarifying points in the content of a speech statement. At the same time, it is important what the speaker's attention is focused on (for example, on subject or object utterances), what are his attitudes towards the listener. “The internal program of an utterance is a hierarchy of propositions underlying it. This hierarchy is formed by the speaker on the basis of a certain strategy of orientation in the described situation, which depends on the “cognitive weight” of one or another component of this situation” (133, p. 114). So, a well-known example of L.S. Vygotsky: “Today I saw a boy in a blue blouse and barefoot running down the street”(45, p. 355) allows for a different interpretation of the statement, depending on what exactly is primary for the speaker and what is secondary.
– Definition operation sequences displaying semantic elements in a speech statement.
As A.A. Leontiev, there are three basic types of processes for operating with "units" of programming. First of all, this operation inclusions, when one code unit (image) receives two or more functional characteristics of different "depth". For example: (Cat + scientist) + walks. Second, the operation transfers, when one code unit receives characteristics of the same “depth” (powerful + Tribe + dashing). Thirdly, this operation joints, which is a special case of the inclusion operation and occurs when the functional characteristic refers simultaneously to two code units: Sorcerer +(carries + (hero)) or ((sorcerer) + carries) + Bogatyr(133, p. 115).
Based on the concept of N.I. Zhinkin about codes of inner speech, A.A. Leontiev believes that the nature (or "kind") of the programming code "can vary widely, but the most typical case is a secondary visual image that arises on a linguistic basis" (119, p. 184).
The compilation of a semantic program at the stage of internal programming is carried out on the basis of a special, very specific code of internal speech.
“The internal programming code is a subject-scheme or subject-figurative code according to N.I. Zhinkin. In other words, programming is based on image, to which some semantic characteristic is attributed. This semantic characteristic is the predicate for this element. But what happens next depends on which component is the main one for us” (133, p. 115).
The next stage of speech production is the stage lexico-grammatical expansion statements. This stage is possible, according to AA. Leontiev, to correlate with the transition from the plan of inner speech to the semantic plan (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Within its framework stand out, in turn, non-linear and linear stages lexico-grammatical structuring.
non-linear the stage consists in translating the compiled (semantic) program from subjective(individual) code on objective(common) language code, in “attributing” to semantic units (semantic elements) a “functional load”, which is based on grammatical characteristics. According to A.A. Leontiev, this process can be represented schematically as follows:
The main operation that implements this sub-stage is the operation word selection(less often - whole phrases) to designate elements of a semantic program - semantic units of a subjective code. The choice of words in the process of generating speech, according to A.A. Leontiev, is determined by three groups of factors: associative-semantic characteristics of words, their sound appearance and subjective probabilistic characteristics (119, p. 186). As a result of the implementation non-linear stage a set of linguistic units of an objective code is created, for example, a set of words like «Girl / apple | red / yes" .
The "linear expansion" of RT consists in its grammatical structuring - the creation of an appropriate grammatical construction of the sentence. At the same time, based on the selection of the “initial” predicative pair (subject - predicate), the syntactic “prediction” of the statement begins. The process of grammatical structuring includes:
- finding (choosing from the available "standards") of the grammatical structure;
- determining the place of the element (selected by the meaning of the word) in the syntactic structure and endowing it with grammatical characteristics;
- fulfillment of a role determined by the grammatical form of the first (or keyword) word in a phrase or sentence. For example, the fulfillment of "grammatical obligations" determined by the type of phrase (the word being defined is the grammatical form of the word being defined; the "core" word is "-" the form of the controlled word, etc.).
The successive elements of the utterance being created are assigned all the missing elements for the complete language characteristics parameters: a) place in the general syntactic scheme of the utterance; b) "grammatical obligations", i.e. a specific morphological realization of a place in the general scheme plus grammatical features; c) a complete set of semantic features; d) a complete set of acoustic-articulatory (or graphic) features (133, p. 117) Endowing a word (lexeme) with grammatical characteristics involves choosing the desired word form from the appropriate series grammatical forms the words.
This stage ends smart operations semantic-syntactic "prediction" of the correspondence of the speech statement prepared for implementation to its "target setting" (in other words, it is determined whether the composed speech statement corresponds to the tasks of speech communication). The compiled version of the speech statement is correlated with its program, the general "context" of speech and the situation of speech communication. Based on the results of such an analysis, the subject of RD makes a decision to move to the final phase of composing a speech statement - the phase of its external implementation. There are three possible "solutions" here: the decision to "launch" the RT in the external plan, i.e., to "sound" it; the decision to make “corrections” in the content or language design of the RT and, finally, the decision to cancel the speech action. (For example, a variant of the implementation of RD in a dialogical form, when one of the participants in the communication process, who “prepared” a clarifying question during the perception of the interlocutor’s speech, suddenly receives information of interest to him from his dialogue partner. In this case, his own statement of a “clarifying nature "becomes redundant.)
The final stage in the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "in the external plane" (in external speech). This stage is carried out on the basis of a number of interrelated operations that provide the process of phonation, sound formation, reproduction of successive sound combinations (syllables), operations of producing entire “semantic” sound complexes (words), operations that provide the required (in accordance with the semantic program and language norm) rhythmic- melodic and melodic-intonational organization of speech. This process is based on the implementation phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic"automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding speech pronunciation skills.
As emphasized by A.A. Leontiev, the scheme of the process of speech generation presented above “appears in a more or less complete form in spontaneous (unprepared) oral monologue speech: in other types of speech it can be reduced or significantly changed - up to the inclusion of primary signal (according to I.P. Pavlov) speech reactions” (133, pp. 113–114).
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, based on the one proposed by A.A. Leontiev's speech generation model is based on the conceptual idea of "internal programming". Scientific views of A.A. Leontiev, as noted by T.V. Akhutin, largely determined the conduct of a number of scientific research domestic and foreign scientists on this issue (13, 36, 90, 202, etc.).
Thinking exists in several forms at the same time. Visual, spatial, and verbal thinking participate in one mental act. In their interaction, a statement is built, generated.
There are two stages of speech generation:
a) preverbal, associated with the appearance of the speaker's intention;
b) verbal, when personal meanings are expressed verbally.
These stages affect the work of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. At the same time, each of the hemispheres is responsible for “its own” area of speech and thought activity. On the “internal screen” of the right hemisphere, images, pictures are flashing, an imaginary situation is drawn, and on the “display” of the left hemisphere, not so much vague images appear as signatures under them. The interaction of the right and left hemispheres is subject in the process of generating speech to one main goal: the translation of thought into speech. The transformation of thought into speech occurs by transforming a multidimensional mental image into a one-dimensional, linear statement.
Neurolinguist A.R. Luria identifies four stages of speech production:
1. Motivational-driven level. It begins with a motive and a general idea. The idea is the result of preverbal thinking. At this stage, the subject of speech is comprehended with the help of non-linguistic signs - subject, figurative, situational. Thought as a “subjectified need” becomes an internal motive, something that concretely and directly induces to communication activities. At this level, need, object and motive are intertwined. This is the level of combining the motive as a motivating beginning and the communicative intention of the speaker, which indicates the specific goal of the future statement (define, clarify, ask, call, condemn, approve, advise, demand). Communicative intention determines the role of the speaker in communication. At this level, the level of "launching" the speech production process, the speaker highlights the subject and topic of the statement, he knows what to talk about, but does not yet know what to say.
2. Formative level, or level of inner speech. It's happening here
the formation of thought in the logical and linguistic aspects. Determined
semantic scheme of the utterance, it is modeled " semantic notation". On the
This level is different:
a) sublevel of internal programming. The idea as an undivided meaning of the statement is realized in the form of a subject-pictorial code;
b) the sublevel of the formation of the "grammar of thought": the spatial-conceptual scheme, the scheme of the correlation of concepts, the scheme of the temporal sweep of thought. The program is designed to reveal the idea, placing personal meanings in a logical sequence.
On the basis of psycholinguistic data, the internal program has the following properties: a) its structure is linear; b) the components of the program are supra-verbal units of the type subject, predicate, object. Schematically, it looks like this: someone does something aimed at something; c) internal programming does not operate lexical meanings, but personal "meanings"; d) such programming is an act of predication, an operation of combining two representations.
3. The level of formation of deep syntactic structure.
a) the mechanism of syntaxing, grammatical structuring is turned on
future statement. A sentence scheme is being structured, in which there is no place for specific words yet. The sentence at this stage of speech generation consists only of word forms.
b) the mechanism of nomination, choice of words is switched on. Syntax scheme
sentences are filled with words. This provides a "translation" of personal
meanings into linguistic meanings that are understandable to all members of a given linguistic
team.
4. The generation of speech ends with the deployment of an external speech
statements.
speech generation processes
Prokofieva L.V.
The problem of generating speech is one of the "key" in psycholinguistics. This is largely due to the fact that in most psycholinguistic schools (both domestic and foreign) the processes of generation and perception of speech utterances are considered as the main subject of research in psycholinguistics. Scientists working in this field of science offer various options for the scientific interpretation of speech production processes.
At the same time, the needs of the practice of speech therapy work determine the need to choose any conceptual "model" of speech production, which could be used as a "basic" theoretical model for the methodology of "speech" work. According to T.V. Akhutina, the conceptual scheme-model developed by A.A. Leontiev.
Based on numerous experimental data and analysis of theoretical studies of the world's leading psycholinguists A.A. Leontiev developed a holistic concept of the structure of the act of speech activity, in which the model of generating a speech utterance occupies a central place.
According to the model of A.A. Leontiev's process of generating a speech utterance includes five successive, interrelated stages.
The first stage in the generation of a speech utterance is motive . Motivation gives rise to speech intention - the direction of consciousness, will, feelings of the individual on the subject of speech activity.
At the next stage of generating a speech utterance, the motive for speech action brings to life design , which, in turn, "transforms" into a generalized semanticutterance scheme. Based on the theoretical concept of A.R. Luria, A.A. Leontiev believes that at the stage of conception, for the first time, the topic of the future statement is singled out and differentiated, i.e., it is determined what needs to be said (the subject of the statement or its topic) and what exactly needs to be said about this subject (situation, fact, phenomenon of the surrounding reality ).
The next - a key stage in the generation of speech - the stageinternal programming. A.A. Leontiev put forward a position on the internal programming of an utterance, considered as a process of constructing a certain semantic scheme, on the basis of which a speech utterance is generated. Such programming can be of two types: programming of a separate concrete utterance and speech whole.
Based on the views of L.S. Vygotsky concerning the psychological analysis of the speech process, A.A. Leontiev believes that when generating a separate speech utterance, programming consists in two interrelated processes of operating with units of the internal (subjective) code. This includes:
- attributing to these units a certain semantic load;
- construction of a functional hierarchy of these units.
The main operations on the basis of which this stage of constructing a speech utterance is implemented are:
- Operations of determining the main semantic elements (semantic "links", or units) of the subject content of a speech statement. These elements correspond to the real-life elements (objects) of the objective content of that fragment of the surrounding reality, which should be displayed in this speech statement. As part of these operations, the operation of choosing those units of semantic content (out of all possible ones) that are “relevant” for the speaker or writer in a given situation of speech communication is very important. The latter, in turn, is determined by the motives and target setting of the speech of the first subject of speech activity (speaking or writing).
- The operation of determining the "hierarchy" of semantic units in the "context" of the future speech statement, the definition of the main and secondary, "main" and clarifying points in the content of the speech statement. At the same time, it is important what the speaker's attention is focused on (for example, on the subject or object of the statement), what are his attitudes towards the listener. The internal program of an utterance is a hierarchy of propositions underlying it. This hierarchy is formed by the speaker on the basis of a certain strategy of orientation in the described situation, which depends on the “cognitive weight” of one or another component of this situation.
- The operation of determining the sequence of displaying semantic elements in a speech statement.
The next stage of speech production is the stagelexico-grammatical deployment of the statement.This stage is possible, according to AA. Leontiev, to correlate with the transition from the plan of inner speech to the semantic plan (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Within its framework, in turn, non-linear and linear stages of lexico-grammatical structuring are distinguished.
The non-linear stage consists in the translation of a compiled (semantic) program from a subjective (individual) code to an objective (generally used) language code, in “attributing” to semantic units (semantic elements) a “functional load”, which is based on grammatical characteristics.
The main operation that implements this sub-stage is the operation of selecting words (less often, entire phrases) to designate elements of the semantic program - semantic units of the subjective code. The choice of words in the process of generating speech, according to A.A. Leontiev, is determined by three groups of factors:
- associative-semantic characteristics of words;
- sound appearance of words;
- subjective probabilistic characteristics of words.
As a result of the implementation of the non-linear stage, a set of language units of the objective code is created.
The "linear deployment" of a speech utterance consists in its grammatical structuring - the creation of an appropriate grammatical construction of the sentence. At the same time, based on the selection of the "initial" predicative pair, the syntactic "prediction" of the statement begins to be carried out. The process of grammatical structuring includes:
- finding (choosing from the available "standards") a grammatical structure;
- determining the place of the element (selected by the meaning of the word) in the syntactic structure and endowing it with grammatical characteristics;
- fulfillment of a role determined by the grammatical form of the first (or keyword) word in a phrase or sentence.
The successive elements of the created utterance are assigned all the parameters that they lack for a complete linguistic characteristic:
- place in the general syntactic scheme of the utterance;
- "grammatical obligations", that is, a specific morphological realization of a place in the general scheme plus grammatical features;
- a complete set of semantic features;
- a complete set of acoustic-articulatory (or graphic) features.
Endowing a word (lexeme) with grammatical characteristics involves the choice of the desired word form from the corresponding series of grammatical forms of the word.
This stage ends with intellectual operations of the semantic-syntactic "prediction" of the compliance of the speech statement prepared for implementation with its "target setting" (in other words, it is determined whether the composed speech statement corresponds to the tasks of speech communication). The compiled version of the speech statement is correlated with its program, the general "context" of speech and the situation of speech communication. Based on the results of such an analysis, the subject of speech activity makes a decision on the transition to the final phase of composing a speech statement - the phase of its external implementation.
The final stage in the generation of a speech utterance is the stage of its implementation "in the external plane" (in external speech). This stage is carried out on the basis of a number of interrelated operations that provide the process of phonation, sound formation, reproduction of successive sound combinations (syllables), operations of producing entire “semantic” sound complexes (words), operations that provide the required (in accordance with the semantic program and language norm) rhythmic- melodic and melodic-intonational organization of speech. This process is carried out on the basis of the implementation of phonation, articulation, rhythmic-syllabic and tempo-rhythmic "automated" programs for the external implementation of speech, which are based on the corresponding pronunciation skills.
Thus, on the basis of the proposed A.A. Leontiev's speech generation model is based on the conceptual idea of "internal programming". The process of generating a speech utterance was considered by him as a complex, stage-by-stage speech action that enters integral part into an integral act of activity.
Scientific views of A.A. Leontiev, as noted by T.V. Akhutin, largely determined the conduct of a number of scientific studies of domestic and foreign scientists on this issue.
Bibliographic list
- Leontiev A.A. Psycholinguistic units and the generation of speech utterance. M., 1969.
- Internet resources
- http://do.gendocs.ru
- http://rudocs.exdat.com