What are grammatical signs of nouns. What are grammatical features? Ways to define them and functions
Noun- a significant part of speech that expresses the grammatical meaning of objectivity in the inflectional categories of case and number and in the non-inflective categories of gender and animation.
General categorical grammatical features of nouns
The concept of "objectivity" is more abstract than the concept of "object". The words " board», « window” and similar names are objects, the grammatical meaning “objectivity” is highlighted in them. The words " audacity», « height" call an abstract sign, the words " embroidery», « the study" call an abstract action, the words " revolution», « coup"show events, words" thunderstorm», « rain"call the phenomena of nature, the words" minute», « year"call time periods, the words" teacher», « old man» call persons, words cat, dolphin name the animals in all words of this type, the grammatical meaning “objectivity” is distinguished, because you can ask them a question who? or what?
Particular categorical features of nouns
In nouns, the inflectional category of case is distinguished. For inflected nouns, this category is expressed by inflections ( birchesa - I.p., birchess - R.p., birchese– D.p. etc.), for indeclinable nouns, the meaning of the category is determined by the context ( there is meringue on the plate- I.p., treat meringue- Tv.p., love meringue- V.p.).
In nouns, the category of number is distinguished. Usually the opposition singular/plural is singled out. ( table/tables, teacher/teachers), but there are nouns that are used only in the singular. (singularia tantum): silver, merchants, love, there are nouns that are used only in the plural. (pluralia tantum): perfume, sleigh, cream, yeast.
All nouns, except for those that appear only in the plural. (pluralia tantum), belong to one of 3 genera: day- m.r., wife- female, window- cf. This is a non-inflective category.
In nouns, the non-inflective category of animateness/inanimateness is distinguished. When defining this category, we pay attention to grammatical manifestation. If the form Win.p. plural coincides with the form of R.p. plural, then the noun is animated ( see girls(V.p.) = no girls(R.p.)) if the form Win.p. plural coincides with the form I.p. - inanimate ( I see desks(V.p.) = there are desks(I.p.)).
Syntactic functions of nouns
In nouns, they are the richest. Most often they act as a subject and an object ( fluffysnow enveloped slenderate ), but can also be other members of the sentence: my grandfather washealer (the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate), waveseas covered me(definition), books lieon the table (circumstance).
§16. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
The term itself indicates the connection between vocabulary and grammar. Lexical meanings nouns and the features of the manifestation of grammatical categories arising from them make it possible to distinguish categories.
Lexico-grammatical categories (LGR)- these are subclasses of words that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of a word to express certain grammatical meanings. This means that there are certain features in the semantics of words that affect its grammatical characteristics. For example: if the semantic attribute is “a specific object”, then it follows that the grammatical attribute is singular. and many others. hours; those. most concrete nouns have singular forms. and many others. h. (leaf - leaves, birch - birch).
The following LGRs are distinguished: proper/common, personal/non-personal, concrete/abstract, collective, real.
Morphology as a grammatical doctrine of a word. Relationship of morphology with vocabulary and syntax. Lexical and grammatical in the word. The concept of a word form.
Morphology as a grammatical doctrine of a word.
Morphology is a branch of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words. Following V. V. Vinogradov, morphology is often called "the grammatical doctrine of the word."
Morphology considers the word in the totality of its forms, while studying not only the mechanism (models) of inflection, but also the nature of its participation in the organization of communicative units. For example, in morphology, on the one hand, it is determined how nouns change in cases, and on the other hand, it establishes what meanings in Russian can be expressed through one or another case. In other words, morphology studies both the forms of words and their semantics, which is commonly called grammatical.
grammatical properties of words studied by morphology are grammatical (morphological) meanings and formal means of their expression.
Grammatical properties of a word- this is 1) its part-of-speech affiliation, 2) the ability to change in a certain way (to have a set of word forms) or to be unchangeable, and 3) its grammatical meanings.
As a result, morphology can be defined as follows: This is a section of grammar that describes parts of speech, their grammatical (morphological) forms and grammatical meanings. V. V. Vinogradov called this morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.
Relationship of morphology with vocabulary and syntax:
Morphology, being one of the sections of grammar, is closely related to lexicology, word formation and syntax.
Attitude towards vocabulary predetermined by the fact that, on the one hand, grammatical meanings and grammatical categories appear only in specific word forms, for example, the grammatical masculine gender can be represented as the gender of certain nouns (shore, pencil, horse), adjectives (red, kind, copper), verbs (read, spoke, blushed). On the other hand, morphological forms are a linguistic means of interpreting lexical semantics, which does not exist outside of this interpretation. Black, blacken, black call the same real feature, denoted by the root morpheme -black-. But this morpheme itself is not a word. It becomes a word only when framed as an adjective, verb, or noun.
The relationship between morphology and vocabulary is mutual. The lexical meaning of a word can influence both the formation of a lexeme and the realization of certain grammatical meanings of morphological forms. For example, real nouns (milk, cream) in Russian usually do not change in numbers, the prepositional case of abstract nouns cannot have the meaning of place, verbs that name relations that are not characterized in time (to belong) are single-species.
The connection of morphology with syntax is obvious. Morphology is often (and to some extent rightly) called the servant of syntax, since the forms studied in morphology are intended to build correct statements, and only in the structure of sentences do they realize the linguistic properties inherent in them.
The dependence of morphology on syntax is also manifested in the selection of parts of speech, especially when it comes to immutable lexemes.
Syntax often turns out to be a support in solving morphological problems, especially where the expression of grammatical meaning is duplicated in syntactic links. So, on the basis of agreement, grammatical gender and grammatical number can be assigned to immutable nouns, just as such words are endowed with case meanings through syntax.
Lexical and grammatical in the word.
We are already familiar with 2 types of linguistic meanings: lexical and derivational.
Lexical meaning is an individual meaning inherent in one word - a unit. There is no other word that has the same meaning in the language, because there are no absolute synonyms in the language. There will always be a component, a shade of meaning, or a shade of functioning that will be different.
Derivational meaning - occupies an intermediate position between vocabulary and grammar, because with the help of word-formation means new lexical units appear (there was a “house”, it became a “house” = 2 different words). And therefore derivational meaning is not unique.
Derivational meaning - the meaning is not unique, inherent in some grouping of words.
Now look at the grammatical meaning:
Let's take the word "home" as an example. But if we take the same nouns according to the school curriculum of the 2nd declension with a zero ending, then we will get a huge number of them (in im.p. singular m.r.). Consequently:
1st sign of gr.value- inherent in a whole class of words!
Compare the words "boy" and "house": both are masculine. Why is "boy" masculine? On a biological basis. Why is "house" masculine? It happened. The conclusion follows from this: the grammatical meaning is not tied to the lexical one from the point of view of “what expresses the lexical should express the grammatical”.
2nd sign of gr.value- abstractness, abstraction (from lexical).
3rd sign of gr.value- (opened in the 60s of the 20th century) mandatory. This is the most important sign! Example: if we want to say that some action took place in the past, a person cannot help but use the verb in the past tense!!! He has no choice! Man has no choice in the use of grammatical meanings!
The concept of a word form.
If we analyze a single word, it is just a word. But if we analyze a word in a specific text, this is word form.
A word form is a specific use of a word in a specific morphological form. That is, whenever we analyze a text, sentences, or phrases, and take some form from there, it is called a word form.
2. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. paradigm and paradigm.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Grammatical meanings (according to Ivanov) are meanings characterized by the following: they cover whole class words, they are abstract and abstract, and most importantly - they are required!
Grammatical meaning (according to Kamynina)- this is such an abstract meaning, which is expressed by formal grammatical means or by what is called the grammatical arrangement (or grammatical form) of a word.
The grammatical design of a word involves its morphological forms, morphemic and derivational structure, syntactic properties and syntactic links. The grammatical meanings are not the same.
Grammatical meanings are often called complementary to the lexical meanings of words. A. I. Smirnitsky showed well that this should not be done. Lexical and grammatical meanings are two different types of linguistic semantics.
Types of grammatical morphological meanings:
nominative grammatical morphological meaning.
This is a grammatical meaning that reflects extralinguistic reality. That is SO IN NATURE! Not in language, but in nature!
Syntactic grammatical morphological meaning.
Meaning that does not reflect extralinguistic reality. What are they needed for? These values are needed to connect words.
Water- singular form The question arises: the noun "water" in the singular form. names an object equal to one piece? Impossible! Water cannot be counted at all!
Then why is this -a? Just to be able to agree: Big water arrived in the Khabarovsk Territory.
Types of grammatical meanings:
comparative
mood
Varieties of grammatical meanings:
Basic or invariant value.
private value.
Figurative meaning.
Basic or invariant value- the value presented in its pure form, out of context.
Example: The main value of the unit. is the singularity value. The main meaning of the present tense is the meaning of the coincidence of the action with the moment of speech.
private value- meaning determined by the context. That is, due to some kind of environment of other words, a clear meaning appears in some syntactic position.
Example: Fish breathe with gills.
Question: only one fish breathes like this, and the rest do not? In this context, the singular form expresses (in addition to the main one) also a particular meaning - a collective one. That is, any, each, any fish.
Figurative meaning- this is the meaning of the use of the grammatical form in the meaning of the counterterm. What does "in the sense of the counterterm" mean? Singular instead of plural. The present instead of the past.
Like the lexical, figurative gr. the meaning is also emotionally colored, stylistically marked, and this is the case when we have a choice. We choose not because we have the right to choose, but because we want to decorate our speech in some way.
Example: they go to theaters, and I sit with the child!
People at the moment were in the theater, and did not go to the theater. That is plural instead of singular.
And always such a form is a stylistically marked form. Meaning is emotionally colored.
Grammar form:
grammatical meaning is expressed by grammatical forms!
A grammatical form is a language sign in which a grammatical meaning finds its regular expression.
Example: “house" - zero inflection - just a linguistic sign in which the meaning of gender, number, case is regularly expressed.
“I am writing” is a linguistic sign in which the meaning of the indicative mood is regularly expressed, present tense, 1 person, singular.
That is, the grammatical form is a typed language tool.
Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings:
1 way - synthetic.
Morphological grammatical meaning is expressed using formative affixes (all inflections and a small set of suffixes).
Method 2 - analytical.
With this method, the expression of grammatical meaning is expressed not by affixes, but somehow differently. How? There are 2 types of analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning:
1 kind of analyticism - auxiliary words.
We observe them in the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives (more interesting, most interesting). Of course, there is analyticism in expressing the meaning of the subjunctive (according to the school curriculum - conditional) mood (would walk, would write). Of course, analyticism is observed when expressing the imperative mood: let, let, let, let, yes etc.
Let them write
Let's sing
The second kind of analyticism is connected with the fact that the grammatical morphological meaning is expressed by syntactic means. That is, it is an analytical syntactic grammatical meaning.
grandmother was sleeping - this ending does not express female gender (grandfather, bully).
but: grandfather was sleeping
grandma sleeping
How is the grammatical meaning of gender expressed in the words "grandmother" and "grandfather"? None.
In a sentence without a hint, it is impossible to understand how gender is expressed.
In the sentence "Grandma is sleeping" the morphological meaning of the gender is not expressed. In the sentence “Grandma slept”, the morphological meaning of the feminine gender of the word form “grandmother” is expressed by a syntactic means - the coordinated form of the feminine past tense verb.
3 way - supletivism of the basics.
Supletivism is when the grammatical meaning is expressed in a different basis.
Person people
children
There are only 3 ways of expressing grammatical meaning in Russian!
Paradigm and Paradigmatics:
A paradigm is a complete set of word forms of a single word (all forms of one word).
Paradigms are:
typical
private
Typical: include all morphological forms of the word.
Private: combine forms based on the same grammatical meaning:
- time paradigm
- inclination paradigm
- view paradigm
- complete paradigms
- defective paradigms
- abounding paradigms
paradigmatics (Explanatory Dictionary) - this is the consideration of language units as a set of structural units connected by opposition relations, but compared with each other, including them in rows “vertically” - columns (case forms of one inflected word or personal forms of one verb, one and the same root in different affix environments, a number of positionally alternating sounds)
- Declension (3 types of declensions)
- Gender (they differ by gender only in the singular, determined by the end, they distinguish between male, female and neuter gender)
- Number
- Case (a form of a name that expresses the connection of a noun with other words in a sentence and a phrase and indicates certain syntactic relationships)
There are indeclinable words in Russian; declension may be absent for some words, when all forms in both numbers coincide: metro, kangaroo, beige, etc., as well as the names of people. There are also inflected nouns.
- Animation:
- animated;
- inanimate.
- Names:
- own;
- common noun.
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
According to the generalized lexical meaning, which manifests itself in the forms of number or case, nouns are divided into three categories:
1) Own, common noun
2) Abstract, concrete
3) Animate, inanimate
4) Real, collective
Common nouns They are a generalization of the name of an object that belonged to a class of its kind: table, chair
For the most part, they name countable objects and change in numbers (they have plural and singular)
Common nouns that are uncountable stand out in special groups real( denote a substance and, measurable, but not countable) collective ( designate a set of persons and objects as an indivisible whole)
Own nouns They are the individual name of the item. Do not change in numbers and have the form of a single number.
Specific names are objects, phenomena, persons that can be counted.
Abstract ones call actions, properties, qualities, phenomena that cannot be counted.
Animate names are people, animals. They have the same accusative and genitive
Inanimate - objects, phenomena. The forms of accusative and nominative cases coincide.
Stylistic possibilities of using nouns
The noun rightfully occupies the most important place in the composition of the morphological resources of the Russian language. This is due to its semantic properties, quantitative predominance over other parts of speech and potential figurative and expressive possibilities. Nouns contain objective meanings, without which the expression of thought is impossible, therefore the use of nouns is a prerequisite for any speech activity. However, their use in comparison with other parts of speech varies depending on the content of the text, its stylistic affiliation, the functional and semantic type of speech, the features of the syllable, the writer's intention, etc. Especially great is the need for frequent reference to nouns in book styles - official business, scientific, journalistic: they are constantly needed when naming institutions, persons, objects of people's activities, their actions, often denoted here by verbal nouns. It is the character of book styles that is also created thanks to the replacement verbal predicate verb-nominal combination, repetition of the same names, which is due to the desire for accuracy, the rejection of the use of pronouns. All this gives grounds to assert that the noun is intended to dominate in book functional styles, and only in certain genres of journalism does it yield its position to the verb, which introduces an eventful character into speech.
It is important to emphasize that the ratio of verbs and nouns according to functional styles is very significant. The nominal character of speech is most characteristic of the official business style; scientific is in second place; in journalistic, verbs can compete with nouns (under certain conditions); in artistic speech the frequency of the use of nouns is noticeably reduced (here it is two times less than in the official business style).
In the official business style, the texts are prescriptive; Of the functional-semantic types of speech, statement (message) and description predominate, while narration and reasoning are not widespread. This determines the widespread use of nouns. The content of the texts, as a rule, requires the naming of many details: Cars are accepted for insurance (including those with trailers industrial production), motorcycles, scooters, motorized carriages, motor sleds, snowmobiles (aerosleighs), mopeds ... At the same time, verbal constructions are inappropriate and actions are indicated by verbal nouns: The means of transport is considered insured in case of death (damage) as a result of an accident, fire, explosion, lightning strike, failure under the ice, as well as in case of abduction ... theft, etc. (cf .: ... if the means of transport dies, explodes, falls through the ice and under.). Rubrication, widely used in official business speech, makes it possible to give a number of nominal phrases with one verb.
AT scientific style with its characteristic nominal type of speech, nouns perform the most important informative function, naming objects of living and inanimate nature, which are objects scientific research, processes occurring in nature and due to human production activities, the results of this activity, etc. At the same time, many nouns in the language of science are used as terms: The concepts of a random event, probability, random variable are mathematical abstractions. Each sample parameter estimate is itself random variable having some distribution (monograph).
It is also important that nouns in official business and scientific styles are used only in their direct meaning: their metaphorical rethinking is impossible.
In the journalistic style, the competition of nominal and verbal types of speech largely reflects its characteristic feature - a combination of standard and expression. So, if information in newspaper materials is clothed in a standardized form, then nominal constructions become its natural and natural expression.
However, the nominal character of speech is inferior to the verbal one, if the journalist chooses genres close to fiction and prefers the colloquial form of presentation.
Often in a journalistic style, the rejection of the use of verb forms and their replacement with verbal nouns generates a clerical tone of speech. Styling in such cases it consists in replacing verbal nouns with verbs and eliminating clericalism:
In artistic speech, which is generally characterized by a significant reduction in the number of nouns replaced by verbs, the preference for certain parts of speech, as a rule, is associated with the writer's creative attitude, the solution of specific stylistic problems. In this case, the writer's appeal to a specific functional-semantic type of speech - description, narration, reasoning - is of decisive importance.
In artistic speech, nouns perform not only an informative, but also an aesthetic function. Their use may be due to extralinguistic factors, since the theme of the work refers the author to the nouns of certain lexical and grammatical categories. Real, collective, abstract, concrete nouns, used in any of the functional styles, are also used in artistic speech. At the same time, stylistically neutral nouns are involved in the system means of expression language and acquire the corresponding expressive coloring. For example, a proper name acquires a new symbolic meaning in the title of N.S. Leskov, who used the technique of antonomasia - "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district", etc.
It is important to emphasize that the use of nouns in an aesthetic function may not be associated with their metaphorical rethinking. In autological speech (that is, in speech free from tropes), nouns can also play an important stylistic role, acting as a vivid source of expression.
abstract nouns
Of particular stylistic interest is the use of abstract nouns by writers to enhance the effectiveness of speech.
The psychology of creativity distinguishes two types of thinking: visual and theoretical. The first is characterized by the emergence in the mind of a person of representations that reflect reality in single concepts, which are expressed in specific names of objects of reality; the second is to create abstract concepts fixed in abstract nouns that are not reflected in specific images. Abstract thinking is characteristic primarily of scientists, it manifests itself in the abstraction of various linguistic means in a scientific presentation, in particular, in the preference for abstract nouns to concrete ones, and also in the fact that specific words in scientific texts are usually used in an abstract sense. However, in the scientific style, there is no expressive halo around nouns, since they perform only an informative function.
The fundamental difference between the stylistic use of abstract nouns in artistic speech is the activation of their expressive possibilities. Under the pen of artists, abstract nouns can become a strong source of speech expression, although their aesthetic function is sometimes underestimated, which distorts the idea of the stylistic resources of morphological means.
Russian writers have always attached great importance to the development of abstract vocabulary in artistic speech. Abstract nouns were involved in the system of expressive means by poets - to reflect spiritual world lyrical hero, designations of sublime moral and aesthetic categories. For example, A.S. Pushkina: But I was not created for bliss...; And the heart beats in rapture, and for it the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love have risen again.
Poets of the second half of the 19th century. expanded the repertoire of abstract nouns, giving the style an excitedly pathetic sound. So, N.A. Nekrasov often uses the words: freedom, faith, shrine, sorrow, poverty, despair, struggle, violence. In order to enhance the expression of abstract nouns that acquire political overtones in the context, the poet used a special graphic technique - he wrote them with capital letter: Through the abyss dark Violent and Evil, Labor and Hunger, she led me ... [about the muse].
Among the classics of Russian prose, abstract nouns were a means of depicting the rich spiritual life of heroes. Many words of this lexical and grammatical category were introduced into artistic speech by M.Yu. Lermontov, who skillfully clarified their meaning with expressive epithets: Cold anger took possession of me; immeasurable despair, violent courage, deep contempt, sweet delusions, inexplicable pleasure.
In the legacy of every great Russian writer, one can point out abstract nouns characteristic of his style, having a deep philosophical and aesthetic significance, often put into use by the same artist: Goncharov - Oblomovism, Turgenev - nihilism, Chernyshevsky - emancipation, patriotism.
In our time, abstract nouns are perceived for the most part as stylistically neutral, but often they still retain expressive shades, which are associated with the idea of literacy, a sublime way of expression, and therefore the scope of their stylistic use is reflection, philosophical searches for heroes. Making up a significant part of the intelligentsia vocabulary, abstract nouns are used to speech characteristics heroes-intellectuals:
He [Sergey] was looking for threads that connected the past with an even more distant past and with the future ... Man, he said, will never come to terms with death, because he has a feeling of the infinity of the thread, of which he himself is a part. It is not God who rewards a person with immortality, and it is not religion that inspires him with an idea, but this encoded, gene-transmitted feeling of belonging to an infinite series ...
(Yu. Trifonov)
It is important to emphasize this feature of the functioning of abstract nouns in artistic text: in speech they get a specific meaning: “First joys” (Fed.); "The Long Goodbye" (Trif.); Death seemed to be flirting with the Cossack; ... Spilled anger in a fight with Peter (Shol.); ... Life raged in him. She rustled in the blood, like a May thunderstorm in the bushes of a spring garden; Health flowed out drop by drop, like juice from a cut birch (Laurus). At the same time, the abstract semantics of abstract nouns is transformed as a result of metaphorical rethinking, expanding the boundaries of lexical compatibility, updating their meaning. This manifests the most important feature of artistic speech - the subject-figurative concretization of what is described.
In the expressive function, abstract nouns also act in the journalistic style of the modern Russian language, replenishing the composition of the socio-political vocabulary with evaluative meanings: activity, atmosphere, struggle, friendship, campaign, slander, peace, public, stronghold, politics, potential, cooperation, start , tactics, escalation, etc. Such abstract nouns play a leading role in the structure of the newspaper’s combat vocabulary: they are distinguished by a special breadth of semantics, they characterize a variety of circumstances, events, phenomena, accompanying them with a sharp assessment
Specific nouns
Contrasted with abstract nouns, concrete nouns also have great potential for creating speech expression in artistic speech.
Writers and publicists are characterized by predominantly visual thinking as opposed to abstract thinking, which is practically reflected in the widespread use of specific nouns. Their skillful introduction into the text creates visible pictures. Moreover, in artistic speech, the aesthetic function can be performed by nouns used in their direct meaning, without being subjected to figurative rethinking:
Yesterday I arrived in Pyatigorsk, rented an apartment on the edge of the city, on the very high place, at the sole of Mashuk: during a thunderstorm, clouds will descend to my roof. This morning at 5 o'clock in the morning, when I opened the window, my room was filled with the smell of flowers growing in a modest front garden. Branches of blossoming bird cherry look out the windows, and the wind sometimes strews my desk with their white petals.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
The special stylistic value of specific nouns is determined by their pictorial possibilities in describing artistic details. In this case, the words naming everyday realities, often very prosaic things, contain great figurative energy and represent unlimited pictorial possibilities for describing the life of the characters, the situation, pictures of nature, life. Let's remember Gogol's lines:
Please humbly have a bite, - said the hostess. Chichikov looked around and saw that there were already mushrooms, pies, quick-thinkers, shanishkas, spinners, pancakes, cakes with all sorts of seasonings on the table: seasoning with onion, seasoning with varnish, seasoning with cottage cheese, seasoning with pictures, and who knows what was missing.
It should be emphasized that the possibility of stylistic use of such nouns in the process of subject-figurative concretization in Russian literature testified to the triumph of the realistic method. To comprehend the aesthetic meaning of concrete everyday vocabulary in all the richness and variety of its meanings, the genius of Pushkin was needed, who approved the right of the artist to show life in all its manifestations and proved that there are no low objects for a poet. With the recognition of the achievements of the natural school in Russian literature, all conditions were created for the aesthetic development of specific nouns as a source of vivid figurativeness of artistic speech.
Concrete nouns form the basis of the figurative description of modern authors as well. Experienced craftsmen pointed out the aesthetic value of artistic details. So, K. Fedin, K. Paustovsky noted that in the manuscripts of novice authors, verbal generalizations often crowd out the detail. But nothing enlivens descriptions like details. For their artistic representation, specific nouns are needed, which always evoke an idea of a real object or phenomenon.
Proper nouns
Great scope for stylistic observations opens up the study of the expressive function of proper nouns. Their expressive coloration is due to stylistic features use in different styles of speech and a rich tradition of aesthetic development in Russian literature.
I. In the composition of the stylistic resources of the Russian language, the names and surnames of people occupy one of the prominent places, since they stand out great variety word-formation variants that have received a certain stylistic coloring, and unlimited possibilities of figurative application in an artistic context.
Distinctive feature The Russian system for naming persons is the opposition of the official address by surname: Comrade Ivanov, as well as the use of surnames with initials in written speech: Ivanov I.I. colloquial options: the use of a first name and patronymic in an official setting with a polite address: Ivan Ivanovich and in conditions of easy communication - one name, and more often its abbreviated version: Ivan, Vanya, intimately affectionate: Vanechka, Vanyusha, Vanyushka, as well as stylistically reduced: Vanka, Vanyukha. The choice of name options reflects both the age traits of the interlocutors (the elders are usually addressed by their first name and patronymic), and the distribution between them. social roles(it is not customary to address officials in familiar form). Departure from these conventions of etiquette can become a source of expression in artistic speech.
In the 19th century there was an even greater richness of expressive shades in various variants of the names of proper people, reflecting the class and property gradation of society, fashion, and the linguistic taste of the time. Therefore, without a stylistic comment, a modern reader is not always able to comprehend the artistic meaning of a particular character name in Russian classical literature.
Expressive halos around proper names in tsarist Russia first of all, they reflected the class stratification of society: lawlessness and humiliation of human dignity were manifested in the fact that people, according to V.G. Belinsky, they themselves called themselves not by names, but by nicknames - Vanka, Vaska, Steshki, Palashki. According to historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, still in the very early XVIII century, Peter I forbade being written with diminutive names, but the monarch-transformer failed to break this Russian tradition. Therefore, the use by writers of reduced variants of names in relation to representatives of a low rank should be considered not as an expression of contempt, but as a tribute to tradition (for example, in Gogol - Petrushka). At the same time, the respectful names of faithful servants (for example, Eremeevna in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth") contain a shade of special reverence. In a relaxed atmosphere, there was also a manner of friendly address not by name, but by surname, which was imprinted in numerous messages of poets Pushkin era. It was customary to use the names of the reigning persons in Russia without patronymics: Peter, Catherine, although this, of course, did not give them either a familiar or democratic connotation.
The potential expressive possibilities of personal names are also due to the fact that many of them go back to Greek roots and carry a hidden symbolic meaning: Mitrofan is the glory of the mother, Elena is the chosen one, bright, etc. The writer, naming his hero, can briefly express his attitude towards him; cf.: A.N. Ostrovsky Katerina is eternally pure, Varvara is a savage, rude. However, the aesthetic meaning of these nouns in an artistic context is optional; for some readers they are significant, for others they say nothing. Therefore, a stylistic commentary is needed, which will expand the perception of the artistic image.
When esthetically assessing the names of literary characters, it is important to take into account the popularity of the name in the corresponding era, its assessment by the linguistic taste of the time, the peculiarities of sound, the national or foreign appearance, the history of development, etc. Class prejudices imposed a ban on certain times (let us recall Pushkin's ironic remark about the old woman Larina, who "called Polina Praskovya"). Gallomania led to the planting of names alien to Russian customs, which gave rise to their satirical ridicule (for example, in Gogol: the names of Manilov's children are Alkid and Themistoclus). Therefore, in the appeal of writers to simple Russian names, there can be hidden deep meaning, as, for example, in Pushkin's decision to give his heroine - a noble lady - the common name Tatyana, with which contemporaries associated "remembrance of antiquity or girlhood." This audacity of the poet expressed his desire to democratize the literary language, his desire to overcome all sorts of conventions.
Rare, strange names give the speech a humorous coloring: Varukh, Solokha, Khivrya. A vivid expression is created by the clash of an uncommon name with a very common patronymic or surname: Feodulia Ivanovna (G.); Apollo Merzavetsky (Ostr.); Vasisualy Lokhankin (I. and P.). One of the methods of playing up proper names is the application of a famous name to an ordinary or comic character: the shoemaker Hoffmann, the tinsmith Schiller (G.).
Russian onomastics provides writers with unlimited opportunities for word creation. Even in the era of classicism, playwrights composed expressive surnames-characteristics: Pravdin, Starodum, Beskoryst, Sanity, Thieves, Durykin, Plutyagin (Fonv.). The gallery of negative characters, endowed with eloquent surnames, was replenished by writers of the 19th century: Molchalin, Skalozub (Gr.); Buyanov, Count Nulin (P.); Derzhimorda (G.); Altynnikov, Grosh (N.). The comic sound is distinguished by nicknames that are homonymous with the most inappropriate noun in meaning: Rooster, Fried eggs, Cork, Wheel (G.); Pimple, Boa constrictor, Rack (S.-Shch.).
In the treasury of Russian literary and artistic onomastics there are surnames surrounded by an expression of sympathy, reflecting the inferiority of the characters: Makar Devushkin, Prince Myshkin (Vost.); there are mockingly ironic ones: Krasotkin, Kisses (G.); there are also sharply satirical ones: teacher Vralman (Fonv.), Judge Lyapkin-Tyapkin (G.). Word formation gives them a comic coloring: Doctor Gibner - all his patients, according to Gogol, recovered like flies; funny consonances: Chichikov, Lyulyukov (G.); non-Russian phonetic appearance combined with transparent etymology: Chevalier Kakadu; French Kuku (G.).
However, along with a rich set of reduced characteristic surnames in Russian literature, there are also quite a few proper nouns that are free from such associative evaluative meanings. They are perceived not as neutral, but as good, open to creating an aura of positive emotional and expressive shades around them; compare: Onegin, Pechorin, Larina, Lensky, Insarov, Rostov. Such surnames seem beautiful due to their aesthetic sound and the various shades of meanings layered on them, due to possible reminiscences. For example, according to V.G. Belinsky, the surname of Lermontov's hero Pechorin indicates closeness to his literary predecessor Onegin ("Their dissimilarity among themselves is much less than the distance between Onega and Pechora").
Special opportunities for the stylistic use of names and surnames in artistic and journalistic speech are opened up by their figurative rethinking. In this case, writers resort to antonomasia - a path that is in use own name in the meaning of a common noun: The latest Mitrofan (P.); Silent quiet hosts and the many faces of Skalozub's faces (Evt.). IN. Klyuchevsky wrote about the Russian autocrats: Since Alexander I, they felt like Khlestakovs on the throne, having nothing to pay for the tavern bill. As a special kind of metonymy, antonymy is considered in the section of lexical stylistics.
II. Another group of stylistically active proper names are geographic names. In Russian literary language around them, often special expressive halos are created, due to various associations. So, in the years of the Great Patriotic War acute political significance acquired many geographical names: Brest, Stalingrad, Volga, Ural, Yalta, etc. They received a bright journalistic sound thanks to the heroism of the soldiers who glorified the Russian land with their selfless struggle against fascism. A number of geographical names are associated in the mind of a Russian person with national pride, a patriotic theme: Moscow, Vladimir, Smolensk, Borodino, other names are associated with the traditions of Russian art: Kizhi, Palekh, Gzhel.
The appearance of evaluative shades in geographical names is especially characteristic of the journalistic style, since journalists like to use such nouns in a figurative sense: Buchenwald's alarm sounded in the hearts of all honest people on the planet; Mankind will never forget Auschwitz, Khatyn, Hiroshima; We remember the warm handshakes on the Oder (from the newspaper). In a journalistic style, the names of capitals are often used instead of the names of states, they symbolize social system, external and internal politics countries: Moscow, London, Washington; point to the lessons of history, the facts of international life: Helsinki is a symbol of the will of all peoples to live in peace and cooperation; Reykjavik is a symbol of the emergence of a real opportunity to start nuclear disarmament (from the gas.).
In sports journalism, geographical names replace the names of international competitions, olympiads: Grenoble, Lake Placid, Calgary. In reports from international competitions, festivals, the names of such cities as Sofia, Sopot, Cannes are colored with new expressive colors.
Place names can also be used by writers to create comic effect. So, an ironic coloring is given to speech by equating unknown or odious proper names with popular, famous ones:
Hundreds of thousands of people, wealthy people, will strive to Vasyuki ... NKPS will build the Moscow-Vasyuki railway line ... Bolshie Vasyuki Airport - regular dispatch of mail planes and airships to all corners of the world, including Los Angeles and Melbourne.
(I. Ilf and E. Petrov)
A satirical role is also played by paraphrases built on the rethinking of geographical names, for example, the figurative definition of New York as Iron Mirgorod in S. Yesenin's essay on America.
The expressive coloring of geographical names may change, which is connected, of course, with the influence of extralinguistic factors. For 19th century writers Moscow was a symbol of patriarchal life, a fair for brides. N.V. Gogol wrote:
Moscow is an old homebody, she bakes pancakes, looks from afar and listens to the story, without rising from her chair, about what is happening in the world; Petersburg is a broken fellow, he never sits at home, he is always dressed and walks around on the cordon, preening himself in front of Europe ... Moscow is feminine, Petersburg is masculine. In Moscow, all the brides, in St. Petersburg, all the grooms.
In our time, the name of the city of Moscow is perceived as a symbol of Russia, the personification of democratic transformations in the new commonwealth of Eastern European states.
In artistic speech, occasional geographical names with expressive etymology play a noticeable stylistic role: the city of Glupov (S.-Shch.); Terpigorev uyezd, Pustoporozhnaya volost, villages of Gorelovo, Neelovo, Zaplatovo, Dyryavino, Neurozhayka (N.). Occasional word formation proper nouns This type also attracted Soviet writers: Ilf and Petrov have the names of the cities of Udoev, Kolokalamsk, A. Platonov has the city of Gradov.
Ticket number 9
Adjective
Significant Part of speech, which includes words with the meaning of the attribute of the subject. Adjectives change by gender, number and case and act in a sentence as a definition or a predicate. The form of gender, number and case of an adjective depends on the noun. The connection of an adjective with a noun. It's called agreement.
Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives
quality
relative
Quality adjectives name a sign of an object directly and usually designate a sign that can manifest itself with varying degrees intensity. Qualitative adjectives have special forms that relative adjectives do not have. Qualitative adjectives have short forms and forms of degrees of comparison.
Adjectives in the short form change by gender and number, but do not change by case.
Not all quality adjectives have short forms:
Adjectives that have passed into the category of quality from relative ones, as well as adjectives with a high degree of quality.
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
2 forms of degrees of comparison: comparative (shows that of the compared items the feature is contained to a greater extent), excellent (shows the highest degree of quality)
Not all qualitative adjectives have forms of degrees of comparison: adjectives that have passed into the category of qualitative adjectives from relative
Qualitative adjectives differ from relative ones in their word-formation capabilities: a) adverbs are formed from qualitative adjectives b) abstract nouns c) adjectives with emotional coloring
Relative adjectives
They call the attribute of an object through a relation this subject to another. The sign of an object, called a relative adjective, does not change in intensity, therefore relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison.
Relative adjectives include possessive adjectives
answer the question "whose?" and denote belonging to something animal or person ( paternal, sisters, fox);
o have neither synonyms nor antonyms, although the very combination of a possessive adjective with a noun is synonymous with a construction with the meaning of possession.
In order to attribute an adjective to any category, it is enough to find at least one sign of this category in the adjective.
Do not forget that the boundaries of the lexical and grammatical categories of adjectives are mobile. So, possessive and relative adjectives can acquire a qualitative meaning: dog tail(possessive) dog pack(relative), dog life(quality).
Stylistic possibilities of using adjectives
The system of morphological resources of the Russian language gives the adjective a prominent place as a category, in the semantics of which the concept of quality dominates, which determines the noun. In terms of the number of lexemes, the adjective is second only to the noun, which distinguishes our language from languages that do not have adjectives at all or are very poor in this part of speech. So, in the Old Slavonic language, which surpassed the Russian language in terms of the richness of lexical visual means, there was not a very wide “range qualitative definitions- vital, civil and socio-psychological nature - abstract and emotional.
In the era of the formation of the Russian national language the composition of adjectives was actively replenished, absorbing colorful definitions and emotional and evaluative epithets from oral folk art. Qualitative assessments of internal and outside world, sophisticated methods of abstract-evaluative and plastic depiction of the properties and features of objects were partly adopted by our language from Western European, and especially French in the 18th century All this contributed to the intensive development of the category of quality in the Russian literary language.
A rich and flexible system of adjectives creates versatile figurative and expressive possibilities that are realized by the aesthetic function of this part of speech. At the same time, the informative function of adjectives used to narrow the scope of the concept expressed by nouns is no less important. This makes the adjective indispensable in all styles, when it becomes necessary to specify the meaning expressed by the subject word.
The frequency of adjectives in the text is largely determined by the frequency of nouns. With a nominal type of speech, as a rule, not only nouns, but also adjectives dominate in the text. A distinctive feature of their use in different functional styles is the predominance of relative adjectives in scientific, official and business styles and the abundance of quality adjectives in artistic speech. This shows the influence of extralinguistic factors that determine the semantic-thematic selection of quality words in texts of different content and functional and stylistic affiliation. Thus, the reference to relative adjectives in legislative documents is due to the need for frequent expression in them of relations between persons and the state, persons and objects, etc. Adjectives such as state, industrial, commercial, financial, economic, public, private, individual, etc. are constantly used here. Many adjectives play the role of terms, and are also part of stable phrases-terms and proper names (about 30%): the Commonwealth of Independent States, the State Duma, federal troops. It is significant that in the official business style the most common short adjectives with modality value. As a rule, they indicate an obligation or prescription: Every citizen is obliged ... Written transactions must be signed by the persons who made them; The call of experts is required. In business documents, adjectives of this group make up 75% of all short forms, while in scientific texts their use is extremely rare, and in artistic speech they are practically never found.
In the journalistic style, there is also a specialization of some semantic groups of adjectives, which are assigned special place as part of the evaluative vocabulary, which carries a large expressive load. These are adjectives such as dense, unbridled, terry, frantic, landslide and under. In journalistic speech, they act as indicators of the highest degree of quality transmitted by the nouns to which they refer.
A verb is a part of speech that includes words denoting an action or state of an object (they answer the questions what to do? What to do?), For example: listen, work, bring in, blossom, save, melt, grieve.
Each verb has initial form , which is called the indefinite form (or infinitive). Verbs in the infinitive form have formative suffixes -т, -ти, -ч (see examples above). The indefinite form only names the action or state, not specifying either time, or number, or person. Verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs denote an action that can move to another object, the name of which is in the accusative case without a preposition. For example: read a newspaper, send a telegram, buy flowers. All other verbs are intransitive. For example: walk in the park, fly south, threaten the enemy. Verbs that have a special suffix -sya (-s) are called reflexive. For example: shave - shave, bathe - swim, build - build. All reflexive verbs are intransitive. Verbs are either perfective or imperfective. The form of the verb shows how the action proceeds. Perfective verbs answer the question what to do? and indicate the completion of the action, its result, the end of the action, its beginning. For example: draw, throw, bloom, sing. They have two tenses: the past (what did they do? - they drew, abandoned, faded, sang) and the future is simple, consisting of one word (what will they do? - they draw, abandon, fade, sing). Perfective verbs do not have present tense forms. Imperfect verbs answer the question what to do? and when denoting an action, they do not indicate its completion, result, end or beginning. For example: draw, throw, bloom, sing. They have three tenses: the past (what did they do? - they drew, threw, bloomed, sang), the present (what they do? - they draw, throw, bloom, sing) and the future is complex, consisting of two words: the words will be (you will, will be and etc.) and the indefinite form of this verb (what will they do? - they will draw, they will throw, they will bloom, they will sing). Verbs have mood forms that show how the speaker evaluates the action, that is, whether he considers it real, or possible under any condition, or desirable. There are three moods in Russian: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The indicative mood shows that the action is real, actually happening, happened or will happen. For example: In the morning we set off. Now we are talking. Tomorrow I will see you again. In the indicative mood, the verb changes in tense, has the forms of the present, past and future tense. The subjunctive (conditional) mood shows that an action is possible only under certain conditions. For example: Without you, I would not have reached the city and would have frozen on the road. The subjunctive mood is formed from the past tense by adding a particle by. In the subjunctive mood, verbs change by number, and in the singular by gender (that is, in the same way as past tense verbs change). For example: read - would read (m. R.), would read (f. R.), would read (cf. R.), would read (plural). (Pay attention to the separate spelling of the particle would.) The imperative mood denotes an action that is ordered, asked, advised to perform. For example: Rub her hands. Cover your legs with a blanket. The imperative mood is formed by adding the suffix -and- to the stem of the present (future simple) tense or without the suffix. For example: carry - carry - carry; bring - bring - bring; tell - tell - tell; cook - cook - cook. In the plural, -te is added: bring, bring, tell, cook. In the subjunctive and imperative mood, the verb does not change at times. In a sentence, verbs in the form of all moods are usually predicates.
Changing verbs in the present and future tenses according to persons and numbers is called conjugation. Verbs with endings -y(-y), -ёsh(-eat), -ёt(-et), -ём(-eat), -ёte(-ет), -ut(-yut) - I conjugations. Verbs with endings -u(-u), -ish, -it, -im, -ite, -at(-yat) - II conjugations. The verbs want, run are conjugated. In units h. the verb want is conjugated according to the I conjugation (I want, you want, you want), and in the plural. h. - according to II conjugation (want, want, want). The verb to run has in the 3rd person plural. h. form I conjugation (run), the remaining forms - II conjugation (run, run, run, run). Among the verbs, a group of impersonal ones stands out, which do not change either in numbers, or in persons, or in gender. Impersonal verbs are used in two forms: 1) in a form that coincides with the form of the 3rd person singular. hours of the present (future simple) tense, for example: dawn, dawn, dawn, shiver, dusk; 2) in a form that coincides with the form of the neuter gender of the past tense, for example: it was getting light, it was dawning, it was dawn, it was shivering, it was getting dark. In a sentence, impersonal verbs are predicates, and they do not (and cannot) have a subject. For example: 1. There was a slight blizzard all night. 2. I am unwell. Personal verbs can also act in an impersonal sense. For example: 1. A tree was lit by a thunderstorm. (Compare: Lightning lit a tree.) 2. It smells of hay over the meadows. (Compare: Hay smells good.)
Grammar signs are the components of any part of speech. What are they needed for? Of course, in order to separate one from the other, to reveal its individual qualities. So, the grammatical features of a word can be both general and belong to a specific part of speech. Each group of features will be discussed below.
grammatical signs. General provisions
For all parts of speech, there is a certain set of features that can be applied to any word. Such features traditionally include gender (masculine/feminine, common/neuter), number (collective/dual, singular/plural), and person (first/second and third person).
Another common grammatical feature is case. As you know, there are six cases in Russian. Nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional. The questions of all cases must be known by heart, since the possession of such information helps not only in determining grammatical features, but also in determining the type of secondary
Grammar features of the noun, verb and adjective
The grammatical features of a noun have a much smaller composition. Firstly, this part of speech has a declension, and secondly, it is necessary to define animation, that is, a noun can be both inanimate and animated. Thirdly, the belonging of the name is determined: common or proper.
Grammar is also small, like a noun. For such an analysis, you will need to define the category - qualitative / possessive / relative, the degree of consistency with the noun in gender / number / case, and you also need to determine whether it is complete or short form, and whether there is a degree of comparison (only for adjectives that have a quality category).
Thus, the grammatical features of a word help to parse it into small details, to determine the components of a particular part of speech. To do this, you need to know that there is a group of general and individual features that are characteristic of each part of speech separately.