When Poland was annexed. Poland within the Russian Empire
History of Poland / Beginning / Golden Ages / Partitions of Poland / Kingdom of Poland / 20th century / Return to Europe
Poland in the Russian Empire
The next division of the Polish lands took place during the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. Despite the declared autonomy of the Polish lands within Prussia, Austria and Russia, in reality this autonomy was realized only in Russian Empire. At the initiative of the liberal-minded Emperor Alexander I, a Kingdom of Poland, which received its own constitution and lasted until 1915.
According to the constitution, Poland could independently elect the Sejm, the government, and also have its own army. However, over time initial positions constitutions began to be limited. This led to the creation of a legal opposition in the Sejm and the emergence of secret political societies.
The uprising that broke out in Warsaw in 1830 and was brutally suppressed by Nicholas I led to the abolition of the constitution of 1815.
After the death of Emperor Nicholas I freedom movement gaining new strength. Despite its division into two warring camps (“whites” - aristocrats and “reds” - social democrats), the main demand is the same: to restore the constitution of 1815. The tense situation leads to the introduction of martial law in 1861. The liberal-minded governor of Poland, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, is unable to cope with the situation. To stabilize the situation, it was decided to conduct a recruitment in 1863, sending "unreliable" youth to the soldiers according to pre-compiled lists. This served as a signal for the beginning of the “January Uprising”, suppressed by the tsarist troops, which resulted in the introduction of a military regime of government in the Kingdom of Poland. Another result of the uprising was the peasant reform in order to deprive the rebellious gentry of social support: the Decree on the Organization of the Peasants of the Kingdom of Poland, adopted in 1864, eliminated the remnants of serfdom and widely endowed Polish peasants with land. At the same time, the tsarist government began to pursue a policy aimed at eliminating Polish autonomy and closer integration of Poland into the Russian Empire.
When Nicholas II ascended the Russian throne, there was new hope for a more liberal Russian stance towards Poland. However, despite the refusal to further Russify the Poles, no real shift took place in the attitude of the tsarist government towards them.
The creation in 1897 of the National Democratic Party of Poland (it was organized on the basis of the "People's League") led to new round the rise of national consciousness. The party, which set itself the strategic goal of restoring the independence of Poland, made every effort to fight against Russification laws and sought, above all, to restore Polish autonomy. Over time, she established herself as a leading political force Kingdom of Poland, and also took an active part in the Russian State Duma, forming the Polish Kolo faction there.
The revolution of 1905-1907 did not bypass Poland, which was swept by a wave of revolutionary uprisings. During this period, the formation of the Polish Socialist Party falls, which organized a number of strikes and strikes. The leader of the party was Jozef Pilsudski, who, in the midst of Russo-Japanese War traveled to Japan, where he tried to obtain funding for the all-Polish uprising and the organization of the Polish army, which would have acted in the war on the side of Japan. Despite the opposition of the National Democrats, Piłsudski achieved some success, and in subsequent years, the Fighting Organization of the Socialist Party was created with Japanese money. Its militants in the period from 1904 to 1908 committed dozens of terrorist acts and attacks on various Russian organizations and institutions.
The disappearance of Poland as a state
The drafted constitution of 1791 was called upon to implement the following transformations on the territory of the Commonwealth:
- establishment of centralized power;
- curbing gentry anarchy;
- elimination of the pernicious principle of "liberum veto";
- mitigation of the social inequality of serfs.
However, the Polish magnates could not come to terms with the abolition of liberties in accordance with constitutional norms. The only way out of this situation for them was intervention by Russia. The formation of a confederation under the leadership of Marshal Pototsky, the search for help in St. Petersburg served as a pretext for the introduction of troops into Polish territory by Empress Catherine II. There was a second division of the Commonwealth between Russia and Prussia (whose troops were on Polish territory).
The main prerequisites for the disappearance of Poland as an independent state from the map of Europe:
- the abolition of the reforms of the Four-Year Diet, including the constitution of 1791;
- turning the rest of Poland into a puppet state;
- the defeat of the mass popular uprising of 1794 under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko;
- the third partition of Poland in 1795 with the participation of Austria.
1807 was marked by the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon, which included the Prussian and Austrian lands of Poland. In 1809, the Poles Krakow, Lublin, Radom and Sandomierz, who fought on the side of Napoleon, joined it. The fact that Poland was part of Russia until 1917 brought the Polish people both great disappointments and new opportunities.
The period of "Alexander's freedoms"
After the defeat in the war with Russia, the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, created by Napoleon, became Russian property. In 1815, the reign of Alexander I began, who inherited a poor country, devastated by military operations, without a single industry, with neglected trade, with devastated cities and villages, where the people suffered from unbearable taxes and extortions. Taking this country under guardianship, Alexander made it prosperous.
- All branches of industry have resumed.
- Cities were rebuilt, new villages appeared.
- The drainage of swamps contributed to the emergence of fertile lands.
- The construction of new roads made it possible to cross the country in various directions.
- The emergence of new factories brought Polish cloth and other goods to Russia.
- The Polish debt was secured, the credit was restored.
- The establishment of a national Polish bank with capital received from the Russian sovereign contributed to the development of all branches of industry.
- An excellent army was created with a sufficient arsenal of weapons
- Fairly rapid pace of development was gained by education, which was evidenced by: the establishment of the University of Warsaw, the opening of departments higher sciences, sending the best Polish students to study in Paris, London, Berlin at the expense of Russian government, the opening of gymnasiums, military schools, boarding schools for the education of girls in regional Polish cities.
- The introduction of laws in Poland ensured order, inviolability of property and personal security.
- The population doubled during the first ten years of being part of Russia.
- The adoption of the Constituent Charter provided the Poles with a special form of government. In Poland, the Senate and the Sejm were created, which were the chambers of the representative assembly. The adoption of each new law was carried out after approval by a majority of votes in both chambers.
- Municipal government was introduced in Polish cities.
- A certain freedom was given to printing.
The time of the "Nikolaev reaction"
The main essence of the policy of Nicholas I in the Kingdom of Poland was increased Russification and forced conversion to Orthodoxy. The Polish people did not accept these directions, responding with mass protests, creating secret societies to organize uprisings against the government.
The emperor's response was the following actions: the abolition of the constitution that Alexander bestowed on Poland, the abolition of the Polish Sejm and the approval of his proxies for leadership positions.
Polish uprisings
The Polish people dreamed of an independent state. The main organizer of the protests was the students, which were later joined by soldiers, workers, part of the nobility and landowners. The main demands of the protesters were: agrarian reforms, the implementation of the democratization of society and the independence of Poland.
Uprisings broke out in different cities (Warsaw - 1830, Poznan - 1846).
The Russian government takes certain decisions, primarily on imposing restrictions on the use of the Polish language, on the movement of males.
To eliminate unrest in the country in 1861, martial law was introduced. A recruiting recruitment is announced, where unreliable youth are sent.
However, the ascension to the Russian throne of a new ruler - Nicholas II revived in the souls of the Polish people a certain hope for liberalism in Russia's policy towards the Kingdom of Poland.
In 1897, the National Democratic Party of Poland was created - the main fighter for the independence of the country. Over time, it will take a place in the Russian State Duma as the Polish Kolo faction, thereby designating itself as the leading political force in the struggle for a free, autonomous Poland.
Benefits of Belonging to an Empire
As part of the Russian Empire, Poland had certain advantages:
- Opportunity for advancement in public service.
- Supervision of the banking sector by Polish aristocrats.
- Get more government subsidies.
- Increasing the literacy rate among the Polish population thanks to government financial support.
- Receiving dividends from participation in rail transportation between Russia and Germany.
- The growth of banks in major cities Kingdom of Poland.
The year 1917, significant for Russia, was the end of the history of "Russian Poland". He gave the Poles the opportunity to establish their own statehood, and the country to get freedom. However, the expectations of the Russian emperor about the reality of the union with Russia did not come true.
Poland was another national region, which initially had a broad state-legal status, which, after the annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia, received the name of the Kingdom of Poland.
In the 18th century, the core of the Polish problem was the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which were under the rule of the Commonwealth. But Russia has not yet set the task of returning these lands and even rejected the projects for the partition of Poland proposed by Austria, Prussia and Sweden. At the same time, in an effort to ensure its influence in the region, Russia actively intervened in the affairs of the “Polish heritage”. In the event of the death of August II, she wanted to see his son on the Polish throne. 2nd contender for the Polish crown was Stanisław Leshchinsky, father-in-law french king Louis XY. By diplomacy and wars (almost until 1735), August III, a supporter of Russia, became the Polish king.
By decision of the Congress of Vienna, which completed the victory over Napoleon, in 1815 most of The Duchy of Warsaw, created by the French emperor from the Polish lands taken from Prussia, was transferred to Russia and was annexed to the Polish lands that were already part of it. Even earlier, according to the Treaty of Tilsit between Alexander I and Napoleon, the Polish Bialystok region ceded to Russia from Prussia.
The Kingdom of Poland was proclaimed on this territory. In 1815, Alexander I approved the Constitutional Charter for Poland - the "Constituent Charter", according to which autonomy was introduced in Poland and the status of a kingdom was given. Alexander I even swore allegiance to the "Constituent Charter", and the Russian Emperor became at the same time the king of Poland. The presence of the Constitution in Poland created a peculiar situation, when the autocratic monarch in the empire became limited in its part. During the absence of the king in Poland, he was represented by the governor (Polish).
According to modern Polish researchers, the status of Poland within the Russian Empire after 1815 can be defined as a personal union.
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland was more liberal than the Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, granted to him by Napoleon. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland was generally the most liberal of the constitutions of the then Europe.
In Central Europe, Poland was the only state that had a parliament elected by direct elections by all social classes, although with little participation of the peasants. Since 1818 he began to be elected legislative Seimas . The Sejm consisted of two chambers: the Senate and the Ambassador's hut of 128 deputies elected locally.
The Senate was made up of representatives of the nobility, appointed for life by the tsar, the embassy chamber (“hut”) was made up of the gentry and representatives of the communities (clay). Deputies were elected at voivodship sejmiks, in which only the gentry participated. The Sejm was convened in 1820 and 1825. The Sejm discussed bills submitted to it on behalf of the Emperor and the King, or the Council of State. The Seimas did not possess the legislative initiative (it was at the disposal of the State Council), it could only accept or reject bills. The predominance of the nobility was ensured in the representative bodies.
Under Alexander I, the Sejm was convened three times - in 1818, 1820 and 1825, and even then there was a conflict between the constitutional institutions of Poland and the autocratic power.
During the absence of the king in Poland, he was represented by the governor (Polish). The Sejm did not enjoy the right of legislative initiative (the State Council had it), it could only accept or reject bills. The predominance of the nobility was ensured in the representative bodies.
executive power focused on hands viceroy , under him acted as an advisory body State Council . Poland was administered administrative council headed by the viceroy of the emperor and 5 ministries: military, justice, internal affairs and police, education and religion. It was the highest executive body, controlled by the governor.
The judiciary was separated from the administration. The irremovability of judges was proclaimed and city self-government was established. The territory of the Kingdom of Poland was divided into 8 provinces, which enjoyed self-government.
Freedom of the press was proclaimed.
The Kingdom of Poland retained its own army, as the official state language spoke Polish, the authorities were formed, as a rule, from the Poles. There was a coat of arms of the Kingdom of Poland, the Catholic religion was declared to enjoy "special patronage of the government." The civil legislation introduced in the Duchy of Warsaw in 1808, modeled on the Napoleonic Code, has been preserved. Freedom of the press was proclaimed.
Granting a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, as well as other benefits, was a kind of consolation for the Poles, who had lost their independent state. For Russia, the inclusion of a new region in the empire turned out to be a source of concern; throughout the 19th and even 20th century. At the same time, one can hardly agree with the opinion of some authors that for Russia the accession of such an economically developed region at that time had no economic significance.
Even such broad rights that the Kingdom of Poland received did not suit, however, certain part Poles, mainly the gentry. She dreamed of restoring an independent Poland, moreover, within the borders of the Commonwealth, that is, with the inclusion of Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands in its territory.
This was the main reason for the uprising of 1830-1831. However, the uprising led to the loss of existing liberties. After the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1830 by Nicholas I was published (1832). They began to define legal status the edges. The "organic statute", which abolished many liberal privileges for territories with a Polish population: abolished the Polish constitution, and Poland was declared an integral part of the empire. The Polish crown became hereditary in the Russian imperial house.
The Sejm was abolished, and to discuss the most important issues meetings of provincial officials began to be convened.
In March 1832, a special governorship was formed there, headed by General I.F. Paskevich. He was endowed with dictatorial powers. In 1837, the Polish voivodships were transformed into provinces, office work was translated into Russian. From a state, the Kingdom of Poland turned into a province.
To manage the courts in Warsaw, two departments of the Imperial Senate were created. All education system transferred to the Ministry of Public Education. Since 1839, Russian programs were introduced in the gymnasiums, the Russian language became compulsory in schools. Warsaw and Vilna universities were closed.
All this caused discontent on the part of the Poles, created the conditions for new mass demonstrations. The vicegerency in the Polish lands lasted until 1874, then the Warsaw Governor General was established there, and the entire territory became officially known as the Privislensky region.
Finland, Poland and other western regions of the empire, being included in it, nevertheless did not become colonies of Russia. In my own way economic development they stood on the same level with Central Russia, and their economy continued to develop successfully as part of the empire.
Finland, Poland and other western regions of the empire, being included in it, nevertheless did not become colonies of Russia. In terms of their economic development, they stood on the same level as Central Russia, and their economy continued to develop successfully as part of the empire. The resettlement did not go to the newly annexed territories from the metropolis, but just the opposite - from the Baltic states and Belarus to the east, into the depths of Russia. Western districts empires became not raw materials, but, on the contrary, the industrial base of the country.
In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place between Austria, Prussia and Russia. May 3, 1791, the so-called. The four-year Sejm (1788-1792) adopted the Constitution of the Commonwealth.
In 1793 - the second section, ratified by the Grodno Seim, the last Seim of the Commonwealth; Byelorussia and Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia, to Prussia - Gdansk and Torun. The election of Polish kings was abolished.
In 1795, after the third partition, the Polish state ceased to exist. Western Ukraine (without Lvov) and Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland went to Russia, Warsaw - to Prussia, Krakow, Lublin - to Austria.
After the Congress of Vienna, Poland was again divided. Russia received the Kingdom of Poland with Warsaw, Prussia received the Grand Duchy of Poznan, and Krakow became a separate republic. The Republic of Krakow ("free, independent and strictly neutral city of Krakow with its district") was annexed by Austria in 1846.
In 1815, Poland received the Constitutional Charter. On February 26, 1832, the Organic Statute was approved. The Russian Emperor was crowned Tsar of Poland.
At the end of 1815, with the adoption of the Constitutional Charter of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish flags were also approved:
- Naval standard of the Tsar of Poland (that is, the Russian emperor);
Yellow cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding four in its paws and beaks nautical charts. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.
- Palace Standard of the Tsar of Poland;
White cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding a scepter and orb in its paws. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.
- Flag of the military courts of the Kingdom of Poland.
A white flag with a blue St. Andrew's cross and a red canton, which depicts the coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.
In the Polish flag studies literature, the last flag is referred to as "the flag of the Polish Black Sea trading companies of the 18th century." However, this statement raises very big doubts. Most likely in this case we are dealing with falsification. The fact is that the Andreevsky flag with an eagle was used by Polish emigrants as a national one. Due to the very complicated relations between Russia and Poland, it was extremely unpleasant for Polish nationalists to realize that the national flag of the Poles was, in fact, the occupying Russian flag. As a result, the myth of "Polish trading companies" was born.
Other official flags of Poland from the time of her stay in the Russian Empire are not known.
Like Finland, the Kingdom of Poland was part of the Russian Empire until the end of its existence as an autonomous entity with its own constitution. In 1915, after the occupation of Polish territory by Austro-Hungarian troops, the unrecognized Kingdom of Poland was formed, and after the end of the First World War, the independence of Poland was guaranteed for
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
By the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania united into one state, called the Commonwealth ( literal translation into Polish from Latin respublica). It was atypical public education: the king was elected by the Sejm and gradually he lost the levers of government. The gentry, that is, the nobility, had considerable power. However, the work of the Sejm was also paralyzed, since any decision could only be taken unanimously. During the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Commonwealth gradually turned into an object of European politics, and significantly strengthened neighbors claimed its territory: Sweden and the Moscow kingdom. Despite the awareness of numerous problems and bleak prospects by the Polish society, no decisive steps were taken to correct the situation. The king became a nominal figure, and the gentry did not want to part with their privileges even in the face of the threat of the state losing its independence.
To late XVIII century, Prussia, Austria and Russia were most interested in the Polish territories. However, Empress Catherine II sought to preserve an independent Poland, since this allowed her to control this state alone through her proteges. The Austrians and Prussians did not agree with this position. They put pressure on the Russian government, and Catherine, realizing that because of the Polish lands, new war, agreed to the section.
In 1772, an agreement was imposed on the Commonwealth, according to which it lost a third of its territory. Russia received the eastern regions of Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia. In 1793 the second partition took place. Russia became the owner of the central regions of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine. Only a quarter of the Commonwealth retained its independence. After an unsuccessful one in 1795, Prussia, Austria and Russia divided the remnants of the country among themselves.
During the divisions, the process of returning the lands lost was completed. Russia did not claim historical Polish territory, which allowed Catherine to renounce the title of Queen of Poland.
Formation of the Kingdom of Poland
One of the reasons for the creation of the autonomous Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire was the need to achieve the loyalty of the local population and thereby secure the western borders. Another reason stemmed from the declarations of the Congress of Vienna, which took place after the defeat of Napoleonic France. The three states that participated in the partitions guaranteed autonomy to the Polish lands, but this was realized only by the Russian side.
Important role the liberal-minded Russian emperor Alexander I played in the process of creating autonomy. He sincerely believed that this would allow organizing cooperation and mutually beneficial existence between the two Slavic peoples.
Legal aspects
Inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland took place in accordance with the provisions of the Vienna Treaties, ratified on May 3, 1815. From them it followed that the Polish lands were assigned to Russia forever.
During the Napoleonic wars, the lands divided between the three states were redistributed. So, in addition to the former territories, it was annexed to Russia. Such a significant territorial increase, of course, met Alexander's desire to create a foothold for Russia in Europe, but at the same time it brought new problems. They were supposed to be resolved by granting a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland under Alexander I. The emperor's plan aroused sharp opposition from England and Austria. In particular, representatives of these states, referring to the anarchy of the gentry in last years existence of the Commonwealth, they argued that the Poles had not reached the necessary level of development to receive a constitution. They offered to confine themselves to the introduction of local self-government, but Alexander resolutely rejected such a proposal.
Preparation of the Polish constitution
After the final accession to Russia of the Kingdom of the Polish special body involved in the development of the constitution, was not created. The first draft of the document was prepared by the emperor's closest advisers, including Prince Adam Czartoryski, a Pole by birth. But Alexander was not satisfied with the document. Firstly, he was excessively large, and secondly, he was imbued with an oligarchic spirit. Czartoryski agreed with the emperor's remarks and set about developing a new project.
Many prominent Polish public figures were involved in the work. Through their efforts, a new constitutional draft consisting of 162 articles was drawn up. The emperor personally got acquainted with him and made amendments regarding the expansion of his powers. Only after that the text of the constitution on French was signed. On June 20, 1815, it was promulgated, and from the next year it entered into force. Thus, it took a little more than two weeks to develop the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, which became part of the Russian Empire.
The document consisted of seven sections devoted to the main problems state structure newly formed autonomy. Briefly, they can be summarized as follows:
- the basic principles of the state structure of the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire;
- fixed rights and obligations of the Poles;
- organization and functioning of the executive branch of government;
- principles of formation of legislative bodies;
- administration of justice and organization of Polish judicial institutions;
- formation of local armed forces.
Such an organization of the articles, their relative weight from the general body of the text of the constitution (the articles relating to the executive power are developed in the most detail) is fully consistent with adopted by the year formerly the Constitutional Charter in France.
Legislature
According to the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, the bicameral Sejm, which also included the Polish tsar (that is, Russian emperor). The Sejm was convened every two years, but if an extraordinary session was necessary, the tsar issued a special decree. The members of the Senate, the upper chamber, were appointed by the tsar for life from among the princes, bishops, governors and castellans. In order to become a senator, it was necessary to overcome the age and property qualifications.
The lower chamber was formed from representatives of the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland, and therefore it was called the Chamber of Ambassadors. 77 people belonged to the number of nobles, and in total 128 deputies sat in the chamber. The size of the Senate was not to exceed half of that number. Elections to the Chamber of Ambassadors were two-stage, and for voters there was a moderate property qualification.
Equality was established between the two chambers: the king could send a bill to either of them. An exception was made only for laws related to the financial sector. They were necessarily sent first to the Chamber of Ambassadors. The Sejm had no legislative initiative. The vote on the bill was open, no changes to the text were allowed, this was the prerogative of the State Council. The king had the right of absolute veto.
executive power
The head of this branch was the king. His powers were extremely wide. So, only the monarch had the right to declare war and conclude peace, as well as control the armed forces. Only he could appoint senators, bishops and judges. The monarch was also in charge of the budget. In addition, the king had the right to pardon and dissolve the Chamber of Ambassadors with the appointment of new elections.
Thus, the tsar was the central figure in the administration of the Kingdom of Poland. At the same time, he was still an unlimited monarch, since he was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the constitution. Since he could not stay in Poland all the time, the position of governor was introduced, who was appointed by the tsar. His powers coincided with those of the king, with the exception of the right to appoint senior officials.
Under the king or governor, an advisory body was established - the State Council. He could draw up bills, approve ministerial reports, and also declare violations of the constitution.
To address current issues, a government was created, consisting of five ministries. Their area of expertise was as follows:
- religion and education system;
- justice;
- distribution of finances;
- law enforcement organization;
- military affairs.
Background of the Polish Uprising of 1830
Under Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Russian Empire was one of the most dynamically developing regions. Economic growth was observed in all areas of the national economy, thanks to which the budget deficit was overcome. The increase in the population also testifies to the increase in the standard of living: in total, by 1825, 4.5 million people lived on the territory of the autonomy.
However, crises also accumulated. First of all, the Polish national elite counted on the inclusion in the Kingdom of Poland of the lands acquired by Russia during the three partitions. The position of Emperor Alexander allowed counting on this, but, faced with serious opposition, the emperor abandoned this idea.
Another source of dissatisfaction among the Poles was the figure of the governor - the emperor's brother, Konstantin. Although he tried in every possible way to please his wards, his frankly despotic methods of management met with dull resistance. Among the officers, cases of suicide became more frequent, and the intelligentsia united in underground circles, banned after the speech of the Decembrists.
The accession of Nicholas I did not cause joy either, unlike his older brother, who did not sympathize with liberal trends and was hostile to the constitution. Despite his personal attitude, he nevertheless took the oath and intended to maintain the methods of administration that had developed since the inclusion of the Kingdom of Poland into the Russian Empire. But the Poles decided to seek independence. In 1828, the "Military Union" took shape, within which plans for an armed uprising were developed.
The uprising and its aftermath
The revolution of July 1830 in France spurred the Poles to action. Putting forward the slogan of restoring the Commonwealth within the borders to the first partition, Polish army opposed the Russian units. The governor was overthrown and narrowly escaped reprisal. It is significant that Konstantin Pavlovich was informed about the unrest in the army units, but he was in no hurry to take drastic measures, fearing the Polish nationalists less than the emperor. Nicholas himself, by decision of the rebels, was deposed as the Polish king.
Despite fierce resistance, the Polish army was utterly defeated on May 26, 1831. Soon, only Warsaw remained under the control of the rebels, holding out until September 7. By decisive actions, Emperor Nicholas managed to keep the Kingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire. But the consequences of the uprising for the Poles were tragic. Nicholas got the opportunity to cancel the constitution and bring the system of government in line with the general imperial. The Sejm and the State Council were abolished, the ministries were replaced by departmental commissions. The army of the Kingdom of Poland was disbanded, and the ability of the local government to manage finances was significantly curtailed.
After the uprising
The privileges of the Kingdom of Poland under Nicholas I were rapidly declining. The constitution was replaced by the Organic Statute of 1832, which laid down the idea of a gradual merger of Poland with the Russian Empire. Leadership positions were replaced by Russian officials, and a number of Polish departments (for example, communications or the Warsaw educational district) entered into direct subordination to the central government.
The established authoritarian regime caused a mass emigration of the Polish intelligentsia. From abroad, they tried to raise the Polish people, especially the peasantry, to revolt by means of leaflets and appeals. However, the contradictions between the gentry and the peasantry, which had been preserved since the time of the Commonwealth, were so strong that none of these attempts was crowned with success. In addition, the Nikolaev administration, in opposition to nationalism, put forward conservatism and clericalism. The influence of the Catholic Church brought to naught all attempts by emigration to convince the people of the need to fight for independence.
In 1863, the Poles nevertheless undertook a new uprising, which the Russian army again managed to suppress. Another attempt to get rid of Russian rule showed that the integration course of Nicholas I was not crowned with success. Mutual distrust and hostility were established between the two peoples. Forced Russification did not alleviate the situation either: in educational institutions taught the history of Russia, and the training itself was conducted in Russian.
It should be noted that in the educated circles of almost all Western states, the divisions of the Commonwealth were considered a historical injustice. This was especially evident when the Poles were divided between two opposing camps during the First World War and were forced to fight each other. Many Russian public figures were also aware of this, but it was dangerous to express such thoughts aloud. However, the stubborn desire of the Poles for independence did its job. At the final stage of the First World War, the American President, in his 14 points on a peaceful settlement, separately brought up the Polish question. In his opinion, the restoration of Poland within the historical borders was a matter of principle. However, the vagueness of the term "historical borders" caused a fierce debate: should we consider those that had developed by 1772 or the borders of the medieval Polish kingdom? Dissatisfaction with the decisions of the conferences in Versailles and Washington led to a war between the RSFSR and Poland, which ended in victory for the latter. But international contradictions did not end there. Czechoslovakia and Germany claimed a number of Polish regions. This, and other controversial decisions peace conferences after the First World War, led to a new big war in Europe, the first victim of which was an independent Poland.