Who founded quantum physics. Six Facts About Quantum Physics Everyone Should Know
As I begin to answer this question, I cannot help thinking that I cannot give you a complete picture of quantum physics, and not because you are a humanist, but because this is a very deep topic.
So, until the beginning of the 20th century, Newton's mechanics dominated physics, in which space and time were assumed to be absolute, unchangeable and existing, as it were, separately from the material world. Changes in any quantities (for example, energy and momentum) have always been assumed to be continuous. The idea most capaciously describing Newton's mechanics is Laplace's determinism (read on wiki). Everything changed with the advent of Max Planck and his bold idea to consider energy not as a continuous quantity, but as a quantized one, i.e. changing discretely (jumps). Such a representation made it possible to answer the question why the electron does not fall on the nucleus, and at the same time led to Bohr's postulates that atoms can only stay in stationary states with a certain energy for a long time, and absorb and emit energy only in portions (quanta).
Quantum physics uses a completely different way of describing objects and a different mathematical apparatus. If in classical physics you can easily find the coordinates, trajectories, momenta of objects, simply by measuring them with instruments, then in quantum physics all these quantities are probabilistic! The coordinate is searched using the wave function, the square of the density of which is the probability density of finding the particle at any point in space. There are no trajectories in quantum physics, as there are in classical physics. Or rather, even like this: there are trajectories, but the object moves along all trajectories at once with different probabilities.
All quantities in classical physics are associated with operators in quantum physics. And all values (numbers) that these values can take are assigned eigenvalues of operators (numbers). Operators are simply rules by which one function is associated with another function. That is, if we need to get the value of the energy of the system, then in classical physics we simply measure it, and in quantum physics we act with the total energy operator on the wave function of the system and get the eigenvalue of the operator. Since the wave function contains all the information about the pure state of the system, and this information can be extracted by applying various operators to the function.
In quantum physics, there is an uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to measure some quantities at the same time, such as, for example, momentum and position, energy and energy measurement time. The maximum refinement of one parameter leads to increasingly vague information about the other. This principle can be described as if when we drive nature into a very small space and try to explore, it starts to freak out and does not allow it! Therefore, there are no quantum effects on large scales.
Another important feature: any quantum system, as it were, lives in an indefinite state, and as soon as a measurement is made on it, its wave function collapses and the system comes forever into a specific definite state. In classical physics, all systems are always in some particular state. No matter how many times we conduct an experiment of throwing a ball in the same direction, the result will always be the same, but not in quantum physics.
An unprepared listener is frightened from the very beginning of acquaintance. It is strange and illogical, even for the physicists who deal with it every day. But she is not incomprehensible. If you are interested in quantum physics, there are actually six key concepts of it, which must be kept in mind. No, they are not related. And these are not thought experiments. Just wind them around your mustache and quantum physics will be much easier to understand.
There are many places to start this discussion, and this is as good as the others: everything in our universe has the nature of both particles and waves at the same time. If one could say about magic this way: "All these are waves, and only waves," that would be a wonderful poetic description of quantum physics. In fact, everything in this universe has a wave nature.
Of course, also everything in the universe has the nature of particles. Sounds weird, but it is.
Describing real objects as particles and waves at the same time would be somewhat inaccurate. In fact, the objects described quantum physics, are not particles and waves, but rather belong to a third category that inherits the properties of waves (frequency and wavelength, along with propagation in space) and some of the properties of particles (they can be counted and localized to a certain extent). This leads to a lively debate in the physics community about whether it is even correct to speak of light as a particle; not because there is a contradiction in whether light has a particle nature, but because calling photons "particles" and not "excitations of a quantum field" is misleading students. However, this also applies to whether electrons can be called particles, but such disputes will remain in purely academic circles.
This "third" nature of quantum objects is reflected in the sometimes confusing language of physicists who discuss quantum phenomena. The Higgs boson was discovered as a particle at the Large Hadron Collider, but you've probably heard the phrase "Higgs field", such a delocalized thing that fills all of space. This is because under certain conditions, such as particle collision experiments, it is more appropriate to discuss excitations of the Higgs field than to characterize the particle, while under other conditions, such as general discussions of why certain particles have mass, it is more appropriate to discuss physics in terms of interactions with the quantum a field of universal proportions. They are just different languages describing the same mathematical objects.
Quantum physics is discrete
Everything in the name of physics - the word "quantum" comes from the Latin "how much" and reflects the fact that quantum models always include something coming in discrete quantities. The energy contained in a quantum field comes in multiples of some fundamental energy. For light, this is associated with the frequency and wavelength of the light—high-frequency, short-wavelength light has a huge characteristic energy, while low-frequency, long-wavelength light has little characteristic energy.
In both cases, meanwhile, the total energy contained in a separate light field is an integer multiple of this energy - 1, 2, 14, 137 times - and there are no strange fractions like one and a half, "pi" or the square root of two. This property is also observed in the discrete energy levels of atoms, and the energy bands are specific - some energy values are allowed, others are not. Atomic clocks work thanks to the discreteness of quantum physics, using the frequency of light associated with the transition between two allowed states in cesium, which allows you to keep time at the level necessary for the "second jump".
Ultra-precise spectroscopy can also be used to search for things like dark matter, and remains part of the motivation for the institute's work on low-energy fundamental physics.
It's not always obvious - even some things that are quantum in principle, like blackbody radiation, are associated with continuous distributions. But upon closer examination and when connecting a deep mathematical apparatus quantum theory gets even weirder.
Quantum physics is probabilistic
One of the most surprising and (at least historically) controversial aspects of quantum physics is that it is impossible to predict with certainty the outcome of a single experiment with a quantum system. When physicists predict the outcome of a particular experiment, their prediction is in the form of the probability of finding each of the particular possible outcomes, and comparisons between theory and experiment always involve deriving a probability distribution from many repeated experiments.
The mathematical description of a quantum system, as a rule, takes the form of a "wave function", represented in the equations of the Greek beech psi: Ψ. There are many discussions about what exactly the wave function is, and they have divided physicists into two camps: those who see the wave function as a real physical thing (ontic theorists), and those who believe that the wave function is solely an expression of our knowledge (or lack thereof) regardless of the underlying state of a particular quantum object (epistemic theorists).
In each class of the underlying model, the probability of finding a result is determined not by the wave function directly, but by the square of the wave function (roughly speaking, it is still the same; the wave function is a complex mathematical object (and therefore includes imaginary numbers like square root or its negative variant), and the probability operation is a bit more complicated, but "the square of the wave function" is enough to get the basic gist of the idea). This is known as the Born rule, after the German physicist Max Born, who first calculated it (in a footnote to a 1926 paper) and surprised many people with its ugly implementation. There is active work in trying to derive the Born rule from a more fundamental principle; but so far none of them has been successful, although it has generated a lot of interesting things for science.
This aspect of the theory also leads us to particles that are in many states at the same time. All we can predict is probability, and before measuring with a particular result, the system being measured is in an intermediate state - a superposition state that includes all possible probabilities. But whether the system is really in multiple states or is in one unknown depends on whether you prefer an ontic or epistemic model. Both of them lead us to the next point.
Quantum physics is non-local
The latter was not widely accepted as such, mainly because he was wrong. In a 1935 paper, along with his young colleagues Boris Podolkiy and Nathan Rosen (the EPR paper), Einstein made a clear mathematical statement of something that had been troubling him for some time, what we call "entanglement."
EPR's work claimed that quantum physics recognized the existence of systems in which measurements made at widely separated places could be correlated so that the outcome of one determined the other. They argued that this meant that the results of the measurements had to be determined in advance by some common factor, since otherwise the result of one measurement would have to be transmitted to the site of another at a speed faster than the speed of light. Therefore, quantum physics must be incomplete, an approximation of a deeper theory (the “hidden local variable” theory, in which the results of individual measurements do not depend on something that is farther from the measurement site than a signal traveling at the speed of light can cover (locally), but rather is determined by some factor common to both systems in an entangled pair (hidden variable).
The whole thing was considered an incomprehensible footnote for more than 30 years, since there seemed to be no way to verify it, but in the mid-60s, the Irish physicist John Bell worked out the consequences of EPR in more detail. Bell showed that you could find circumstances under which quantum mechanics would predict correlations between distant measurements that would be stronger than any possible theory like those proposed by E, P, and R. This was experimentally tested in the 70s by John Kloser and Alain Aspect in the early 80s. x - they showed that these intricate systems could not potentially be explained by any local hidden variable theory.
The most common approach to understanding this result is to assume that quantum mechanics is non-local: that the results of measurements made at a particular location can depend on the properties of a distant object in a way that cannot be explained using signals traveling at the speed of light. This, however, does not allow information to be transmitted at superluminal speeds, although many attempts have been made to circumvent this limitation using quantum nonlocality.
Quantum physics is (almost always) concerned with the very small
Quantum physics has a reputation for being weird because its predictions are drastically different from our everyday experience. This is because its effects are less pronounced the larger the object - you will hardly see the wave behavior of particles and how the wavelength decreases with increasing momentum. The wavelength of a macroscopic object like a walking dog is so ridiculously small that if you magnified every atom in a room to solar system, the wavelength of a dog would be the size of one atom in such a solar system.
This means that quantum phenomena are mostly limited to the scale of atoms and fundamental particles, whose masses and accelerations are small enough that the wavelength remains so small that it cannot be observed directly. However, a lot of efforts are being made to increase the size of a system that exhibits quantum effects.
Quantum physics is not magic
The previous point quite naturally brings us to this point: however strange quantum physics may seem, it is clearly not magic. What it postulates is strange by the standards of everyday physics, but it is severely constrained by well-understood mathematical rules and principles.
So if someone comes to you with a "quantum" idea that seems impossible - infinite energy, magical healing power, impossible space engines - it's almost certainly impossible. This doesn't mean that we can't use quantum physics to do incredible things: we are constantly writing about incredible breakthroughs using quantum phenomena, and they have already quite surprised humanity, it only means that we will not go beyond the laws of thermodynamics and common sense .
If the above points are not enough for you, consider this only a useful starting point for further discussion.
Quantum physics has radically changed our understanding of the world. According to quantum physics, we can influence the process of rejuvenation with our consciousness!
Why is this possible?From the point of view of quantum physics, our reality is a source of pure potentialities, a source of raw materials that make up our body, our mind and the entire Universe. The universal energy and information field never stops changing and transforming, turning into something new every second.
In the 20th century, during physical experiments with subatomic particles and photons, it was discovered that the fact of observing the course of an experiment changes its results. What we focus our attention on can react.
This fact is confirmed by a classic experiment that surprises scientists every time. It was repeated in many laboratories and the same results were always obtained.
For this experiment, a light source and a screen with two slits were prepared. As a light source, a device was used that "shot" photons in the form of single pulses.
The course of the experiment was monitored. After the end of the experiment, two vertical stripes were visible on the photographic paper that was behind the slits. These are traces of photons that passed through the slits and illuminated the photographic paper.
When this experiment was repeated in automatic mode, without human intervention, the picture on photographic paper changed:
If the researcher turned on the device and left, and after 20 minutes the photographic paper developed, then not two, but many vertical stripes were found on it. These were traces of radiation. But the drawing was different.
The structure of the trace on photographic paper resembled the trace of a wave that passed through the slits. Light can exhibit the properties of a wave or a particle.
As a result of the simple fact of observation, the wave disappears and turns into particles. If you do not observe, then a trace of the wave appears on the photographic paper. This physical phenomenon is called the Observer Effect.
The same results were obtained with other particles. The experiments were repeated many times, but each time they surprised scientists. So it was discovered that at the quantum level, matter reacts to the attention of a person. This was new in physics.
According to the concepts of modern physics, everything materializes from the void. This emptiness is called "quantum field", "zero field" or "matrix". The void contains energy that can turn into matter.
Matter consists of concentrated energy - this is the fundamental discovery of physics of the 20th century.
There are no solid parts in an atom. Objects are made up of atoms. But why are objects solid? A finger attached to a brick wall does not pass through it. Why? This is due to differences in the frequency characteristics of atoms and electric charges. Each type of atom has its own vibration frequency. This defines the differences physical properties items. If it were possible to change the vibration frequency of the atoms that make up the body, then a person could pass through the walls. But the vibrational frequencies of the atoms of the hand and the atoms of the wall are close. Therefore, the finger rests on the wall.
For any kind of interaction, frequency resonance is necessary.
It is easy to understand on simple example. If you illuminate a stone wall with the light of a flashlight, the light will be blocked by the wall. However, mobile phone radiation will easily pass through this wall. It's all about the frequency differences between the radiation of a flashlight and a mobile phone. While you are reading this text, streams of very different radiation are passing through your body. These are cosmic radiation, radio signals, signals from millions of mobile phones, radiation coming from the earth, solar radiation, radiation created by household appliances, etc.
You don't feel it because you can only see light and hear only sound. Even if you sit in silence with your eyes closed, millions of telephone conversations, pictures of TV news and radio messages. You do not perceive this, because there is no resonance of frequencies between the atoms that make up your body and radiation. But if there is a resonance, then you immediately react. For example, when you remember a loved one who just thought of you. Everything in the universe obeys the laws of resonance.
The world consists of energy and information. Einstein, after much thought about the structure of the world, said: "The only reality that exists in the universe is the field." Just as waves are a creation of the sea, all manifestations of matter: organisms, planets, stars, galaxies are creations of the field.
The question arises, how is matter created from the field? What force controls the motion of matter?
Research scientists led them to an unexpected answer. The founder of quantum physics, Max Planck, said the following during his Nobel Prize speech:
“Everything in the Universe is created and exists due to force. We must assume that behind this force is a conscious mind, which is the matrix of all matter.
MATTER IS GOVERNED BY CONSCIOUSNESS
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, new ideas appeared in theoretical physics that make it possible to explain the strange properties elementary particles. Particles can appear from the void and suddenly disappear. Scientists admit the possibility of the existence of parallel universes. Perhaps particles move from one layer of the universe to another. Celebrities such as Stephen Hawking, Edward Witten, Juan Maldacena, Leonard Susskind are involved in the development of these ideas.
According to the concepts of theoretical physics, the Universe resembles a nesting doll, which consists of many nesting dolls - layers. These are variants of universes - parallel worlds. The ones next to each other are very similar. But the further the layers are from each other, the less similarities between them. Theoretically, in order to move from one universe to another, it is not required spaceships. All possible options located one inside the other. For the first time these ideas were expressed by scientists in the middle of the 20th century. At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, they received mathematical confirmation. Today, such information is easily accepted by the public. However, a couple of hundred years ago, for such statements they could be burned at the stake or declared crazy.
Everything arises from emptiness. Everything is in motion. Items are an illusion. Matter is made up of energy. Everything is created by thought. These discoveries of quantum physics contain nothing new. All this was known to the ancient sages. In many mystical teachings, which were considered secret and were available only to initiates, it was said that there was no difference between thoughts and objects.Everything in the world is filled with energy. The universe responds to thought. Energy follows attention.
What you focus your attention on begins to change. These thoughts in various formulations are given in the Bible, ancient Gnostic texts, in mystical teachings that arose in India and South America. The builders of the ancient pyramids guessed this. This knowledge is the key to the new technologies that are being used today to manipulate reality.
Our body is a field of energy, information and intelligence, which is in a state of constant dynamic exchange with the environment. The impulses of the mind constantly, every second, give the body new forms to adapt to the changing demands of life.
From the point of view of quantum physics, our physical body, under the influence of our mind, is able to make a quantum leap from one biological age to another without going through all the intermediate ages. published
P.S. And remember, just by changing your consumption, we are changing the world together! © econet
Physics is the most mysterious of all sciences. Physics gives us an understanding of the world around us. The laws of physics are absolute and apply to everyone without exception, regardless of person and social status.
This article is intended for persons over 18 years of age.
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Fundamental discoveries in quantum physics
Isaac Newton, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein and many others are the great guides of mankind in wonderful world physicists who, like the prophets, revealed to mankind greatest secrets universe and the ability to control physical phenomena. Their bright heads cut through the darkness of ignorance of the unreasonable majority and, like a guiding star, showed the way to humanity in the darkness of the night. One of these conductors in the world of physics was Max Planck, the father of quantum physics.
Max Planck is not only the founder of quantum physics, but also the author of the world famous quantum theory. Quantum theory is the most important component of quantum physics. In simple terms, this theory describes the movement, behavior and interaction of microparticles. The founder of quantum physics also brought us many other scientific papers, which have become the cornerstones of modern physics:
- theory of thermal radiation;
- special theory of relativity;
- research in the field of thermodynamics;
- research in the field of optics.
The theory of quantum physics about the behavior and interaction of microparticles became the basis for condensed matter physics, elementary particle physics and high energy physics. Quantum theory explains to us the essence of many phenomena of our world - from the functioning of electronic computers to the structure and behavior of celestial bodies. Max Planck, the creator of this theory, thanks to his discovery allowed us to comprehend the true essence of many things at the level of elementary particles. But the creation of this theory is far from the only merit of the scientist. He was the first to discover the fundamental law of the universe - the law of conservation of energy. The contribution to science of Max Planck is difficult to overestimate. In short, his discoveries are priceless for physics, chemistry, history, methodology and philosophy.
quantum field theory
In a nutshell, quantum field theory is a theory of the description of microparticles, as well as their behavior in space, interaction with each other and mutual transformations. This theory studies the behavior of quantum systems within the so-called degrees of freedom. This beautiful and romantic name says nothing to many of us. For dummies, degrees of freedom are the number of independent coordinates that are needed to indicate the motion of a mechanical system. In simple terms, degrees of freedom are characteristics of motion. Interesting discoveries in the field of interaction of elementary particles made Steven Weinberg. He discovered the so-called neutral current - the principle of interaction between quarks and leptons, for which he received Nobel Prize in 1979.
The Quantum Theory of Max Planck
In the nineties of the eighteenth century, the German physicist Max Planck took up the study of thermal radiation and eventually received a formula for the distribution of energy. The quantum hypothesis, which was born in the course of these studies, marked the beginning of quantum physics, as well as quantum field theory, discovered in the 1900th year. Planck's quantum theory is that during thermal radiation, the energy produced is emitted and absorbed not constantly, but episodically, quantumly. The year 1900, thanks to this discovery made by Max Planck, became the year of the birth of quantum mechanics. It is also worth mentioning Planck's formula. In short, its essence is as follows - it is based on the ratio of body temperature and its radiation.
Quantum-mechanical theory of the structure of the atom
The quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom is one of the basic theories of concepts in quantum physics, and indeed in physics in general. This theory allows us to understand the structure of everything material and opens the veil of secrecy over what things actually consist of. And the conclusions based on this theory are very unexpected. Consider the structure of the atom briefly. So what is an atom really made of? An atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. The basis of the atom, its nucleus, contains almost the entire mass of the atom itself - more than 99 percent. The nucleus always has a positive charge, and it determines chemical element, of which the atom is a part. The most interesting thing about the nucleus of an atom is that it contains almost the entire mass of the atom, but at the same time it occupies only one ten-thousandth of its volume. What follows from this? And the conclusion is very unexpected. This means that the dense matter in the atom is only one ten-thousandth. And what about everything else? Everything else in the atom is an electron cloud.
The electron cloud is not a permanent and even, in fact, not a material substance. An electron cloud is just the probability of electrons appearing in an atom. That is, the nucleus occupies only one ten thousandth in the atom, and everything else is emptiness. And given that all the objects around us, from dust particles to celestial bodies, planets and stars, are made of atoms, it turns out that everything material is actually more than 99 percent of emptiness. This theory seems completely unbelievable, and its author, at least, a delusional person, because the things that exist around have a solid consistency, have weight and can be felt. How can it consist of emptiness? Has a mistake crept into this theory of the structure of matter? But there is no error here.
All material things appear dense only due to the interaction between atoms. Things have a solid and dense consistency only due to attraction or repulsion between atoms. This ensures the density and hardness of the crystal lattice chemical substances of which all material things are made. But, an interesting point, when changing, for example, temperature conditions environment, the bonds between atoms, that is, their attraction and repulsion, can weaken, which leads to a weakening of the crystal lattice and even to its destruction. This explains the change in the physical properties of substances when heated. For example, when iron is heated, it becomes liquid and can be shaped into any shape. And when ice melts, the destruction of the crystal lattice leads to a change in the state of matter, and it turns from solid to liquid. This bright examples weakening the bonds between atoms and, as a result, weakening or destruction of the crystal lattice, and allow the substance to become amorphous. And the reason for such mysterious metamorphoses is precisely that substances consist of dense matter only by one ten-thousandth, and everything else is emptiness.
And things seem solid just for a reason strong ties between atoms, when weakened, the substance changes. Thus, the quantum theory of the structure of the atom allows us to take a completely different look at the world around us.
The founder of the theory of the atom, Niels Bohr, put forward an interesting concept that the electrons in the atom do not radiate energy constantly, but only at the moment of transition between the trajectories of their movement. Bohr's theory helped explain many intra-atomic processes, and also made a breakthrough in the science of chemistry, explaining the boundary of the table created by Mendeleev. According to , the last element that can exist in time and space has the serial number one hundred thirty-seven, and elements starting from one hundred and thirty-eighth cannot exist, since their existence contradicts the theory of relativity. Also, Bohr's theory explained the nature of such a physical phenomenon as atomic spectra.
These are the interaction spectra of free atoms that arise when energy is emitted between them. Such phenomena are typical for gaseous, vaporous substances and substances in the plasma state. Thus, quantum theory made a revolution in the world of physics and allowed scientists to advance not only in the field of this science, but also in the field of many related sciences: chemistry, thermodynamics, optics and philosophy. And also allowed humanity to penetrate the secrets of the nature of things.
There is still a lot to be done by humanity in its consciousness in order to realize the nature of atoms, to understand the principles of their behavior and interaction. Having understood this, we will be able to understand the nature of the world around us, because everything that surrounds us, starting with dust particles and ending with the sun itself, and we ourselves - everything consists of atoms, the nature of which is mysterious and amazing and fraught with a lot of secrets.
Classical physics, which existed before the invention of quantum mechanics, describes nature on an ordinary (macroscopic) scale. Most of the theories in classical physics can be deduced as approximations operating on the scales we are accustomed to. Quantum physics (it is also quantum mechanics) differs from classical science in that energy, momentum, angular momentum and other quantities connected system limited to discrete values (quantization). Objects have special characteristics both in the form of particles and in the form of waves (duality of wave particles). Also in this science there are limits to the accuracy with which quantities can be measured (uncertainty principle).
It can be said that after the advent of quantum physics, a kind of revolution took place in the exact sciences, which made it possible to reconsider and analyze all the old laws that were previously considered indisputable truths. Is it good or bad? Perhaps it is good, because true science should never stand still.
However, the "quantum revolution" was a kind of blow to old-school physicists, who had to come to terms with the fact that what they believed in before turned out to be just a set of erroneous and archaic theories in need of urgent revision and adaptation to new reality. Most physicists enthusiastically accepted these new ideas about a well-known science, contributing to its study, development and implementation. Today, quantum physics sets the dynamics for all science as a whole. Advanced experimental projects (like the Large Hadron Collider) arose precisely because of her.
Opening
What can be said about the foundations of quantum physics? It gradually emerged from various theories intended to explain phenomena that could not be reconciled with classical physics, such as Max Planck's solution in 1900 and his approach to the problem of radiation of many scientific problems, and the correspondence between energy and frequency in a 1905 paper by Albert Einstein , which explained photoelectric effects. Early theory quantum physics was thoroughly revised in the mid-1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and others. Modern theory formulated in various specially designed mathematical concepts. In one of them, the arithmetic function (or wave function) gives us comprehensive information about the amplitude of the probability of the location of the impulse.
Scientific research The wave essence of light began more than 200 years ago, when the great and recognized scientists of that time proposed, developed and proved the theory of light based on their own experimental observations. They called it wave.
In 1803, the famous English scientist Thomas Young conducted his famous double experiment, as a result of which he wrote the famous work "On the Nature of Light and Color", which played a huge role in shaping contemporary ideas about these phenomena familiar to us all. This experiment played essential role in general acceptance of this theory.
Such experiments are often described in various books, for example, "Fundamentals of Quantum Physics for Dummies". Modern experiments with the acceleration of elementary particles, for example, the search for the Higgs boson in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC for short) is carried out precisely in order to find practical confirmation of many purely theoretical quantum theories.
Story
In 1838, Michael Faraday, to the delight of the whole world, discovered cathode rays. These sensational studies were followed by the statement about the problem of radiation, the so-called "black body" (1859), made by Gustav Kirchhoff, as well as the famous assumption of Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of any physical system can also be discrete (1877). ). Later, the quantum hypothesis developed by Max Planck (1900) appeared. It is considered one of the foundations of quantum physics. The bold statement that energy can both be emitted and absorbed in discrete "quanta" (or energy packets) is exactly in line with the observable patterns of black body radiation.
A great contribution to quantum physics was made by the world-famous Albert Einstein. Impressed by quantum theories, he developed his own. general theory relativity - that's what it's called. Discoveries in quantum physics also influenced the development of the special theory of relativity. Many scientists in the first half of the last century began to study this science at the suggestion of Einstein. She was at the forefront at that time, everyone liked her, everyone was interested in her. It is not surprising, because it closed so many "holes" in classical physical science (however, it also created new ones), suggested scientific rationale time travel, telekinesis, telepathy and parallel worlds.
The role of the observer
Any event or state depends directly on the observer. Usually, this is how the basics of quantum physics are briefly explained to people who are far from the exact sciences. However, in reality, everything is much more complicated.
This is in perfect agreement with many occult and religious traditions that have insisted for centuries on the ability of people to influence the surrounding events. In some way, this is also the basis for scientific explanation extrasensory perception, because now the assertion that a person (observer) is able to influence physical events with the power of thought does not seem absurd.
Each eigenstate of an observable event or object corresponds to an eigenvector of the observer. If the spectrum of the operator (observer) is discrete, the observed object can only reach discrete eigenvalues. That is, the object of observation, as well as its characteristics, is completely determined by this very operator.
Unlike the generally accepted classical mechanics(or physicists), one cannot make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables such as position and momentum. For example, electrons can (with a certain probability) be located approximately in a certain region of space, but their mathematical exact position is actually unknown.
Contours of constant probability density, often referred to as "clouds", can be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where an electron is most likely to be located. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle proves the inability to accurately locate a particle given its conjugate momentum. Some models in this theory have a purely abstract computational character and do not imply applied value. However, they are often used to calculate complex interactions at the level and other subtle matters. In addition, this branch of physics allowed scientists to assume the possibility of the real existence of many worlds. Perhaps we will be able to see them soon.
wave functions
The laws of quantum physics are very voluminous and varied. They intersect with the idea of wave functions. Some special ones create a spread of probabilities that is inherently constant or independent of time, for example, when in a stationary state of energy, time seems to disappear with respect to the wave function. This is one of the effects of quantum physics, which is fundamental to it. The curious fact is that the phenomenon of time has been radically revised in this unusual science.
Perturbation theory
However, there are several reliable ways to develop the solutions needed to work with formulas and theories in quantum physics. One such method, commonly known as "perturbation theory", uses analytical result for an elementary quantum mechanical model. It was created to bring results from experiments to develop even more complex model, which is related to a simpler model. Here is the recursion.
This approach is especially important in the theory of quantum chaos, which is extremely popular for the interpretation of various events in microscopic reality.
Rules and laws
The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental. They claim that the deployment space of a system is absolutely fundamental (it has a dot product). Another statement is that the effects observed by this system are at the same time peculiar operators that affect vectors in this very medium. However, they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators exist at the moment. They can be chosen appropriately to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system.
Significance and influence
Since the emergence of this unusual science, many anti-intuitive aspects and results of the study of quantum mechanics have provoked loud philosophical debates and many interpretations. Even fundamental questions, such as the rules for calculating various amplitudes and probability distributions, deserve respect from the public and many leading scientists.
For example, one day he sadly remarked that he was not at all sure that any of the scientists understood quantum mechanics at all. According to Steven Weinberg, there is currently no one-size-fits-all interpretation of quantum mechanics. This suggests that scientists have created a "monster", to fully understand and explain the existence of which they themselves are unable to. However, this does not harm the relevance and popularity of this science in any way, but attracts young specialists who want to solve really complex and incomprehensible problems.
In addition, quantum mechanics forced a complete revision of the objective physical laws Universe, which cannot but rejoice.
Copenhagen interpretation
According to this interpretation, the standard definition of causality known to us from classical physics is no longer needed. According to quantum theories, causality in the usual sense for us does not exist at all. All physical phenomena they are explained from the point of view of the interaction of the smallest elementary particles at the subatomic level. This area, despite the seeming improbability, is extremely promising.
quantum psychology
What can be said about the relationship between quantum physics and human consciousness? This is beautifully written in a book written by Robert Anton Wilson in 1990 called Quantum Psychology.
According to the theory set forth in the book, all processes occurring in our brain are determined by the laws described in this article. That is, this is a kind of attempt to adapt the theory of quantum physics to psychology. This theory is considered parascientific and is not recognized by the academic community.
Wilson's book is notable for the fact that he cites a set of various techniques and practitioners who, to one degree or another, prove his hypothesis. One way or another, the reader must decide for himself whether or not he believes the viability of such attempts to apply mathematical and physical models to the humanities.
Some have taken Wilson's book as an attempt to justify mystical thinking and tie it to scientifically proven newfangled physical formulations. This highly non-trivial and striking work has been in demand for more than 100 years. The book is published, translated and read all over the world. Who knows, perhaps with the development of quantum mechanics, the attitude of the scientific community towards quantum psychology will also change.
Conclusion
Thanks to this remarkable theory, which soon became a separate science, we were able to explore the surrounding reality at the level of subatomic particles. This is the smallest level of all possible, completely inaccessible to our perception. What physicists previously knew about our world needs urgent revision. Absolutely everyone agrees with this. It became obvious that different particles can interact with each other at completely unthinkable distances, which we can only measure by complex mathematical formulas.
In addition, quantum mechanics (and quantum physics) has proven the possibility of many parallel realities, time travel and other things that throughout history were considered only the stuff of science fiction. This is undoubtedly a huge contribution not only to science, but also to the future of mankind.
For lovers of the scientific picture of the world, this science can be both a friend and an enemy. The fact is that quantum theory opens up wide possibilities for various speculations on a parascientific topic, as has already been shown in the example of one of the alternative psychological theories. Some modern occultists, esotericists and supporters of alternative religious and spiritual movements (most often psychocults) turn to the theoretical constructions of this science in order to substantiate the rationality and truth of their mystical theories, beliefs and practices.
This is an unprecedented case, when simple conjectures of theorists and abstract mathematical formulas led to a real scientific revolution and created a new science that crossed out everything that was known before. To some extent, quantum physics has refuted the laws of Aristotelian logic, since it has shown that when choosing "either-or" there is one more (or, perhaps, several) alternatives.