Technical inventions of the 13th-16th century. Medieval inventions that became revolutionary in their time
// 6th century (Northern Italy, Rhine Valley)
This agricultural tool spread along with the development of northern European lands.
The light wooden plow traditionally used in the Mediterranean could not handle the heavier wet soils in the north. A heavy model of a plow was upholstered with such a valuable metal in the early Middle Ages as iron. The profession of a blacksmith at that time was on a par with a jeweler, so a technological novelty was fabulously expensive. That is why a heavy plow was usually bought for several families at once.
2. Three-field farming system
// 9th century (Western Europe)
The system of land use, in which each of the three parts of arable land was sown in turn with winter, spring or fallow, is first mentioned in the annals of the Carolingians.
For a long time, people simply abandoned impoverished plots of land and cleared new territory, arranging massive forest fires for this. The transition to a three-field system led to an unprecedented phenomenon - the appearance of excess food. They began to sell it to those who were engaged in crafts. Spreading new system agriculture was a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of cities. True, the three-field land also had its own costs: when the land was resting, it could be mistaken for ownerless and taken over by an enterprising neighbor. The number of "land hearings" at that time went off scale.
3. Rigid collar
// X century (France, England)
A special type of harness, which made it possible to increase the draft force of the animal four times.
Until the 10th century, the main animal in the economy was an unpretentious ox, and not expensive to maintain (oats were very expensive) and often sick horse. But when the area of crops increased, a more mobile animal was needed. A new type of harness made it possible to redistribute the load from the trachea to the chest of the horse, and now in a day it could plow as much as 3-4 oxen.
4. Hygrometer wool
// X5th century (Italy)
A device that measures air humidity was invented by Nicholas of Cusa in 1440.
An outstanding thinker and scientist traded sheep wool. He noticed that on rainy days, wool weighs much more heavily, and began using stones that do not absorb moisture to accurately measure the weight. This discovery later led to the creation simple mechanism on the basis of weights: on the one hand, a material like cotton wool was laid, on the other, a non-absorbent substance such as wax. When the air was dry, the plumb line remained vertical. When cotton wool absorbs moisture from the air, it becomes heavier than wax.
5. Mechanical watch
// XIII century (Central Europe)
They were ten-meter towers, crowned with a dial with a single hand that indicated the hours.
The first mechanical clock was the most complex medieval mechanism, consisting of approximately 2,000 parts. In order to correct the movement of a 200-kilogram weight, the watchmakers invented Bilyantsy - the regulators of the movement of the main, ratchet wheel, and then the spindle device. All this significantly increased the accuracy of the course. The oldest surviving mechanical watch(1386) are in England, at the cathedral in Salisbury. And in French Rouen, the clock of 1389 still shows the correct time.
6. Music notation
// 11th century (Italy)
Notes in the form of squares located on four rulers were invented by the Italian monk Guido d'Arezzo.
Guido led an ensemble of boys who each day began their rehearsal with a hymn to St. John. The boys were out of tune so shamelessly that the monk decided to demonstrate how the sound rises and falls. And he laid the foundation for modern solfeggio. Today, the musical staff consists of five lines, but the principle of notation and the name of the notes re, mi, fa, salt, la have not changed since then.
7. Universities
// 11th century (Italy)
The first European university opened in Bologna in 1088.
First scientific work even in secular universities they had names like “Why did Adam eat an apple in paradise and not a pear?” or "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?" The division into faculties gradually took shape: legal, medical, theological, philosophical. The students were, as a rule, adults and even old people who came here not so much to study as to exchange experiences. Universities were very popular: about 10 thousand students studied in Bologna, so many lectures had to be read in the open air.
8. Pharmacies
// XI–XIII century (Spain, Italy)
In 1224, the German King Frederick II Staufen issued a decree forbidding doctors to make medicines, and pharmacists to treat.
The first pharmacies at first were not much different from a grocery store. The impetus for the development of pharmaceutics was given by the division into a doctor and a pharmacist introduced by the German monarch. For example, only a pharmacist could buy such useful drugs as mosquito oil, ashes of wolf hair and theriac - a universal antidote. It is worth noting that the medicine of that time was experimental, so all recipes began with the optimistic Cum Deo! ("With God!").
9. Stained glass
// 12th century (Germany)
The first official instruction for the production of colored transparent glass was the monk Theophilus.
The creators of the stained glass windows were the most respected people in the city, because they conveyed the beauty and grandeur of the unearthly world. They even collected a special tax for their needs. Craftsmen boiled river sand, flux, lime and potash, and added metal oxides to create color. Interestingly, almost all glasses, except for green and blue, eventually underwent severe corrosion and turned into dirty brown. The head of Christ in Weissembourg Abbey in Alsace (Germany) is considered the oldest surviving example of stained glass art.
10. Mirror
// XIII century (Holland, Venetian Republic)
The first mention of glass mirrors is found in the famous work on optics Perspectiva communis, written by the Archbishop of Canterbury John Peckham in the second half of the 13th century.
Medieval craftsmen came up with the idea of covering glass with a thin layer of lead-antimony alloy - mirrors were obtained, similar to modern ones. Many people think that the mass production of mirrors began in Venice. However, the first were the Flemings and the Dutch. Flemish mirrors can be seen in the paintings of Jan van Eyck. They were carved from hollow glass spheres, inside of which molten lead was poured. The alloy of lead and antimony quickly dimmed in air, and the convex surface gave a noticeably distorted image. A century later, the title of chief glazier passed to Venice on the island of Murano, where sheet glass was invented.
11. Kulevrina
// 15th century (England, France)
The ancestor of the modern cannon, pierced knight's armor at a distance of 25–30 m.
Shooting with such a weapon was a rather dubious pleasure. To fire a shot, one person had to raise the wick, and the other to point the barrel at the target. The culverin weighed from 5 to 28 kg. If it rained or snowed, the war had to be stopped, because the wick did not burn. In the 16th century, it was supplanted by the arquebus.
12. Quarantine
// XIV century (Republic of Venice)
In 1377, in the port of the Venetian city of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik), for the first time, ships returning from the "plague countries" were detained for 40 days.
These measures caused fierce controversy, since, from the point of view of contemporaries, they had no scientific basis. The disease, which exterminated about a quarter of the entire population, was treated with cauterization, lizard skins and dried herbs - it was believed that it was transmitted by “plague cattle” invisible to the eye, which were carried along with the smell. The quarantine led to mass starvation in Europe, but stopped the spread of the disease. Foreign merchants who wished to challenge the preventive measures were burned. The Venetian quarantine system served as the basis for the organization of the modern sanitary service.
13. Blast furnace
// X4th century (Switzerland, Sweden, France)
It was a tower with a height of 4.5 m and a diameter of 1.8 m. Ore and coal with a high carbon content were laid there, and cast iron was obtained.
Cast iron was invented almost by accident, by increasing the size of the forge and the force of the blast. The new substance was first considered a marriage and was called "pig iron". True, they soon noticed that it fills the molds well and high-quality castings can be obtained from it, before that iron was only forged. The blast furnace was the most efficient invention of the Middle Ages. It made it possible to obtain 1.6 tons of products per day, while 8 kg came out of a conventional melting furnace during this time.
14. Distillation apparatus
// XIV (Italy)
The alchemist monk Valentius is credited with a radical improvement of the ancient moonshine still, which made it possible to carry out a double distillation.
Distillation, as well as fermentation, were the favorite pastimes of medieval alchemists trying to find the philosopher's stone. According to one version, this is how Valentius got alcohol from wine. He called the liquid formed during the experiment aqua vitae living water. It soon began to be sold in pharmacies as a remedy for bad breath, colds and sullenness.
15. First chemical production
// 14th century(Germany, France, England)
In the 1300s, the first enterprises for the production of sulfuric, salt and nitric acid. Sulfur and saltpeter began to be mined.
Experiments with chemicals from the laboratories of alchemists they moved to the laboratories of chemists - scientists who realized the futility of trying to turn one substance into another and paid attention to the needs of the time. With the beginning of the production of gunpowder, saltpeter acquired special significance - it was scraped off the walls of cowsheds. Cowsheds in the Middle Ages were made from animal waste and earth mixed with lime, clay and straw. Over time, white deposits of saltpeter appeared on the walls - potassium nitrate, formed as a result of the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. Swedish peasants, for example, paid part of the dues in saltpeter. The invention of gunpowder itself in Europe is attributed to the German monk Berthold Schwartz (circa 1330).
16. Glasses
// XIII century (England)
The famous scientist of the Middle Ages, Roger Bacon, is considered the benefactor of all bespectacled people. In 1268 he wrote about the use of lenses for optical purposes.
Although Bacon himself is often depicted wearing glasses, most likely, this invention gained popularity only a hundred years later, when it came to continental Europe. The first glasses were convex lenses fastened with a shackle for far-sighted people. Glasses that correct myopia were first recorded in a portrait of Pope Leo the Tenth made by Raphael in 1517.
17. Toilet
// XVI century (England)
The first cask flusher was a gift from John Harrington to his godmother, English queen Elizabeth I.
The nobleman Harrington was a gifted man of letters and inventor, and as was often the case with discoveries, his toilet bowl was well ahead of its time. The novelty, named by Harrington after the ancient Greek hero Ajax, did not take root, because there was no running water in England at that time, and rather quickly the device began to stink terribly. Finest hour of toilet bowls struck only in the XIX century.
18. Printing press
// 15th century (Germany)
The jeweler Johannes Gutenberg in 1445 developed the final version of the press with typesetting metal types, a long lever and a wooden screw, which allowed printing 250 pages per hour.
Pretty quickly, the “mystery of artificial writing,” as the documents said, spread throughout Europe. For fifty years, 40 thousand editions were printed with a circulation of over 10 million copies. Gutenberg's role is known from documents from property courts. It repeatedly mentions an invention that changed the course of history in Europe.
19. Looms
// 14th century (England)
A new type of horizontal loom with a block system greatly facilitated and accelerated the work of weavers.
The more primitive vertical looms did an excellent job with small amounts of raw materials from flax, nettle, hemp and wool. But production volumes grew, and the old equipment did not keep up with them.
20. Foot lathes
// XIV century (Germany)
The mechanism included a pedal, a crank and a connecting rod. The principle of operation of the foot drive of this machine is easy to understand by presenting a foot sewing machine.
Foot pedal devices freed the hands of the craftsmen, which greatly accelerated the production of parts. Cars were a rarity, so the profession of a turner was considered one of the most prestigious. Some emperors of those years kept lathes in their castles in order to hone their skills at their leisure.
21. Gothic architecture
// 12th century (Western Europe)
The invention of the Gothic vault, a stable frame system in which constructive role perform cross-rib arched vaults and arches, which made it possible to create a fundamentally new type of building.
The very word "Gothic" for a long time was abusive, as it was associated with the Goths - barbarian tribes who destroyed great Rome. Nevertheless, gradually the term began to correlate with a new direction, primarily in architecture. Openwork buildings, fantastic for their time, appeared, which were supposed to remind of a person's aspiration to heaven.
22. Tide mills
// VII1st century (Northern Ireland)
In 787, tidal power mills appeared in Northern Ireland.
Over time, the water wheel has become a full-fledged participant in a number of vital technologies - the engine in the fuller workshops, turning and blacksmith shops, sawmills and ore crushers.
23. Buttonhole
// XIII century (Germany)
Slits appeared on tight-fitting clothes where a button could be inserted.
For a long time, people knotted the ends of their clothes or used lacing, special ties and pins made from plant thorns, bone and other materials. The buttons themselves have been used as decoration for centuries. The appearance of a reliable system of fasteners was so liked by the Europeans that soon, in order to put on a suit, a noble person had to fasten about a hundred buttons.
on "Schrödinger's Cat"
BC Inventions:
600,000 BC Fire making device
50,000 BC oil lamp
30,000 BC Bow and arrow - Africa
20,000 BC Needle
13,000 BC Harpoon - France
10,000 BC Fishing net - Mediterranean
7.500 BC Boat - Eastern Mediterranean
4000 BC Cosmetics - Egypt
4000 BC Iron Ax - Mesopotamia
3.500 BC Jewelry - Mesopotamia
3.500 BC Plow - Mesopotamia
3.500 BC Cuneiform - Mesopotamia
3.200 Wheel - Mesopotamia
3.200 years BC Ink - Egypt
3000 BC Fish hook - Scandinavia
3000 BC Sword - Mesopotamia
Around 3000 BC Skiing - Scandinavia
2.560 BC Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt
2180 BC Tunnel under the river Euphrates - Babylon
2000 BC Chariot - Mesopotamia
2000 BC Ball - Egypt
2000 BC Button with two holes - Scotland
1500 BC Glass bottle - Egypt and Greece
1500 BC Wooden spoon - Greece and Egypt
1500 BC Scissors - China
1.350 BC Shower - Greece
Around 1300 B.C. First lunar calendar - Chang dynasty
1200 BC Bell - China
800 - 700 BC Iron saw - Greece
700 BC First coin - Lydia, Southwest Asia
690 BC Aqueduct - Assyria
570 BC hanging gardens Semiramis - Nebuchadnezzar-2
550 - 510 BC Geographic map- Greece
Around 550 B.C. Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the world - Ephesus, Greece (currently the city of Selcuk in the south of Izmir province, Turkey)
Around 500 B.C. Chess - India
500 BC Carpet - China
400 BC Catapult - Greece
480 BC Pontoon bridge - Persia
460 - 377 BC Hippocrates - Greek physician, nicknamed "the father of modern medicine"
Around 435 B.C. Statue of Zeus, one of the seven wonders of the world - Phidias, antique sculptor
352 BC Mausoleum in Halicarnassus, one of the seven wonders of the world - Asia Minor, erected for Mausoleum, king of Keria
300 BC Pharos lighthouse, one of the seven wonders of the world - Alexandria, Egypt
282 BC Colossus of Rhodes, one of the 7 wonders of the world, a giant statue of the Greek sun god Helios
100 BC Glassblowing - Phenicia in the Roman Empire
85 BC Water mill - China
25 - 220 AD Saddle - China
1st century AD Shovel - Rome
1st century AD Central heating system - Roman Empire
2nd century AD First atlas - Claudius Ptolemy, Egypt
Inventions 1-13 centuries AD:
500 Wooden rake - Europe
650 Notes - Greece
683 Zero - Cambodia
650 Windmill - Persia
950 Gunpowder - China
1090 Magnetic compass - China and Arabia
1180 Ship's rudder - Arabia
1200 Loupe - Robert Grosseteste, English priest
1250 - 1300 Longbow - Wales, UK
1280 Cannon - China
13th century Paper money - China
15th century inventions:
Around 1400 Mirror - Venice, Italy
1450 Anemometer (instrument for measuring wind speed) - Leon Alberti Battista, Italian artist and architect
1455 Printing press - Johannes Gutenberg, German printer
1450s Golf - Scotland
1462 Fernao Gemes - crossed the equator
16th century inventions:
15th century The first parachute was drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci
15th century Playing cards, France
Circa 15th century Piggy Bank - UK
1500 Shirt - Europe
1543 Nicolaus Copernicus - Polish astronomer, creator of the theory of the heliocentric system
Mid 16th century Violin - Lombardy
1590 Microscope - Dutch opticians, Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias
1596 Toilet bowl - John Harington, England
17th century inventions:
1608 Telescope - Hans Lippershey, Netherlands
1609 Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer, designed a telescope and discovered spots on the sun
1609 Newspaper - Julius Sonne, Germany
1614 Logarithmic table - John Napier, Scottish mathematician
1622 Calculating machine - Wilhelm Schickard, Germany
1624 Submarine - Cornelius van Drebbel, Dutch inventor in the service of the British
1630 Obstetric forceps - Peter Cheiberlen, English physician
1635 Tie - Croatia
1637 Umbrella - France
1656 Pendulum clock - Christian Huygens, Dutch scientist
1698 Steam boiler - Thomas Savery, English engineer
1670 Megaphone - Samuel Morland, English engineer
1670 Champagne - Dom Pérignon, French monk
1675 Pocket watch - Christian Huygens, Dutch physicist, mathematician and astronomer
1687 Isaac Newton - English physicist, formulated the law of universal gravitation
1690 - 1700 Clarinet - Johann Christopher Denner, Germany
18th century inventions:
1700 Lock and key
1714 Mercury thermometer - Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, German physicist
1718 Machine Gun - James Puckle, England
1720 Piano - Bartolomeo Cristofori, Italy
1731 Octant - John Hadley - (England) and Thomas Godfrey (USA)
1731 Sextant - John Hadley, England
1735 Sea cutter - John Harrison, England
1736 Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer, developed the centigrade thermometer
1752 Eraser - Magellan, Portugal
1752 Lightning rod - Benjamin Franklin, inventor and statesman
1760 Roller skates - Joseph Merlin, Belgian musician
1762 Sandwich - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English aristocrat
1767 Jigsaw - John Spilsbury, English teacher
1770 Porcelain teeth - Alexis Duchateau, French pharmacist
1779 First foundry bridge - bridge across the River Severn, UK1
1783 Louis Lenoran - the first person to make a parachute jump, France
1783 Balloon - brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, French inventors
1784 Bifocal lenses - Benjamin Franklin, inventor and statesman
1791 Theodolite, portable goniometer - Jesse Ramsden
1792 Ambulance - Dominique Larrey, French surgeon
19th century inventions:
Circa 1800 Barometer - Luke Howard, founder of modern meteorology, UK
1800 The first source of chemical current (voltaic column) - Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist
1803 Steam locomotive - Richard Trevithick, English engineer
1807 Gas Lamp - National Lighting and Heating Company, UK
1811 Preserving food - Nicolas Appert, France
1814 School board - James Pillans, Scottish teacher
1815 Mining Lantern - Humphrey Davy, English chemist
1816 Stethoscope - Rene Laenek, French physicist
1818 Revolver - Artemis Wheeler and Elisha Cooler, American inventors
1819 Diving suit- Augustus Siebe, German mechanic
1819 Chocolate - François-Louis Caillier, Switzerland
1821 Electric motor - Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist
1823 Weeping Dolls - Johann Maelsel, Belgium
1823 Rubberized cloth - Charles Macintosh, Scottish chemist
1825 Aluminum - Hans Oersted, Danish physicist
1827 Matches - John Walker, English chemist and apothecary
1829 Tractor - Case Company
1829 Accordion - Cyrilus Demian, Austria
1830 Lawnmower - Edwin Beard Budding, England
1831 Dynamo and transformer - Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist
1837 Telegraph - William Cook and Charles Wheatstone, Boitan inventors
1838 Harvester - John Hescoll and Hiram Moore, USA
1838 - 1842 Charles Wilkes - American explorer of the coast of Antarctica
1839 Bicycle - Carkpatrick Macmillan, Scotland
1839 Steam press - James Nesmith, England
1839 Rubber vulcanization process - Charles Nelson Goodier, American inventor
1840 Postage stamp - James Chalmer, Scottish publicist
1841 Saxophone - Anthony Sachs, Belgium Saxophone - Adolphe Sax (1814, 06 November - 1894, 07 February), Belgium
1844 Morse code - Samuel Morse, American artist and inventor
1844 Anesthesia - Horace Wells, American dentist
1846 Sewing machine - Elias Howe, American inventor
1847 Aneroid barometer - Lucien Vidy, France
1849 - 1896 Years of the life of Otto Lilienthal - German engineer - the first balloonist
1849 Charles Rowley (UK) Safety pin - Walter Hunt (US) and
1850 Acoustic guitar - Antonio de Torres
1852 Mailbox - Guernsey, UK
1854 Paraffin lamp - Abraham Gesner (USA) and James Young (England)
1854 Elevator - Eli Otis, American inventor
1854 Watermill - Isle of Man, UK
1856 - 1943 Nikola Tesla - Croatian American, electrician and inventor in the field of radio engineering
1856 First synthetic paint - William Perkin
1857 Toilet paper - Joseph C. Gayetti, USA
1859 Charles Darwin - English naturalist, author of the theory of evolution
1860 Guillotine Knife - Henry Clayton
1861 Postcard - John P. Charlton, USA
1861 Color photograph - James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist
1862 First underground road - London, UK
1863 Drill - George Harrington, England
1866 Torpedo - Robert Whitehead
1867 Barbed Wire - Lucien Smith (USA)
1867 Baby food - Gentry Nestlé, Swiss chemist
1867 Dynamite - Alfred Nobel, Swedish engineer
1868 - 1874 Gustav Nachtigal - German explorer of the Central Sahara
1868 Ferdinand Richtofer - German geographer, explorer of China
1868 Hydropower - Aristide Berger - French engineer
1869 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev - Russian chemist, developed periodic table chemical elements
1860s Louis Pasteur - French chemist, developed the pasteurization process
1874 Jeans - Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis, USA
1875 System of selling goods at one price - Melville Stone (USA)
1876 Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born American physicist
1877 Phonograph - Thomas Edison, American inventor
1879 Electric light bulb - Thomas Edison. The discovery was based on the patent of the English scientist Joseph Sven
1879 Tram, Germany
1879 Soap - Procter & Gamble
1880 Ventilation system - Robert Boyle, British chemist and physicist
1880 Seismograph - John Milne, English scientist
1881 Trolleybus - Werner von Siemens, German electrical engineer
1882 Electric iron - Henry W. Seeley, USA
1882 Robert Koch - German bacteriologist, discovered the causative agents of cholera and tuberculosis
1885 Internal combustion engine - Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer
1885 First automobile - Karl Benz, German mechanical engineer
1887 Rubber tire - John Dunlop, Irish veterinarian
1888 Gramophone - Emil Berliner, German-American
1888 Fridtjof Nansen - Norwegian scientist and statesman, explored the Arctic and Greenland
1890 Hand lantern - Conrad Hubert, American of Russian origin
1890 Crossword - G. Airoldi, Italy
1890 - 1934 Sven Andres Hedin - Swedish explorer of Central Asia
1891 Basketball - James A. Naismith, USA
1891 Electric kettle - "Carpenter Electric Company", USA
1891 Electric stove - "Carpenter Company", USA
1892 Diesel engine - Rudolf Diesel, German mechanical engineer
1893 Zipper - Whitcomb Judson, USA
1893 Industrial air filter, USA
1895 X-rays - Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, German physicist
1895 Cinematograph - brothers Auguste and Louis Lumiere, French entrepreneurs
1895 Popov Alexander Stepanovich - Russian inventor, invented the radio
1899 Pneumatic mail - "Brooklyn", USA
1899 Aspirin - Felix Hoffmann and Hermann Dreser, German chemists
Inventions of the 20th century:
1900 Paper clips - Johann Waaler, Norway
1900 Talkie - Léon Gaumont, France
1900 Airship - Ferdinand von Zeppelin - German airship designer
1901 Safety razor - King Keml Gillette, American merchant
1903 Orville and Wilber Wright - American engineers who made the first airplane flight
1903 Colored crayons - Crayola, USA
1904 Diode - John Ambrose Fleming, British electrical engineer
1906 Automatic pianola - Automatic Machinery and Tool Company, USA
1906 Fountain pen - Slavoljub Penkala, Serbian inventor
1907 Washing Machine - Alva J. Fisher
1908 Assembly line - Henry Ford, American engineer
1908 Geiger counter - German physicist Hans Geiger and W. Müller invented a device for detecting and measuring radioactivity
1909 Louis Blériot - French engineer, flew over the English Channel
1909 Robert Edwin Peary - American explorer who first reached the North Pole
1910 Alfred Wegener - German geophysicist, author of the theory of continental drift
1910 Mixer - George Smith and Fred Osius, USA
1911 Roald Amundsen - Norwegian explorer, first to reach the South Pole
1912 Robert Falcon Scott - British military officer, second to reach the South Pole
1912 Reflector - "Belling Co", USA
1913 Autopilot - Elmer Speary (USA)
1915 Gas mask - Fritz Haber, German chemist
1915 Milk cartons - Van Wormer - USA
1915 Heat-resistant glassware - Pyrex Corning Glass Works, USA
1916 Microphone - USA
1916 Tank - William Tritton, British designer
1917 Electric Christmas tree lanterns - Albert Sadacca, Spanish-American
1917 Shock Therapy - UK
1920 Fehn - Racine Universal Motor Company, USA
1921 Albert Einstein - American physicist, originally from Germany, formulated the theory of relativity
1921 Lie Detector - John A. Larsen (USA)
1921 Toaster - Charles Straight (USA)
1924 Band-Aid - Josephine Dixon, USA
1926 Black and white television - John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor
1927 Artificial respiration apparatus - Philip Drinker, American medical researcher
1928 Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist
1928 Chewing Gum - Walter E. Deemer, USA
1929 Yo-Yo - Pedro Flores, Philippines
1930 Multi-storey car park - Paris, France 1930 Electronic clock - Penwood Numecron
1930 Sticky tape - Richard Drew, USA
1930 Frozen convenience foods - Clarence Beersey, USA
Around 1930 Bra
1932 Parking lot meter - Carlton Magee, American inventor
1932 Electric guitar - Adolphus Rickenbucket, USA
1933 - 1935 Radar - Rudolf Kuenhold and Robert Watson-Watt
1934 Nylon stockings - Wallace Hume Carothers, American chemist
1936 Food baskets and carts - Sylvan Goldman and Fred Young, USA
1938 Copier - Chester Carson, American lawyer, promoted the development of xerography
1938 Ballpoint pen - Laszlo Biro
1939 DDT - Paul Müller and Weismann - Switzerland
1940 Mobile phone - Bell Telephone Laboratories, USA
1943 Scuba - Jacques-Yves Cousteau, French oceanographer
1946 Electronic Computer - John Presper Eckert and John Mauchley, USA
1946 Microwave - Percy LeBaron Spencer, USA
1948 Player - CBS Corporation, USA
January 10, 1949 Production begins - vinyl records, RCA - 45 rpm
History of things
Glasses that help weakened eyes appeared only at the end of the 13th century. They were terribly expensive and for a long time remained a luxury item. Reading by candlelight and torch did not always have a beneficial effect on the visual acuity of medieval literate people, especially monks who copied books. True, how many of them were those literate.
Mark the Evangelist with spectacles around 1500 / Mark the Evangelist. The British library. Yates Thompson 5, f. 12. Book of Hours, Use of Rome ("The Tilliot Hours"). Origin: France, Central (Tours). Date c. 1500. Language Latin. Script Gothic cursive. Artists Jean Poyer (Poyet).
During the Middle Ages in Western Europe most of of the population, including the political and economic elite, could not write and read even in mother tongue not to mention the main language of culture - Latin. The clergy were an exception, but they were also unevenly educated. However, among the few literate help for the eyes - a thing of extraordinary importance.
Who Invented Glasses? This question is one of the most controversial in the history of science. Applicants for authorship were reputed to be inventors from Italy, Belgium, Germany, England and China. The version about the Italian origin of glasses is much more preferable, but not because there is simple and clear evidence for this.
2.
Tommaso da Modena (1325/26-1379). Fresco from 1352. Height 150 cm. Cardinal Hugh de Saint-Cher from the portrait cycle in the chapter hall of the Dominican monastery of San Niccolò in Treviso. via
The Dominican monk Tommaso da Modena (1325/26-1379), an artist of the Bologna school, was invited to Treviso, in the Veneto region, Italy. Here, in 1352, he painted the walls of the chapter hall in the local monastery of San Niccolo with portraits of famous representatives of the Dominican order, the most famous saints, scientists. On the frescoes, forty monks are depicted next to each other, each sitting in his cell at the writing desk. Some, thinking, read, others write or prepare a pen for writing, some leaf through books.
3.
1352. Tommaso da Modena (1325/26-1379). Fragment of a fresco - a portrait of Hugh de Saint-Cher. Monastery of San Niccolò in Treviso, Italy. via
One of the frescoes depicts Hugh of Saint-Cher / Ugo di Santo Caro (circa 1200-1263) - a French cardinal and theologian. Hugh of St. Cher is writing or studying some manuscripts with concentration, obviously with the help of glasses. This fresco is considered the first image of glasses. Obviously, glasses were invented shortly before its appearance. This is evidenced by literary sources relating to the beginning of the XIV century. Although they are few in number, they all point to the fact that glasses have appeared recently.
4.
Moses. Around 1441-1449 / Bibel/Bible, Hagenau. ca. 1441-1449. Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg, Cod. Pal. germ. 19, fol. 141v.
The history of the invention of spectacles in medieval Italy is strangely bound up with certain intrigues, and historians of science have had great difficulty disentangling them.
The essence of the issue was confused by scientists of the 17th century. The question of the authorship of the invention in the 17th century was raised by Carlo Roberto Dati from Florence (1619-1676) in his work “Glasses, are they an invention of antiquity or not?”.
5.
Archaeological find, Florence / The only rivet spectacles ever found in Italy (Florence), the definite country of origin of eyeglasses for the world; medium brown thin bone, by permission from the Superintendancy for Archeologica of Tuscany. via
Quote from Peter James and Nick Thorpe's Ancient Inventions:
"He [Carlo Roberto Dati] attributes the invention of glasses to a certain Alessandro Spina, a monk and scientist from Pisa who died in 1313. Dati admits that perhaps someone else could have been the first to invent glasses, but stated that he "would not want attributing this invention to others." However, Spina, according to Dati, had such a brilliant mind that he could recreate "whatever he saw or heard about", so it is quite possible that he independently invented glasses independent of other inventors.
6.
Modern reconstruction. Glasses worn by Sean Connery in the movie “The Name of The Rose”, Cinecitta, Rome Studios, Pallone Collection. via
It would seem that this should have ended - the world believed that Spina put glasses on his nose. This would have been the case had it not been for a careful study of Duty's correspondence, as well as sources published in 1956 by Edward Rosen, a historian of science, an associate of the City College of New York. Rosen discovered that the information had been supplied to Dati by his colleague, Francesco Redi, chief physician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In a surviving letter, Redi told Dati the story of Spin's invention, citing in his favor a quotation from the Chronicle of the Dominican Monastery of St. Catherine in Pisa. The quote, according to Redi, says: "Whatever he [Spin] saw or heard about, he really knew how to do it." Returning to the original Chronicle, Rosen discovered that Redi had distorted the text. In fact, it sounded like this: “Whatever was done, when he saw it with his own eyes, he really knew how to do it.” Dati, following Redi, distorted the meaning of the original.
7.
Majolica plate with the image of glasses. 1510, Venice. Glasses and a book - a symbol of an intellectual and scientist / Glazed (Majolica) tile showing rivet spectacles, School of Marche, Church of S.Sebastian, originally on the floor of the S. Annunziata Chapel, 1510, Venice, Italy “The glasses and the closed book are considered symbols of the everyday life of a scholarly person”. via
From all this it follows that the scientists of the XVII century. conspired and believed Spin, silencing the nameless inventor of glasses. Rosen could find an explanation for this strange intrigue. The scientists in question were associates or admirers of the great Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), whose reputation depended in part on being recognized as the inventor of the telescope. However, at this time there were rumors that Galileo had previously seen a telescope created by the Flemish optician Joann Lippserty. Galileo himself claimed that he had only heard about the telescope and developed it through a deep study of the theory of refraction of rays.
8.
Fragment of an altarpiece from Vienna. 1438/1440 / Kunstwerk: Temperamalerei-Holz; Einrichtung sacred; Flugelaltar; Meister des Albrechtsaltars; Vienna; Himmelfahrt2:06:001-010 , Himmelfahrt2:23:037-054. Documentation: 1438; 1440; Klosterneuburg; Österreich; Niederösterreich; Stiftsmuseum. Anmerkungen: 126.1x112.7; wien. via
Galileo's friends zealously defended him. In 1678, Redi published a “Letter on the Invention of Spectacles,” which stated: “If Brother Alessandro Spina was not the first inventor of spectacles, then at least it was he who, without any help, reinvented the method of making spectacles ... Then the same, ironically, happened to the outstanding Galileo Galilei. Hearing that a Flemish had invented a long spyglass...he, never seeing [the original], designed exactly the same telescope on his own, based on the theory of refraction of light.”
9.
Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Fragment of an altarpiece from Vienna. 1438/1440 / Kunstwerk: Temperamalerei-Holz; Einrichtung sacred; Flugelaltar; Meister des Albrechtsaltars; Vienna; Himmelfahrt2:06:001-010 , Himmelfahrt2:23:037-054. Documentation: 1438; 1440; Klosterneuburg; Österreich; Niederösterreich; Stiftsmuseum. Anmerkungen: 126.1x112.7; wien. via. Click for full version
So, in order to save Galileo's reputation, Spin was credited with inventing spectacles himself, while the role of the unknown craftsman, whose work he so skillfully copied, was deliberately hushed up.
10.
But who is this mysterious inventor from whom Spina borrowed the idea of glasses? Other chronicles knew him and, perhaps, could even give the date of invention: approximately 1285. Let us refer to an excerpt from the sermon of the Dominican brother Giordano da Rivalto (1305):
11.
The Sforza Hours. 1490-1521. British Library / British Library Add MS 34294, fol. 272r. Date 1490-1521. Title Book of Hours, Use of Rome: the "Sforza Hours".
“It hasn't even been 20 years since the art of making spectacles to improve vision was discovered. It is one of the best and most needed arts in the world. How little time has passed since the invention of a new art that never existed. I saw the man who first created glasses, and I talked to him.”
12.
The Sforza Hours. 1490-1521. British Library / British Library Add MS 34294, fol. 272r. Date 1490-1521. Title Book of Hours, Use of Rome: the "Sforza Hours".
<...>However, most likely, we will never know the true name of the inventor of glasses. At best, based on the various facts given in the documents available to us, we can say that the inventor was, in any case, not the monk Spina, but a secular person, and it seems that he lived in Pisa.
13.
1403-1404. Konrad von Soest (1370-after 1422). Apostle with glasses. Fragment of the altar of the church in Bad Wildungen, Germany. Considered the oldest image of glasses north of the Alps / Conrad von Soest The "Glasses Apostle" painting in the altarpiece of the church of Bad Wildungen, Germany. Painted by Conrad von Soest in 1403, "Glasses Apostle" is considered the oldest depiction of eyeglasses north of the Alps / Anachronisme de l"apôtre "aux lunettes" de Conrad von Soest (1404). via
Be that as it may, the manufacturers of the most elegant glass in the medieval world, the Venetian craftsmen, quickly took advantage of the opening of the glasses. Beginning in 1300, the statutes of the glaziers' guild frequently mention sighting lenses, and it is recommended that counterfeits of flint glass be destroyed. The statutes were obviously an excellent barometer of the speed with which the new spectacles came into fashion in Venice. If this is so, then it becomes understandable why the elusive inventor, whose product Spina copies, was so secretive about his authorship of this invention: in an era before there was yet a copyright, he apparently zealously kept the secret in the hope of making some money, while she didn't get too well known. "
14.
1466. Circumcision of Christ. Friedrich Herlin. Altar of the Twelve Apostles, fragment. Rothenburg, Germany / The Circumcision of Christ, Friedrich Herlin (German), oil on panel (?), 1466, St. Jakob Church, Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Germany. . Fragment . On click - almost the whole view
Convex lenses were the first to appear in the 13th century, which were used to improve the vision of far-sighted people. At first, the lenses were for one eye, and then, when the lenses were connected together, they were for both.
Concave glasses for the correction of myopia appeared in the 16th century.
15.
1466. Friedrich Herlin. Reading Apostle Peter. Altar of the Twelve Apostles. Church of St. Jacob. Rothenburg, Germany / Friedrich Herlin, Reading Saint Peter (1466). Depiction of a reading Saint Peter with eyeglasses. Detail of the altarpiece by Friedrich Herlin (1466) in the St. Jakob Church in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Germany. Fragment , .
According to one of the main versions, the invention of convex lenses in the 1280s is attributed to the Florentine monk Salvino degli Armati / Salvino degli Armati (XIII century - 1317). It is believed that Salvino proposed the use of two glasses tied to a hat or inserted into a leather band tied around the head. In the 20th century, historians considered that the authorship of Salvino's glasses was not proven at all - this was a fraud.
16.
1466. Friedrich Herlin. Altar of the Twelve Apostles. Church of St. Jacob. Rothenburg ob der Tauber / Friedrich Herlin, 1466. St-Jaacobkirche, Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bavaria via
The first mention of Salvino degli Armati as the inventor of glasses dates back to the same 17th century. In 1684, the Florentine Ferdinando Leopoldo del Migliore (1628-1696) published the book "Firenze città nobilissima illustrata" / "Florence, the noblest city, with illustrations". In this book, Ferdinando referred to the register he had of the funeral records of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore. This registry allegedly contained the following entry: "Qui diace Salvino d" Armato degl "Armati di Fir., Inventor degl" occhiali. Dio gli perdoni la peccata. Anno D. MCCCXVII" /"Here lies Salvino, son of Armato degli Armati of Florence, inventor of glasses. May the Lord forgive his sin. 1317". This register, however, Migliore never showed it to anyone, none of the scientists had ever seen it. Ferdinando claimed that Salvino degli Armati in Santa Maria Maggiore had a grave topped with a statue; but during the restoration of the church , both the statue and the tombstone with the epitaph were allegedly destroyed.
17.
1499. Ulm. Friedrich Herlin. Apostle Matthias. Museum of Mining and Gothic art in Leogang (Salzburg state). Gothic collections- Christ surrounded by apostles by Friedrich Herlin, Ulm, 1499, detail: Saint Matthias. via
Following Ferdinando, other authors continued to attribute the authorship of Salvino degli Armati glasses. They call him the alleged inventor even now. In 1920, the Italian scholar Isidoro del Lungo (1841-1927) pointed out a number of inaccuracies in Ferdinando Leopoldo del Migliore's report. Including that the term "inventor" itself appeared in Florence much later. Isidoro del Lungo also showed that a certain Salvino degli Armati really died in 1340, but he was a modest artisan and had nothing to do with glasses.
In a word, who invented an important thing - science does not know for sure.
18.
Fragment of a fresco from 1352. Tommaso da Modena (1325/26-1379). Cardinal Nicholas of Rouen from the portrait cycle in the chapter hall of the Dominican monastery of San Niccolo in Treviso / Tommaso da Modena. Cardinal Nicholas of Rouen. 1351-1352. fresco. Chapter House, San Niccolò, Treviso. via
Before glasses, from ancient times, different methods were used to increase: a drop of water; glass beads filled with water; lenses made of polished transparent stones - quartz and beryl, glass. For example, in Moscow, in the State Museum fine arts them. A.S. Pushkin in the hall "Ancient Troy and the excavations of Heinrich Schliemann" among the exhibits of treasure L there is a large round lens (d 5.65 cm) made of rock crystal, which could well be used as a magnifying glass - it gives approximately a twofold increase.
19.
Fresco from 1352. Tommaso da Modena (1325/26-1379). Height 150 cm. Cardinal Nicholas of Rouen from the portrait cycle in the chapter hall of the Dominican monastery of San Niccolò in Treviso / Tommaso da Modena. Cardinal Nicholas of Rouen. 1351-52. fresco. Chapter House, San Niccolò, Treviso. via
In the 11th century, the Arab scientist Ibn al-Haysan Alkhazen (c. 965-c. 1039) created a fundamental work on optics. In Europe, this work is known as "Opticae Thesaurus" / "The Treasure of Optics", in which he described the lens as a spherical surface. He called it "the stone of reading". Around 1240, a translation of Alhazen's Treasures of Optics into Latin was made, which contributed to the development of optics in the west.
20.
? via
The properties of the eye as a living optical instrument were studied by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who was one of the inventors of the telescope. The glasses were improved by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who at one time was engaged in optics.
22.
1436. Jan Van Eyck (c.1385/1390-1441). Fragment of the painting "Madonna Canon van der Pale". Oil on wood, 122 x 157 cm. Groninge Museum, Bruges. On click - the whole picture. via
In medieval Italy, glasses were attached to the edge of the hat. At the Spanish King Philip II, they were attached to a flat wooden wedge, the sharp end of which was also hidden under a hat. Pince-nez, depicted in old paintings, grabbed the nose like a big clothespin and was uncomfortable.
At the end of the XVII century. glasses with laces, which were tied at the back of the head, came into fashion. In some cases, they were held with the help of weights at the ends of the ropes, previously wound up behind the ears.
Around 1750, they began to attach temples to glasses so that they could stay on the ears. Looks like he did it first early XVIII century London optician Edward Scarlett.
23.
Mark the Evangelist wearing glasses, circa 1500. Ill.1 / Mark the Evangelist."The Tilliot Hours", Tours, ca. 1500. British Library, Yates Thompson 5, fol. 12r. . Click to view full sheet
Having appeared in the objective world at the end of the 13th century, glasses remained very expensive for a long time, which was explained by the difficulty of making truly clean and transparent glasses. They, along with jewelry, were included in their wills by kings, princes and other rich people.
Glasses were used only by educated, wealthiest people. Sometimes it happened that glasses were worn not out of necessity, but out of a desire to show wealth and position.
24.
Around 1518. Portrait of Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de' Medici and Luigi Rossi. Rafael Santi. Uffizi. Fragment. Click to see the whole picture / Around 1518. Original Title: Ritratto di Leone X coi cardinali Giulio de" Medici e Luigi de" Rossi. w1195 x h1555 mm. oil on panel. Uffizi Gallery. The painting depicts Pope Leo X (Giovanni de "Medici, 1475-1521), son of Lorenzo il Magnifico, with Giulio de" Medici (1478-1534), future Pope Clement VII to the left and Luigi de Rossi (1474-1519) , his cousin, to the right. The painting was sent to Florence in 1518 for the wedding of Lorenzo de "Medici, Duke of Urbino, and Maddalena de la Tour d" Auvergne. It was exhibited in the tribune from 1589.
After the invention of printing in the middle of the 15th century, the need for glasses increased: their benefits for those suffering from farsightedness became obvious. Concave glasses for the nearsighted, as already mentioned, were invented later - in the 16th century. Raphael's (1517-1519) portrait of Pope Leo X is considered the first scientifically reliable evidence of the use of glasses for myopia. Leo X was short-sighted and, going hunting, which he loved very much, put on glasses.
Glasses were now relatively widely used.
25.
1599. Francisco Pacheco (1564-1644), one of Velázquez's teachers. Portrait of the Spanish poet and writer Francisco de Quevedo (1580-1645). Based on a lost painting by Diego Velázquez (1599-1660) / Retrato de Francisco de Quevedo en Francisco Pacheco, El libro de descripción de verdaderos retratos, ilustres y memorables varones, Sevilla, 1599. via
Glasses have been known in Russian lands since the 17th century, they were very expensive. In Tsar Mikhail's “Expenditure book for the monetary treasury” for 1614, it appears that “crystal glasses were bought from a Moscow guest for the tsar on one side, and smooth on the other, which, looking at them, seems like a lot.” The first optical master in Russia was Ivan Eliseevich Belyaev, who founded the optical chamber at the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
26.
El Greco. Around 1600. Portrait of Cardinal Don Fernando Niño de Guevara. Fragment. Full view by click / Cardinal Fernando Niño de Guevara (1541-1609). El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (Greek, Iráklion (Candia) 1540/41-1614 Toledo). Date: ca. 1600. Medium: Oil on canvas. Dimensions: 67 1/4 x 42 1/2in. (170.8x108cm). Classification: Paintings. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The inventors of glasses also recorded the Chinese.
From the book "Ancient Inventions" by Peter James and Nick Thorpe:
"Intensive research into the question of the origin of glasses, although incomplete, was enough to hasten the assertion: the Chinese were the inventors. For many years this version was based on the following fact, given in the book "Explaining Mysterious Things", written by Chao Ji Ku, who lived in XIII century.
“Ai-tai look like large coins, and the color resembles mica. When old people feel dizzy and their vision deteriorates, they cannot read small print, then they put ai-tai on their eyes and are able to concentrate, as the outlines of the letters become clear. The Ai-tai originate from the western regions of Malacca.”
27.
As it spread, glasses also became a symbol of spiritual blindness. "A vain book collector who wears glasses and dusts books but does not read them." Woodcut. 1497 / De inutilibus libris (1497), Harvard University. Of Useless Books. This woodcut is attributed to the artist the Haintz-Nar-Meister. It is an illustration from the book Stultifera navis (Ship of Fools) by Sebastian Brant, published by Johann Bergmann in Basel in 1498. Straßburg, (sog. Postinkunabel or Frühdruck: Drucke nach dem 31. Dezember 1500). Date 1510. Ex Bibliotheca Gymnasii Altonani (Hamburg). Anonymous.
Since Chao Ji Ku was written around 1240,<...>then the researchers considered that this proves the superiority of the Chinese in the invention of glasses. However<...>the first copies of the book did not include a passage about glasses. He apparently got there during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The passage that mentions the kingdom of Malacca on the Malaysian Peninsula, however, is the key to unraveling the origin of the ancient Chinese glasses. A Chinese court record dating back to about 1410 describes how the king of Malacca presented ten glasses as a gift to the emperor. At that time Arab and Persian merchants often came to Malacca, and, most likely, they brought these first, highly valued glasses from the West.
28.
Dutch proverb: What good is a candle and glasses if the owl doesn't want to see. Caption: Heretics cannot see the rays of divine truth / Though it shines brighter than the light of day. George Wither, A Collection of Emblems. London, 1635, Book 4, Illustr. XLV. // Caecus Nil Luce Iuvatur / Caecus nil facibus nil lychni luce iuvatur / Nec videt in media noctua stulta die. / Hee that is blind, will nothing see / What light soe "re about him bee. via 1, via 2, via 3.
The Chinese may, however, claim the primacy of the invention of smoky spectacles, which is alluded to in the Leisure Hours Record written by a certain Liu Chi in the early twelfth century. These glasses were made of smoky quartz, and judges wore them, but not to protect their eyes from the sun, but to hide their attitude to the verdict during his announcement at court. "
29.
?
And in conclusion - the Armenian trace in history. Based on the literature data, R.G. Otyan in the publication "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Social Sciences", No. 3, 1963, provides information that proves that in early XIV in. some of the Armenian scribes of books - the gritchner used glasses and even highly appreciated them.
30.
Illustrations from the article by R. G. Otyan "Information about wearing glasses in the Middle Ages" // News of the Academy of Sciences of Arm. SSR, Social Sciences, No. 3, 1963, ss. 87-94
"The photographs presented in the text were taken from fragments of faience vessels and depict two people wearing glasses. These fragments, discovered during excavations of the city of Ani by academician I.Ya. Marr, date back to the 12th-13th centuries." At the time of publication, they were kept in the State historical museum Armenia.
" The given data indicate that the existing opinion about the appearance of points in different peoples The USSR in the XV-XVII centuries is not true, because glasses in Armenia (and, perhaps, among neighboring peoples) have an earlier history. "
Sources, literature, notes:
Alexander Alexandrovich Khannikov. Technique: from antiquity to the present day. M.: 2011
History of glasses / BBC. Myopia gene promises getting rid of glasses
1976 Publication: A History of Eyewear. E. Lagutina // Journal of Health. 1976/4
Peter James, Nick Thorpe. ancient inventions. Ancient Inventions. - Minsk: Potpourri, 1997
Oleg Sergeevich Voskoboynikov. Millennial Kingdom (300-1300). Essay on the Christian culture of the West. New literary review, 2015.
Baptism of Russia [Paganism and Christianity. Baptism of the Empire. Constantine the Great - Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo in the Bible. Sergius of Radonezh - image Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich
6. GLASSES WAS INVENTED IN THE 13TH CENTURY. THEREFORE, THE OLD IMAGES OF "ANTIQUE" PEOPLE WITH GLASSES DATE NO BEFORE THE XIII CENTURY AND SHOW US, MOST LIKELY, THE CHARACTERS OF THE XIII-XVII CENTURIES
From the history of technology, it is known that glasses were invented in the 13th century. True, it is believed that “in the first half of the 11th century, the Arab scientist Ibn al-Khaytham described a magnifying lens, but the East was unable to draw any practical conclusions from his theoretical developments”, p. 14. In the West, “the great scientist and thinker Roger Bacon was the first to try to carve lenses for the eyes in 1267 ... But early experiences ended in failure. Nevertheless, information about the great discovery instantly spread throughout the Christian world: the magnifying power of “crystal stones” becomes a literary metaphor, on the portal of one church in Spain, WITH SUCH OPTICAL STONES, ST. , With. 37. Combined with what we already know about chronology, it follows that Saint Jerome did not actually live before the thirteenth century. It's just that the real history of technology entered here into open contradiction with the erroneous Scaligerian version.
“But still, the first real glasses were born at the very end of the 13th century in Northern Italy. Who owns the honor of their manufacture is unknown. It was believed that this was Salvinio degli Armati, buried in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore in Florence; At least that's what it says on his grave. However, the latest research has proven that the epitaph is a fake.
Be that as it may, in 1300 the Great Council of the Venetian Republic adopts the first statute regulating the manufacture of "reading stones". And in 1305, the Dominican Giordano de Rivalto from Pisa already mentions "eye glasses for reading." In general, the XIV century becomes a time of widespread use of glasses in the form of a monocle and lorgnette (see Fig. 5.41 and Fig. 5.42 - Auth.). And by the middle of this century is the EARLY physical surviving specimen, it was found under the choir of the Windhausen monastery in Lower Saxony. At this time, the bow for the nose was invented: on a fresco of 1352 from the monastery of San Nicolò in Trevisio, two cardinals are depicted side by side: Nicholas of Rouen with a monocle, and Hugo of Provence in pince-nez. Then there were only glasses for far-sightedness, GLASSES FOR NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS APPEARED ONLY A CENTURY LATER. In the fifteenth century, wire shackles were also invented to tuck behind the ears. Thus (in the 15th century - Ed.), the glasses acquired an almost modern look - St. Anna in a 1470 painting from the Amsterdam Museum, p. 37.
Rice. 5.41 Antique glasses in the form of a lorgnette. Taken from, p. 37.
Rice. 5.42 Antique glasses in the form of a monocle. Taken from, p. 36.
On fig. 5.43 shows a fragment of an altar allegedly from 1404 in Bad Wildungen with the image of Konrad von Seest in glasses. On fig. 5.44 shows a 1690 lithograph "Spectacle Salesman". On fig. 5.45 we see Pope Leo X with glasses in Raphael's painting (allegedly the beginning of the 16th century).
Rice. 5.43 Konrad von Seest with glasses. Fragment of an altar in Bad Wildungen allegedly from 1404. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 2.
Rice. 5.44 "Points seller". Antique lithograph from 1690. Taken from, p. 37.
Rice. 5.45 Pope Leo X with glasses. Painting by Raphael. Allegedly 1513-1519. Taken from, p. 37, ill. 5.
So, glasses were invented no earlier than the 13th century, and came into wide use only in the 14th century. Glasses for the nearsighted appeared even later - only in the 15th century, see fig. 5.46.
Rice. 5.46 “In the painting “Madonna of Canon van der Pale” (1436), by Jan van Eyck, there is perhaps the first image in the history of art of glasses with curved lenses for the short-sighted, and glasses for the far-sighted appeared a century earlier” Taken from, with . 195.
It follows from this that those "ancient" characters who are depicted in glasses lived, most likely, no earlier than the 13th century. This seems to apply to the bespectacled evangelist depicted in fig. 5.47, as well as to the apostle Peter reading a book through glasses, see fig. 5.48. And also to the biblical Jacob, depicted in an old miniature from the "World Chronicle" by Hartman Schedel, see fig. 5.49. This conclusion is consistent with the results of the new chronology, according to which these characters really lived no earlier than the 12th century AD. e. See, for example, our book "Tsar of the Slavs".
Rice. 5.47 Evangelist. Illustration from a French Bible allegedly from 1380. The evangelist wears glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. one.
Rice. 5.48 Apostle Peter. Church of St. Jacob in Rothenburg. Allegedly 1466. Peter is reading a book with glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 3.
Rice. 5.49 Biblical Jacob with glasses in his hands. From Schedel's "World Chronicle", allegedly from 1493. Taken from , sheet LXXXVIII, rev.
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From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich16. ARMOR XIII-XIV century ARMOR XIII-XIV cc. Since the XIV century in Russia there are shells in which are mixed different types armor. The armor could be scaly on the hem and lamellar (or ringed) on the chest and back. The sleeves and hem of the chain mail were trimmed with long
author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich6. The works attributed today to Albrecht Dürer, a well-known artist of allegedly XV-XVI centuries, were created, most likely, a century later - in the XVII century. In the book [IMP], CHRON4, ch. 13:5, we have already substantiated the hypothesis that the famous artist Albrecht Dürer lived, most likely, not in the XV-XVI
From the book Joan of Arc, Samson and Russian History author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich7. The oldest surviving globe - allegedly Martin Beheim's globe of 1492 - was most likely made much later, not earlier than the 16th-17th centuries. We spoke about the Martin Beheim (Beheims) globe in [BR], KhRON6, ch. 14:7. Recall that it is considered the OLDEST of the surviving globes.
Thanks to this encyclopedia, my ideas about Europeans, about the same Mongols and about other peoples, have changed a lot. I used to think that Batu, who conquered Russia, was the main Mongol khan, but in fact, it turns out that the main Great Khan was his elder brother Khubilai. The Mongolian capital at that time was located in Beijing, and Khubilai's adviser was none other than famous traveler Marco Polo, which many people know about. But only now I have finally connected all three heroes together - they lived in the same, thirteenth century! And I also used to think that the Mongols were steppe nomads, horsemen, and it turns out that they knew how to sail ships on the sea and attacked Japan. The Japanese word "kamikaze" from the World War II era means "divine wind," the storm that drove Kublai's Mongolian ships off the Japanese shores. And during the war, Japanese suicide pilots were called that.
I actually read something about medieval Africa and South America for the first time in my life and it was here. And now I know what the knot letter looked like, and I can pronounce without hesitation: "Inca of Sichi Roca." Or: Sundiata Keita. Sounds a little funny and mysterious, like some kind of spell, right? Although these are just the names of the leader of the Incas and the ruler of the African state of Mali. This Sundiata Keita established the equality of men and women in his country and allowed women to run the state. In the thirteenth century! And I used to think that the struggle of women for their rights is a European invention. And you are probably surprised too.
I really like books that surprise, allow you to see familiar things in a completely different way. Usually we imagine the Middle Ages, looking at them through the eyes of Europeans. But now we live in a world where people are mixed in one city different countries and nationalities. And their view of history is completely different, not the same as ours. I think it's important to learn to look at the world from their point of view, too, so that there are fewer conflicts. And this book reminds you all the time that other people who are not like you are people too. What is valuable to them will not necessarily be valuable to you, but you can try to understand this and not be at enmity.
The book is very well arranged. From the "Dossier" you can find out the details of the life of rulers and other great people from different countries. And the rubric "Around the World in an Instant" allows you to compare how people thought about the same thing in different parts our planet. What they considered beautiful and ugly, how they washed and generally looked after themselves, how they got sick and how they were treated ... History ordinary people no less interesting than the history of their rulers. But at school they don't talk much about it. And very sorry. Because through such an informal story you learn a lot of unexpected things. It turns out that what Hitler came up with against the Jews in the 20th century originated in the Middle Ages. And the prototype of the "star of David", which the Jews had to sew on clothes, was invented by Pope Innocent III. In some European countries Jews were persecuted and destroyed, while in others, on the contrary, they were accepted. I was very surprised that the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary provided shelter to the persecuted in the 13th century, and in the 20th century these two countries, captured by the German Nazis, will become the site of the mass murder of Jews. How strangely the wheel of history is turning!
This book is like a children's kaleidoscope toy. You can turn it this way and that, and still get an interesting picture. The encyclopedia "The World in the XIII century" can be read from any page and not necessarily in a row, and you still get an image of the medieval world. It seems to me that this book is especially suitable for children who like "interesting things", but who do not have the time or desire to read for a long time. Short and clear texts, unusual facts, I think, will attract even non-reading teenagers. And the bright illustrations of Christel Hainaut, based on real medieval miniatures, and authentic medieval drawings can be viewed for a very long time.
Anna Semerikova, 12 years old
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Laurence Quentin and Catherine Reiser
"Peace in the 13th century"
Artist Christelle Eno
Translation from French by Vera Tsukanova
Publishing house "Walk into history", 2016