What is scientific and technological progress. The impact of scientific and technological progress on the development of the world economy
Scientific and technological progress (STP) is a continuous process of discovering new knowledge and applying it in social production, which makes it possible to combine and combine available resources in a new way in order to increase the production of high-quality final products at the lowest cost.
In a broad sense, at any level - from the firm to the national economy - STP means the creation and implementation of new equipment, technology, materials, the use of new types of energy, as well as the emergence of earlier unknown methods organization and production management.
As a rule, allocate the following directions of scientific and technical progress:
- Integrated mechanization and automation of production processes;
- Integrated automation and regulation of production management processes, including electronization and computerization;
- The use of new types of energy in technology as driving force and as a technological component in the processing of objects of labor;
- The use of chemical processes in the creation of new types of materials and in the technology of processing objects of labor (including biotechnology).
STP occurs in two main forms:
- evolutionary, embodied in the saturation of production with traditional, gradually improving technology;
- revolutionary, embodied in technological breakthroughs, characterized by completely new technological processes and operating principles of machines.
The two forms of scientific and technical progress are interdependent: the evolutionary, quantitative accumulation of individual achievements in science and technology leads to qualitative transformations of the productive forces. In turn, the transition to fundamentally new technologies and techniques marks the beginning of a new stage in their evolutionary development.
It should be emphasized that the introduction of new equipment and technology is a very complex and controversial process. It is believed that improvement technical means reduces labor costs, the share of past labor in the cost of a unit of output. However, at present, technical progress is becoming more expensive, as it requires the creation and use of more and more expensive machine tools, lines, robots, computer control facilities; increased spending on environmental protection. All this is reflected in the increase in the share of costs for depreciation and maintenance of fixed assets used in the cost of production.
In countries that are moving towards a reduction in the average duration working week, more and more noticeable is the tendency to slow down the rate of reduction in the cost of human labor (labor intensity), i.e., to slow down the decrease in the share of wages in the cost of production.
Thus, scientific and technical progress causes a counter increase in costs both in the areas where new technology is created and in the areas where it is used, i.e., it causes not only savings in social labor, but also an increase in its costs.
Nevertheless, the competitiveness of a firm, an enterprise, their ability to stay on the market for goods and services depends, first of all, on the susceptibility of manufacturers of goods to new equipment and technology, which makes it possible to ensure the production and sale of high-quality goods with the most efficient use of material resources.
Introduction……………………………………………………………….……3
1. Scientific and technological progress is the basis for development and intensification
production………………………………………………………………..4
2. The main directions of scientific and technological progress……….…….6
3. The effectiveness of scientific and technological progress……………….……14
4. Scientific and technical progress of industrialized countries at the present stage………...19
Conclusion………………………………………………………………..27
List of used literature…………………………………….28
Introduction
Scientific and technological progress is an interconnected progressive development of science and technology, which is manifested in the constant impact scientific discoveries and inventions at the level of engineering and technology, as well as the use of new instruments and equipment. It affects the transformation and development of the means of labor and the relationship of people in the process of production.
Scientific and technological progress is a powerful means of rapid economic growth and the solution of many social problems. The pace of implementation of its achievements and the efficiency of production largely depend on the development and consistent implementation of a science-based nationwide policy in this area of activity.
The application of scientific discoveries in the use of natural resources, the development and formation of the productive forces of society is truly unlimited. Under certain conditions, with the help of science, the enormous forces of nature can be put at the service of production, and the production process itself can be represented as a technological application of science.
A concrete expression of scientific and technological progress is the continuous improvement of machines, tools and other means of production, as well as the introduction of progressive technology and the organization of production. Especially important role in the development of scientific and technological progress, mechanical means of labor are assigned. The latter are one of the main elements of the productive forces of society and to a greater extent contribute to the development of scientific and technological progress and the growth of production. They contribute to saving social labor costs, rational and efficient use of labor resources.
1. Scientific and technological progress is the basis for the development and
production intensification
Scientific and technical progress - this is a process of continuous development of science, technology, technology, improvement of labor, forms and methods of organizing production and labor. He also acts as essential tool solving socio-economic problems, such as improving working conditions, increasing its content, protecting environment and, ultimately, the well-being of the people. Scientific and technological progress has great importance and to strengthen the country's defense capability.
In its development, scientific and technical progress manifests itself in two interrelated and interdependent forms - evolutionary and revolutionary.
evolutionary the form of scientific and technical progress is characterized by a gradual, continuous improvement of traditional technical means and technologies, the accumulation of these improvements. Such a process can last quite a long time and provide, especially at the initial stages, significant economic results.
At a certain stage, there is an accumulation of technical improvements. On the one hand, they are no longer effective enough, on the other hand, they create the necessary basis for fundamental, fundamental transformations of the productive forces, which ensures the achievement of a qualitatively new social labor, higher productivity. A revolutionary situation arises. This form of development of scientific and technological progress is called revolution. Under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, qualitative changes are taking place in the material and technical base of production.
Modern scientific and technological revolution based on the achievements of science and technology. It is characterized by the use of new energy sources, the widespread use of electronics, the development and application of fundamentally new technological processes, advanced materials with predetermined properties. All this, in turn, contributes to the rapid development of industries that determine the technical re-equipment of the national economy. Thus, the reverse influence of scientific and technological progress is manifested. This is the interconnection and interdependence of scientific and technological progress and the scientific and technological revolution.
Scientific and technological progress (in any form) plays a decisive role in the development and intensification of industrial production. It covers all stages of the process, including fundamental, theoretical research, applied research, design and technological development, the creation of samples of new technology, its development and industrial production, as well as the introduction of new technology into the national economy. The material and technical base of industry is being updated, labor productivity is growing, and production efficiency is increasing. Studies show that over a number of years, the reduction in the cost of industrial production by an average of 2/3 was provided by measures of scientific and technological progress.
In the context of the transition of the country's economy to market relations, the situation has changed somewhat. However, this situation is temporary. The trend of the influence of scientific and technological progress on the level of production costs, which exists in Western countries with a market economy, as our country moves towards a civilized market, will also be carried out in our country.
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Scientific and technical progress
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS (STP)- the progressive and interconnected development of science and technology, characteristic of large-scale machine production. Under the influence of the growth and complexity of social needs, scientific and technological progress is accelerating, which makes it possible to put more and more powerful natural forces and resources at the service of man, to turn production into a technological process for the purposeful application of data from natural and other sciences.The continuity of scientific and technical progress depends primarily on the development of fundamental research, which reveals new properties and laws of nature and society, as well as on applied research and experimental design, which make it possible to translate scientific ideas into new equipment and technology. Scientific and technological progress is carried out in two interdependent forms: 1) evolutionary, meaning a relatively slow and partial improvement of the traditional foundations of science and technology; 2) revolutionary, proceeding in the form of a scientific and technological revolution, which gives rise to a fundamentally new technique and technology, causes a radical transformation of the productive forces of society. Under capitalism, scientific and technological progress is carried out in the interests of the bourgeoisie, is used by it to intensify the exploitation of the proletariat, for militaristic and misanthropic purposes, and causes mass unemployment.
Under socialism, scientific and technological progress contributes to the dynamic development of the productive forces and the steady improvement of the people's well-being. The 27th CPSU Congress set the task of accelerating scientific and technical progress in every possible way as a decisive means of qualitatively transforming the productive forces, transferring the economy to the tracks of all-round intensification, and decisively improving the quality of products. For the period up to the year 2000, measures have been outlined that will make it possible to bring the national economy of the country to the forefront of science, technology and technology through the effective use of the forms and methods inherent in socialism for the implementation of scientific and technical progress. A deep technical reconstruction of the national economy is being carried out on the basis of modern scientific and technological achievements.
The leading role in accelerating scientific and technical progress is played by mechanical engineering, which ensures the introduction of new generations of equipment, fundamentally new technologies. More fast development receive industries on which the implementation of large integrated programs in strategic areas of scientific and technical progress and technical renovation of production. The integration of science and production is growing, new effective forms of their interaction are emerging, organization is improving, and the time for developing and mastering technical innovations, scientific discoveries and inventions in the national economy is being reduced.
As a result of the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the historical vocation of socialism is realized more fully - to put the achievements of advanced science, the most perfect and powerful technology, and the growing force of creative collective labor into the service of communist construction.
The tasks of accelerating scientific and technological progress are carried out through a unified technical policy, restructuring of structural policy and investment policy (see also Scientific and technological revolution).
The scientific and technological process of the New Age (hereinafter referred to as STP) is a rapid development of technology that began in the 18th century and continues to this day. The importance of technological innovations can hardly be overestimated in their impact on European civilization. Yes, all over the planet.
Industrial Revolution
The first stage of scientific and technical progress is the so-called, which began in England in the middle of the 18th century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century. This stage of scientific and technological progress was characterized mainly by the mechanization of labor, which was previously manual.
Pioneers from the British Isle
It is traditionally believed that the NTP is the brainchild of this particular country. It is here that, since the 1760s, the most important changes have been achieved in some areas of both light and heavy industry. For example, the invention of the yarn loom led to England's dominance of the European as well as the American textile markets. The appearance of the first in this country led to the replacement of the English fleet with ships of a new type - high-speed and ergonomic. This further consolidated the already traditional advantage of the English fleet over the rest of the Europeans.
The achievements of the NTP were also manifested in
infrastructure development. An example is the appearance of steam locomotives, as a result of which the country was very soon entangled in a whole network railways, facilitating communication between different regions of the country, trade between them, and so on. Important transformations also took place in heavy industry. For example, the invention led to a significant leap in the development of mechanical engineering.
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Introduction
1. The essence of the concept of scientific and technical progress
1.1 Main forms of scientific and technical progress
1.2 Main directions of scientific and technical progress
4. State of scientific and technical progress in Ukraine
Conclusion
Introduction
introduction of technical economic
The subject of this work is scientific and technical progress as the main factor of economic growth.
The purpose of this work is to highlight and analyze the most important features, forms and types of scientific and technical progress, as well as the state of scientific and technological progress in Ukraine.
Based on the goal, the following work tasks can be distinguished:
To study the factors influencing the emergence and acceleration of STP,
Consider general concepts NTP,
The essence of NTP
Its types
The state of scientific and technical progress in Ukraine at a given point in time.
The main focus in its integrated work I will devote to the disclosure of such a topic as the level of scientific and technical progress in Ukraine.
Scientific and technological progress is one of the factors determining economic growth in the state. Scientific and technical progress is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on the achievements and implementation of scientific knowledge. The basis of the effectiveness of the national economy of any modern country is, along with natural and labor resources, the scientific and technical potential of the country. Economic growth is achieved through the introduction of new equipment and technology into production, as well as the use of improved technologies for the use of resources, which in fact is the basis of scientific and technical progress. As a result of scientific and technological progress, all elements of the productive forces develop and improve: means and objects of labor, labor, technology, organization and management of production.
The relevance of this topic is determined by the emergence of new external and internal factors that affect the state of the economic system.
Also, the relevance of the research topic led to the emergence of numerous works devoted to the problems of maintaining and developing scientific and technical potential. A great contribution to the development of this direction was made by domestic theorists, among them the following can be distinguished: Goncharova V.V., Zavlina P.N., Kazantseva L.E., Kortova V.S., Andreyanov V.D., Abramov, Malkova I.V. , Basovsky L.E. and others, whose works are widely represented in the literature.
1. The essence of the concept of scientific and technical progress
Scientific and technological progress (STP) is a continuous process of discovering new knowledge and applying it in social production, allowing you to combine and combine available resources in a new way in order to increase the production of high-quality final products at the lowest cost. It also acts as the most important means of solving social and economic problems - improving working conditions and increasing its content, protecting the environment, and improving the well-being of the people. Scientific and technological progress is also of great importance for strengthening the country's defense capability.
In a broad sense, at any level - from the firm to the national economy - STP means the creation and implementation of new equipment, technology, materials, the use of new types of energy, as well as the emergence of previously unknown methods of organizing and managing production.
Scientific and technical progress is a gradual improvement and dissemination in the production of equipment and technological processes within the framework of existing scientific and technical principles.
It is characterized by the following features:
Development and widespread use of fundamentally new machines and systems of machines operating in automatic mode;
Creation and development of qualitatively new production technologies;
Discovery and use of new types and sources of energy;
Creation and widespread use of new types of materials with predetermined properties;
Wide development of automation of production processes based on the use of machine tools with numerical control, automatic lines, industrial robots, flexible production systems;
Introduction of new forms of organization of labor and production.
At the present stage, the following features of STP are observed.
There is an increase in the technological orientation of scientific and technical progress, its technological component. Progressive technologies are now the main link in the scientific and technical progress both in terms of the scale of implementation and in terms of results. There is an intensification of scientific and technical progress: the volume of scientific knowledge is growing, the qualitative composition of scientific personnel is improving, the cost effectiveness of its implementation is growing, and the effectiveness of scientific and technological progress is increasing.
At the present stage, scientific and technical progress is becoming more and more complex, systemic. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that scientific and technical progress now covers all sectors of the economy, including the service sector, penetrates into all elements of social production: the material and technical base, the process of organizing production, the process of training personnel and the organization of management. AT quantitatively complexity is also manifested in the mass introduction of scientific and technological achievements. An important regularity of scientific and technical progress is the strengthening of its resource-saving orientation. As a result of the introduction of scientific and technological achievements, material, technical and labor resources are saved, and this is an important criterion for the effectiveness of scientific and technological progress. There is an increase in the social orientation of STP, which is manifested in the increasing impact of STP on the social factors of human life: the conditions of work, study, life.
There is an increasing trend in the development of science and technology to preserve the environment - the greening of scientific and technological progress. This is the development and application of low-waste and waste-free technologies, the introduction effective ways complex use and processing natural resources, more complete involvement in the economic turnover of production and consumption waste.
1.1 Main forms of scientific and technical progress
Scientific and technological progress, in other words, the progress of science and technology, is accompanied by many factors that affect to varying degrees on community development. The combination of these factors has led to two forms of scientific and technological progress: evolutionary and revolutionary.
The evolutionary form of scientific and technological progress is a relatively slow improvement of the traditional scientific and technical foundations of production. It's about not about speed, but about the rate of growth of production: they can be low in a revolutionary form and high in an evolutionary one. For example, if we consider the growth rate of labor productivity, then, as history shows, rapid development can be observed in the evolutionary form of scientific and technological progress and slow development at the beginning of the revolutionary stage. At present, the revolutionary form prevails, providing a higher effect, large scale and accelerated reproduction rates. This form of scientific and technological progress is embodied in the scientific and technological revolution, or STR.
1.2 Main directions of scientific and technical progress
AT modern period the rapid development of scientific and technological progress to its traditional directions, the realities of life complement a lot of essential things, both in general and in the sectoral context. However, traditional ones are constantly operating, remaining the basis for the development of the industry and increasing its efficiency.
The main areas of scientific and technological progress include:
1. The advanced development of science itself, as the basis of the technical revolution and technical progress.
2. Electrosaturation of production.
3. Electronization of production.
4. Large-scale use of computers and information technology.
5. Mechanization and automation of all production processes.
6. Rational chemicalization, supplemented by biological means and methods.
7. Modern and ultra-modern areas related to the use of the laser effect, space instruments, microbiology, bionics, bioengineering, genetic engineering, etc.
8. Creation of advanced technologies, taking into account the achievements of all the named areas of scientific and technological progress.
9. Improving the organization of production, labor and management is adequate to the implementation new technology and other areas of scientific and technological progress.
All these areas of scientific and technological progress are very important. However, in real life, an adjustment for priority and opportunity is needed. In this regard, the most priority areas are new technologies, mechanization and automation of production processes. It is also necessary to reorient imports of products to the acquisition of technology.
2. Scientific and technological revolution and its consequences
Economists emphasize the "scientific and technological revolution" (NTR) - a qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society, a revolution in technology and production technology.
The scientific and technological revolution is a qualitative transformation of the productive forces, the transformation of science into a productive force, and a corresponding radical change in the material and technical base of social production, its form and content, the nature of labor, and the social division of labor.
Thus, scientific and technical progress and scientific and technological revolution are interconnected and mutually conditioned, correlated as evolutionary and revolutionary forms of development of the material and technical base of society. The revolutionary form of scientific and technical progress means a transition to the use of qualitatively new scientific and production principles in production (and not only in its material sphere, but also in the service sector). Scientific and technological revolution transforms the entire technological mode of production, all its aspects and components.
The main features of the scientific and technological revolution:
Universality - covers almost all branches of the national economy and affects all spheres of human activity;
The rapid development of science and technology;
Changing the role of man in the production process - in the process of the scientific and technological revolution, the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources increase, the share of mental labor increases.
The modern scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the following changes in the sphere of production:
First, the conditions, nature and content of labor are changing due to the introduction of the achievements of science into production. Machine-automated labor is replacing the former types of labor. The introduction of automatic machines significantly increases labor productivity, removing from production restrictions in speed, accuracy, continuity, etc., associated with the psychophysiological properties of a person. This changes the place of man in production. A new type of connection "man-technique" is emerging, which does not limit the development of either man or technology. In the conditions of automated production, machines produce machines.
Secondly, new types of energy are beginning to be used - atomic, sea ebb, earth's interior. There is a qualitative change in the use of electromagnetic and solar energy.
Thirdly, there is a replacement of natural materials with artificial ones. Plastics and PVC products are widely used.
Fourth, the production technology is changing. For example, the mechanical effect on the object of labor is replaced by a physical and chemical effect. In this case, magnetic-impulse phenomena, ultrasound, super frequencies, electro-hydraulic effect, different kinds radiation, etc. Modern technology characterized by the fact that cyclic technological processes are increasingly being replaced by continuous flow processes. New technological methods also impose new requirements on the tools of labor (increased accuracy, reliability, the ability to self-regulate), on the objects of labor (precisely specified quality, a clear mode of supply, etc.), on working conditions (strictly specified requirements for illumination, temperature regime in the premises, their cleanliness, etc.).
Fifth, the nature of governance is changing. The use of automated control systems changes the place of a person in the system of management and production control.
Sixth, the system for generating, storing and transmitting information is changing. The use of computers significantly accelerates the processes associated with the development and use of information, improves the methods of making and evaluating decisions.
Seventh, the requirements for vocational training frames. The rapid change in the means of production poses the task of constant professional improvement, raising the level of skills. A person is required to have professional mobility and more high level morality. The number of intelligentsia is growing, the requirements for its professional training are increasing.
Eighth, there is a transition from extensive to intensive development of production.
3. Scientific and technological progress as a factor of economic growth
Economic growth is an important economic goal, as it contributes to the growth of prosperity and increase in national wealth. It allows solving socio-economic problems - implementing social programs, developing science and education, solving environmental problems, etc. Economic growth increases the production capabilities of the economy. Thanks to it, new types of resources are created, new efficient technologies of production processes that allow increasing and diversifying the production of goods and services, and improving the quality of life.
Among the intensive factors of economic growth, the most significant is scientific and technological progress (STP), based on the accumulation and expansion of knowledge, on innovations that serve as a form of implementation of scientific discoveries and inventions. It is scientific and economic progress that ensures the improvement of the quality of resources, the gradual improvement of technology and technological processes within the framework of existing scientific and technical principles and their dissemination in production. The evolutionary form of scientific and technical progress is constantly inherent in social production and involves the steady development of technology, an increase in the level of technical knowledge. The revolutionary form of scientific and technological progress - the scientific and technological revolution (STR) - is a qualitative leap in the development of science and the productive forces of society, a revolution in technology and production technology.
The beginning of the modern scientific and technological revolution is usually attributed to the mid-1950s. Its main characteristics:
Automation and computerization of production, the transformation of informatics into a new resource and element of technological progress;
Discovery and use of new types and sources of energy - nuclear, thermonuclear;
Creation and use of new types of materials, unknown to nature, with predetermined properties;
Discovery and application of new technologies (chemical, biological, laser, etc.), which come into life under the general name of "high technologies";
Formation of a new type of worker - cultured and educated, disciplined, capable of operating complex technical and information systems, thinking creatively.
Of course, the use of high technologies makes it possible to better meet the needs of society with a more gentle impact on the environment, determines the increasing efficiency of the production of end products, and contributes to the achievement of economic growth goals. However, economic growth alone cannot solve all economic, social, environmental and other problems. human society. AT recent times specialists studying the problems of economic growth have come to the conclusion that the continuation of unbridled economic growth on the existing basis will lead humanity to a catastrophe that threatens its existence. This conclusion is based on a number of interrelated arguments.
First, while maintaining the existing production conditions, the resource component of production may be exhausted in the short term.
Secondly, the technologies and social relations prevailing today are capable of leading humanity to an ecological catastrophe. Ever since the beginning of the 20th century. humanity began to face a number of growing problems of a planetary nature, called global. If back in the 60s and 70s. the main problem was considered to be the prevention of global nuclear war, but now in the first place experts put environmental problem. Industrialization and economic growth give rise to such negative phenomena as pollution, industrial noise, emissions, deterioration of the appearance of cities, etc.
Thirdly, the growing social stratification of society poses a serious danger. The problem of income inequality and, as a consequence, the problem of poverty is becoming more and more acute. Approximately 2/3 of the world's population is constantly eking out a beggarly existence or dangerously approaching it. Today, developing countries account for almost 80% of the world's population and about 40% of world GDP.
Fourth, rapid economic growth, especially the technological upgrades that underlie it, creates anxiety and uncertainty among people about the future. Workers at every level fear that the skills and experience they have accumulated may become obsolete as technology advances rapidly.
4. State of scientific and technical progress in Ukraine
Ukraine is in the top 20 leaders of scientific and technological progress.
In the first half of November, at least three events became significant for the Ukrainian scientific community. Firstly, on November 1, Time magazine published a list of the best inventions of 2012, in which the development of the Ukrainian team "Enable Talk Gloves" took 7th place out of 25 possible. (Enable Talk is a student project, the main goal of which is the translation of sign language into speech. The presented concept of the project included two, equipped with sensors, gloves and a mobile device, where the recognition itself took place). Secondly, on November 12, the 100,000th patent for the invention was registered. As stated in the press announcement public service intellectual property of Ukraine, on November 20, the applicant will be issued a title of protection for a period of 20 years for a method to increase the effectiveness of chemotherapy for malignant tumors. And, finally, within the framework of the international PCT system for 2011, Ukraine ranked 7th in the TOP-15 middle-income countries in terms of the number of applications filed for patents. At the same time, according to the dynamics of the number of applications for registration of innovations, Ukraine was in the top 20 leaders of scientific and technological progress.
According to ICIS, from 1992 to 2012, 203,294 patents were registered in Ukraine. There are more than 2,000 inventions per one million inhabitants. With this indicator, according to the "Global Innovation Ranking-2012", Ukraine, together with China and India, was in the group of "beginners". As noted in the report, despite the weak economy with low and middle incomes of citizens, the state has seen an increase in achievements in the field of innovation. This is facilitated by the improvement of the institutional structure, the availability of qualified specialists and close integration into the global financial market. Based on statistics published on the website of the State Intellectual Property Service of Ukraine, it can be calculated that in 2012 the state earned more than 35.3 million hryvnias on the registration of inventions, utility models and industrial designs. The main part of this amount, about 33.4 million hryvnias, is made up of annual fees for maintaining patents.
Conclusion
Having studied the proposed topic, it should be concluded that the scientific and technical potential of any country is the main engine of the economies of countries and its development is one of the most relevant for the economy at the present time. In this comprehensive work, the main issues that reveal the essence of scientific and technical progress as the main factor in economic growth were considered.
Based on the results of this work, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Scientific and technological progress is one of the factors determining economic growth in the state.
Scientific and technical progress is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on the achievements and implementation of scientific knowledge.
NTP is characterized by:
Development and widespread use of fundamentally new machines and systems of machines operating in automatic mode;
Creation and development of qualitatively new production technologies;
Discovery and use of new types and sources of energy;
Creation and widespread use of new types of materials with predetermined properties;
The economic effect of scientific and technical progress is the result of scientific and technical activity. It manifests itself in the form of an increase in production, a decrease in production costs, as well as a decrease in economic damage, for example, from environmental pollution.
For Ukraine, the creative use of the experience of developed countries in implementing measures of state support for innovation processes in the economy has now acquired special significance, which will eventually allow the formation of a domestic incentive system. innovation activities. The effectiveness of innovation depends on a number of factors - this is efficiency. Any result obtained during the investment of investments and all resources (monetary, material, informational, labor) in a new product or operation (technology).
List of used literature
1. Economics of the enterprise. I.V. Sergeev. - M.: Phoenix, 2003.
2. Economics of the enterprise. Edited by Dr. E. n., prof. Karlika B.A. - M.: Nick, 2000.
3. Blyakhman L.S. Economics, organization of management and planning of scientific and technical progress. M.: graduate School, 2001.
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