Events after the First World War. Events of the First World War
VERSAILLES TREATY, the agreement that ended the First world war, was signed on June 28, 1919 in the suburbs of Paris, in the former royal residence. The truce, which actually put an end to the bloody war, was concluded on November 11, 1918, but it took the heads of the warring states about another six months to work out the main provisions of the peace treaty together.
The Treaty of Versailles was concluded between the victorious countries (USA, France, Great Britain) and defeated Germany.
Russia, which was also a member of the coalition of anti-German powers, earlier, in 1918, concluded a separate peace with Germany (according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk), therefore, it did not participate either in the Paris Peace Conference or in the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. It is for this reason that Russia, which suffered huge human losses in the First World War, not only did not receive any compensation (indemnity), but also lost part of its original territory (some regions of Ukraine and Belarus).
Terms of the Treaty of Versailles Main clause of the Treaty of Versailles - unconditional recognition of Germany's guilt in "causing the war." In other words, the full responsibility for inciting a global European conflict fell on Germany. This resulted in unprecedented severity of sanctions. The sum of the total indemnities paid by the German side to the victorious powers amounted to 132 million gold marks (in 1919 prices). The last payments were made in 2010, thus, Germany was able to fully pay off the "debts" of the First World War only after 92 years.
Germany suffered very painful territorial losses.
All German colonies were divided among the countries of the Entente (anti-German coalition). Part of the original continental German lands was also lost: Lorraine and Alsace went to France, East Prussia - to Poland, Gdansk (Danzig) was recognized as a free city. The Treaty of Versailles contained detailed requirements aimed at the demilitarization of Germany, preventing the re-ignition of a military conflict. The German army was significantly reduced (to 100,000 people). The German military industry was actually supposed to cease to exist. In addition, a separate requirement was spelled out for the demilitarization of the Rhineland - Germany was forbidden to concentrate troops and military equipment there. The Treaty of Versailles included a clause on the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization similar in function to the modern UN.
Impact of the Treaty of Versailles on the German economy and society
The terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty were unreasonably harsh and harsh, the German economy could not withstand them. A direct consequence of the fulfillment of the draconian requirements of the treaty was the complete destruction of German industry, the total impoverishment of the population and monstrous hyperinflation. In addition, the insulting peace agreement touched upon such a sensitive, albeit intangible, substance as national identity. The Germans felt not only ruined and robbed, but also wounded, unfairly punished and offended. German society readily embraced the most extreme nationalist and revanchist ideas; this is one of the reasons why a country that just 20 years ago ended one global military conflict with grief in half, easily got involved in the next one. But the Versailles Treaty of 1919, which was supposed to prevent potential conflicts, not only failed to fulfill its purpose, but also to some extent contributed to the incitement of the Second World War.
POLITICAL RESULTS
Six months later, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919), drawn up by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference, which officially ended the First World War.
Peace treaties with:
Germany (Treaty of Versailles)
Austria (Treaty of Saint Germain)
Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly)
Hungary (Trianon Treaty)
Turkey (Sevres Peace Treaty).
The results of the First World War were February and October Revolution in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, the liquidation of four empires: the Russian, German, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, the latter two being divided.
Germany ceased to be a monarchy and was cut down territorially and weakened economically. The difficult conditions for Germany of the Treaty of Versailles (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation it suffered gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis to come to power and unleash the Second World War.
Territorial changes as a result of the war:
annexation:
England- Tanzania and South West Africa, Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine, parts of Togo and Cameroon, North East New Guinea and Nauru;
Belgium- Burundi, Rwanda, Eupen, Malmedy districts, annexation of the Moresnet territory;
Greece- Western Thrace;
Denmark- Northern Schleswig;
Italy- South Tyrol and Istria;
Romania- Transylvania, Southern Dobruja, Bukovina, Bessarabia;
France- Alsace-Lorraine, Syria, Lebanon, most of Cameroon and Togo;
Japan- German islands pacific ocean north of the equator (Caroline, Marshall and Marianas);
an occupation France Saar;
accession
Banat, Bačka and Baranya, Slovenia, Croatia and Slavonia, Montenegro to the Kingdom of Serbia with the subsequent creation of Yugoslavia;
accession
South West Africa to the Union of South Africa.
declared independence
Belarusian People's Republic, Ukrainian People's Republic, Hungary, Danzig, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland;
founded Republic of Austria;
German Empire
de facto became a republic;
demilitarized
Rhine region and the Black Sea straits.
MILITARY RESULTS
Entering the war, the general staffs of the belligerent states and, first of all, Germany proceeded from the experience of previous wars, victory in which was decided by crushing the army and military power of the enemy. The same war showed that from now on world wars will be total in nature, involving the entire population and straining all the moral, military and economic capabilities of states. And such a war can only end with the unconditional surrender of the vanquished.
The First World War accelerated the development of new weapons and means of combat. For the first time, tanks, chemical weapons, a gas mask, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, and a flamethrower were used. Airplanes, machine guns, mortars, submarines, and torpedo boats were widely used. The firepower of the troops increased sharply. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escorts. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. There were tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, naval aviation. The role of the engineering troops increased and the role of the cavalry decreased. Also appeared "trench tactics" of warfare in order to exhaust the enemy and deplete his economy, working on military orders.
ECONOMIC RESULTS
The grandiose scale and protracted nature of the First World War led to an unprecedented militarization of the economy for industrialized states. This had an impact on the course of economic development of all large industrial states in the period between the two world wars: strengthening state regulation and economic planning, the formation of military-industrial complexes, the acceleration of the development of national economic infrastructures (energy systems, a network of paved roads, etc.), an increase in the share of production of defense products and dual-use products.
WORLD WAR I
(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918), the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; 9.5 million of them were killed and died from wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled.
Main reasons. The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of unification of Germany was completed and the hegemony of Prussia was consolidated in German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the system of alliances, the foreign policy of the German government was determined by the desire to achieve Germany's dominant position in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck tried to link Russia and Austria-Hungary with Germany by secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Union of the Three Emperors fell apart. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's positions by creating the Tripartite Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany came to the fore in European diplomacy. France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891-1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, she concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aside from rivalry on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced her to make her choice. The British could not help but be disturbed by the nationalist sentiments that prevailed in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the buildup of power. navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "cordial consent" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed an alliance Triple Entente (Triple Entente) as opposed to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape. One of the causes of the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. Formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each European countries sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans for the return of the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning their lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany. Tension in international relations was strengthened by a number of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908-1909; finally, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened her commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could hardly count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
July crisis and the beginning of the war. After the Balkan Wars, active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the conspiratorial organization "Young Bosnia", decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for the teachings of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was killed in the city of Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would take on a local character if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if she helps Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military formations be allowed into Serbian territory in order to prevent hostile actions together with Serbian forces. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. SD Sazonov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, openly spoke out against Austria-Hungary, having received assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgian neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. After the Germans invaded Belgium on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war. The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed to be a stalemate. This period ended with negotiations on a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry into the war of the United States on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major advance of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the surrender of the Central Powers.
First period. Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany's ties with overseas countries, from where before the war German enterprises received copper, tin and nickel. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - "blitzkrieg". The Germans put into action the Schlieffen plan, which was supposed to ensure a rapid success in the West with a large offensive against France through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to strike a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not carried out. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy's invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgian territory. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified regions of Namur and Liège, which blocked the path to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported almost 90,000 expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French, on the other hand, gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluk was 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. Commanding French forces General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to go on the counteroffensive. The first battle on the Marne began on 5 and ended on 12 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French advance on the weakened right flank made it inevitable that the German armies would retreat northward to the line of the Aisne River. The battles in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres on October 15 - November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in the hands of the Allies, which ensured communication between France and England. Paris was saved and the Entente countries got time to mobilize resources. The war in the west took on a positional character; Germany's hopes of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable. The opposition followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium to Compiègne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Miyel, and then southeast to the Swiss frontier. Along this line of trenches and barbed wire, approx. 970 km was carried out for four years trench warfare. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses at both sides. Hopes remained that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans to Koenigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with directing the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a "wedge" between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and force them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southerly direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, having captured several thousand people, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of the Russian troops posed a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial regions for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of the Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia huge losses, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to keep significant forces on the Eastern Front. As early as August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the bloc of the Central Powers. With the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany. On the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during the battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles also ended in defeat. landing operation- a naval expedition, which was equipped by the Entente countries at the beginning of 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting the Balkan states to the side of the allies. On the Eastern Front, towards the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was not possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with a new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.
War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. The German colonies were captured, and the trade of the Germans through the sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine - was blocked in their ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war there was only one major naval battle- when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6,800 killed, captured and wounded; Germans who considered themselves winners - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas. Having occupied a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the belligerents did not usually bind themselves to the observance of the norms international law, and the UK has so expanded the list of goods considered contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea. The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained submarine fleet, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships. On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamship Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President Wilson protested, the US and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.
Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to ask for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Great importance during the spring and summer of 1916 they had operations on the Eastern and Southwestern fronts. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were incessant attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century completely changed the way of warfare. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to the titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, according to various estimates, ranged from 208 to 359 billion dollars. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the right moment had come to start peace negotiations.
Second period.
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and December 18, 1916 turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms. As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe. The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war public opinion in the USA it was divided: some openly sided with the allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and above all the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson presented in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over everything Atlantic Ocean. Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop combat training programs. The anti-German sentiments of the North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and handed over to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmerman offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period.
The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main lines of attack. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918. On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance. On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Château-Thierry. The situation of 1914 was repeated: the Germans reached the Marne River, just 60 km from Paris. However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany. Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France. On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt to break through at Château-Thierry. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.
The last offensive of the allies. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began to relieve pressure on Château-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. In the battle of Amiens on August 8, the German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Earlier, German Chancellor Prince von Gertling believed that the Allies would sue for peace by September. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. “So we thought on the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the most optimistic among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military men convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat. The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. On June 20-26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were driven back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open. Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called August 8 - the beginning of the battle of Amiens - "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Solonik front, Bulgaria signed a truce on September 29. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary. To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max of Baden, who already on October 5, 1918, invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The Italian cavalry and armored vehicles made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the battle its name. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to a peace on any terms.
Revolution in Germany. On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and headed for General base feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebellious sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies on the Russian model in northern Germany. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile, the Supreme Allied Commander, General Foch, announced that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss with them the terms of a truce. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941). On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the Allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway wagons, 5,000 vehicles; immediately release all prisoners. Naval Forces were to surrender all submarines and almost the entire surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate a truce based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a provisional basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the armistice required practically unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
The conclusion of the world. A peace conference was held in 1919 in Paris; during the sessions, agreements on five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain peace treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly peace treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon peace treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Sevres peace treaty with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Lausanne Treaty on July 24, 1923, amendments were made to the Sevres Treaty. At the peace conference in Paris, 32 states were represented. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information on the geographical, historical and economic situation of those countries on which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, dissatisfied with the solution of the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the "big three" - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George - became the main architect of the post-war world. Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve main goal- Creation of the League of Nations. He agreed with the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. population german army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal military service was abolished; the German armed forces were to be recruited from volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was forbidden to have combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in peace treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. Between Clemenceau and Wilson unfolded a fierce discussion on the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland. France's plan ran counter to the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and advocated the self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign free military treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and the 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. Coal deposits, known as the Saar basin, also passed into the possession of France for 15 years; the Saarland itself came under the control of the Commission of the League of Nations. After a 15-year period, it was planned to hold a plebiscite on the issue of the state ownership of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to decide for themselves the issue of disputed territories. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost its colonial possessions. Great Britain acquired German East Africa and western part German Cameroon and Togo, the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand - were transferred Southwest Africa, the northeastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoa Islands. France got most of the German Togo and the eastern part of Cameroon. Japan received the German-owned Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also assumed the division Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks, led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to reconsider their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne canceled the Treaty of Sevres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Turkey took back Armenia. Syria passed to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean were ceded to Italy; the Arab territory of the Hijaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence. Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement, in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers suggested that, instead of actually handing over the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to administer as Trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called "mandatory". Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed penalties for damages, the fight over the issue ended in victory for the French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; the question of what should be included in the list of destruction presented for payment was also subjected to lengthy discussion. At first, the exact amount did not figure, only in 1921 was its size determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); later this amount was reduced. The principle of self-determination of nations has become a key one for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of defining its boundaries proved to be difficult; of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. "Polish corridor", which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New independent states arose in the Baltic region: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, in its place were Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania; the borders between these states were disputed. The problem turned out to be difficult due to mixed settlement different peoples. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were hurt. Romania doubled its territory with Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary has greatly decreased and is now approx. 8 million people. At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other associates, the League of Nations was to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted, and after lengthy debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations Agreement represented that part of the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was also asked to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign it on the grounds that the agreement was not in line with Wilson's Fourteen Points. In the end, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, in ecstasy of victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
LITERATURE
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975 Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, the USSR and international conflicts in the first half of the 20th century. M., 1989 On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the start of the First World War. M., 1990 Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914-1915. M., 1990 Kudrina Yu.V. Returning to the origins of the First World War. Pathways to safety. M., 1994 The First World War: debatable problems of history. M., 1994 World War I: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994 Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. World War I and prospects community development Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995 World War I: Prologue of the 20th century. M., 1998
Wikipedia
The First World War was the largest military conflict of the first third of the twentieth century and all the wars that took place before that. So when did World War I start and in what year did it end? The date July 28, 1914 is the beginning of the war, and its end is November 11, 1918.
When did World War I start?
The beginning of World War I was the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia. The reason for the war was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown by the nationalist Gavrilo Princip.
Speaking briefly about the First World War, it should be noted that the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the conquest of a place in the sun, the desire to rule the world with a balance of power, the emergence of Anglo-German trade barriers, such a phenomenon in the development of the state as economic imperialism and territorial claims that reached the absolute. one state to another.
On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Serb of Bosnian origin, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, main war the first third of the twentieth century.
Rice. 1. Gavrilo Princip.
Russia in the First World
Russia announced mobilization, preparing to defend the fraternal people, thereby incurring an ultimatum from Germany to stop the formation of new divisions. On August 1, 1914, Germany officially declared war on Russia.
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In 1914, military operations on the Eastern Front were carried out in Prussia, where a swift offensive Russian troops was driven back by the German counteroffensive and the defeat of Samsonov's army. The offensive in Galicia was more effective. On the Western Front, the course of hostilities was more pragmatic. The Germans invaded France through Belgium and moved at an accelerated pace to Paris. Only in the Battle of the Marne was the offensive stopped by the Allied forces and the parties switched to a long trench war, which dragged on until 1915.
In 1915, Germany's former ally, Italy, entered the war on the side of the Entente. Thus was formed the southwestern front. Fighting unfolded in the Alps, giving rise to mountain warfare.
April 22, 1915 during the Battle of Ypres German soldiers used the poison gas chlorine against the forces of the Entente, which was the first gas attack in history.
A similar meat grinder happened on the Eastern Front. The defenders of the Osovets fortress in 1916 covered themselves with unfading glory. The German forces, several times superior to the Russian garrison, could not take the fortress after mortar and artillery fire and several assaults. After that, a chemical attack was applied. When the Germans, walking in gas masks through the smoke, believed that there were no survivors left in the fortress, Russian soldiers ran out to them, coughing up blood and wrapped in various rags. The bayonet attack was unexpected. The enemy, many times superior in number, was finally driven back.
Rice. 2. Defenders of Osovets.
In the Battle of the Somme in 1916, tanks were used for the first time by the British during an attack. Despite frequent breakdowns and low accuracy, the attack had more of a psychological effect.
Rice. 3. Tanks on the Somme.
In order to distract the Germans from the breakthrough and draw forces away from Verdun, the Russian troops planned an offensive in Galicia, the result of which was to be the surrender of Austria-Hungary. This is how the “Brusilovsky breakthrough” occurred, which, although it moved the front line tens of kilometers to the west, did not solve the main task.
At sea, a pitched battle took place between the British and the Germans in 1916 near the Jutland peninsula. The German fleet intended to break the naval blockade. More than 200 ships took part in the battle, with a majority of the British, but during the battle there was no winner, and the blockade continued.
On the side of the Entente in 1917, the United States entered, for which entry into the world war on the side of the winner at the very last moment became a classic. The German command from Lans to the River Aisne erected a reinforced concrete "Hindenburg Line", behind which the Germans retreated and switched to a defensive war.
The French General Nivel developed a plan for a counteroffensive on the Western Front. Massive artillery preparation and attacks on different sectors of the front did not give the desired effect.
In 1917, in Russia, during two revolutions, the Bolsheviks came to power, by which the shameful separate Brest peace was concluded. On March 3, 1918, Russia withdrew from the war.
In the spring of 1918, the Germans launched their last "spring offensive". They intended to break through the front and withdraw France from the war, however, the numerical superiority of the Allies did not allow them to do so.
Economic exhaustion and growing dissatisfaction with the war forced Germany to sit down at the negotiating table, during which a peace treaty was concluded at Versailles.
What have we learned?
Despite who fought with whom and who won, history has shown that the end of the First World War did not solve all the problems of mankind. The battle for the redivision of the world did not end, the allies did not finish off Germany and its allies completely, but only economically exhausted, which led to the signing of peace. The Second World War was only a matter of time.
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This unprecedented war must be brought to complete victory. Whoever thinks about peace now, who desires it, is a traitor to the Fatherland, his traitor.
August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. The First World War (1914-1918) began, which became the second for our Motherland Patriotic War.
How did it happen that the Russian Empire was drawn into the First World War? Was our country ready for it?
About the history of this war, about what it was for Russia, "Foma" was told by the doctor historical sciences, Professor, Chief Researcher at the Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IVI RAS), President Russian Association historians of the First World War (RAIPMV) Evgeny Yurievich Sergeev.
Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. July 1914
What the masses don't know about
Evgeny Yuryevich, the First World War (WWI) is one of the main directions of your scientific activity. What influenced the choice of this topic?
This is an interesting question. On the one hand, the significance of this event for world history leaves no doubt. This alone can inspire a historian to engage in WWI. On the other hand, this war still remains, to a certain extent, "terra incognita" national history. Civil War and the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) overshadowed it, relegated it to the background in our minds.
No less important are the extremely interesting and little-known events of that war. Including those whose direct continuation we find during World War II.
For example, there was such an episode in the history of WWI: On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany., being in alliance with Russia and with other countries of the Entente, supplied weapons and military equipment to Russia. These deliveries went through the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). The Germans organized an entire expedition (sabotage team) there in order to blow up the tunnels and bridges of the CER and interrupt this communication. Russian counterintelligence officers intercepted this expedition, that is, they managed to prevent the elimination of the tunnels, which would have caused significant damage to Russia, because an important supply artery would have been interrupted.
- Marvelous. How is it, Japan, with which we fought in 1904-1905 ...
By the time the WWI began, relations with Japan were different. Relevant agreements have already been signed. And in 1916, an agreement on a military alliance was even signed. We had a very close collaboration.
Suffice it to say that Japan gave us, although not free of charge, three ships that Russia lost during the Russo-Japanese War. "Varangian", which the Japanese raised and restored, was among them. As far as I know, the Varyag cruiser (the Japanese called it Soya) and two other ships raised by the Japanese were bought by Russia from Japan in 1916. On April 5 (18), 1916, the Russian flag was raised over the Varyag in Vladivostok.
At the same time, after the victory of the Bolsheviks, Japan participated in the intervention. But this is not surprising: after all, the Bolsheviks were considered accomplices of the Germans, the German government. You yourself understand that the conclusion of a separate peace on March 3, 1918 (Brest peace) was essentially a stab in the back of the allies, including Japan.
Along with this, of course, there were quite specific political and economic interests of Japan in the Far East and in Siberia.
- But were there other interesting episodes in WWI?
Of course. It can also be said (few people know about this) that the military convoys known from the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 were also in the WWII, and also went to Murmansk, which was specially built for this in 1916. Was open Railway linking Murmansk with the European part of Russia. The deliveries were quite significant.
Together with the Russian troops, a French squadron operated on the Romanian front. Here is the prototype of the squadron "Normandie - Neman". British submarines fought in the Baltic Sea alongside the Russian Baltic Fleet.
Cooperation on the Caucasian front between the corps of General N. N. Baratov (who, as part of the Caucasian army, fought there against the troops of the Ottoman Empire) and British forces is also a very interesting episode of WWI, one might say, a prototype of the so-called “meeting on the Elbe” during the Second World War . Baratov made a march and met with British troops near Baghdad, in what is now Iraq. Then it was the Ottoman possessions, of course. As a result, the Turks were squeezed into pincers.
Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. Photo 1914
Great plans
- Evgeny Yurievich, but who is still to blame for unleashing the First World War?
The blame clearly lies with the so-called Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany. And even more in Germany. Although WWI began as a local war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, but without the firm support that was promised to Austria-Hungary from Berlin, it would not have acquired first a European, and then a global scale.
Germany needed this war very much. Its main goals were formulated as follows: to eliminate the hegemony of Great Britain on the seas, to seize its colonial possessions and acquire " living space in the East" (that is, in Eastern Europe) for the rapidly growing German population. There was a geopolitical concept of "Middle Europe", according to which main task Germany was to unite European countries around itself into a kind of modern European Union, but, of course, under the auspices of Berlin.
For the ideological support of this war in Germany, a myth was created about the "encirclement of the Second Reich by a ring of hostile states": from the West - France, from the East - Russia, on the seas - Great Britain. Hence the task: to break through this ring and create a prosperous world empire centered in Berlin.
- In the event of its victory, what role did Germany assign to Russia and the Russian people?
In case of victory, Germany hoped to return the Russian kingdom to the borders of about the 17th century (that is, before Peter I). Russia, in the German plans of that time, was to become a vassal of the Second Reich. The Romanov dynasty was supposed to be preserved, but, of course, Nicholas II (and his son Alexei) would have been removed from power.
- How did the Germans behave in the occupied territories during WWI?
In 1914-1917, the Germans managed to occupy only the extreme western provinces of Russia. They behaved quite reservedly there, although, of course, they carried out requisitions of the property of the civilian population. But mass deportation of people to Germany or atrocities directed against civilians, was not noted.
Another thing is 1918, when German and Austro-Hungarian troops occupied vast territories in conditions of actual collapse tsarist army(I remind you that they reached Rostov, Crimea and North Caucasus). Mass requisitions for the needs of the Reich had already begun here, and resistance detachments appeared, created in Ukraine by nationalists (Petlyura) and Socialist-Revolutionaries, who came out sharply against the Brest peace. But even in 1918, the Germans could not particularly turn around, since the war was already coming to an end, and they threw their main forces on the Western Front against the French and British. However partisan movement against the Germans in 1917-1918 in the occupied territories, however, was noted.
World War I. Political poster. 1915
Session of the III State Duma. 1915
Why did Russia get involved in the war
- What did Russia do to prevent war?
Nicholas II hesitated to the end - whether to start a war or not, offering to resolve all controversial issues at a peace conference in The Hague through international arbitration. Such offers from Nicholas were made to Wilhelm II, the German emperor, but he rejected them. And therefore, to say that the blame for the outbreak of the war lies with Russia is absolute nonsense.
Unfortunately, Germany ignored Russian initiatives. The fact is that German intelligence and the ruling circles were well aware that Russia was not ready for war. And Russia's allies (France and Great Britain) were not quite ready for it, especially Great Britain in terms of ground forces.
Russia in 1912 began to carry out a large program of rearmament of the army, and it should have ended only by 1918-1919. And Germany actually completed preparations for the summer of 1914.
In other words, the "window of opportunity" was quite narrow for Berlin, and if you start a war, then it should have started in 1914.
- How justified were the arguments of the opponents of the war?
The arguments of the opponents of the war were quite strong and clearly formulated. There were such forces among the ruling circles. There was a fairly strong and active party that opposed the war.
A note is known from one of the major statesmen of that time - P. N. Durnovo, which was filed at the beginning of 1914. Durnovo warned Tsar Nicholas II about the perniciousness of the war, which, in his opinion, meant the death of the dynasty and the death of imperial Russia.
There were such forces, but the fact is that by 1914 Russia was in allied relations not with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but with France, and then with Great Britain, and the very logic of the development of the crisis associated with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the heir to Austria -Hungarian throne, brought Russia to this war.
Speaking about the possible fall of the monarchy, Durnovo believed that Russia would not be able to withstand a large-scale war, that a supply crisis and a crisis of power would arise, and this would ultimately lead not only to the disorganization of the political and economic life of the country, but also to the collapse of the empire. , loss of control. Unfortunately, his prediction came true in many respects.
- Why did the anti-war arguments, for all their validity, clarity and clarity, not have the proper impact? Russia could not help but enter the war, even despite such clearly expressed arguments of its opponents?
Allied debt on the one hand, on the other hand, the fear of losing prestige and influence in the Balkan countries. After all, if we did not support Serbia, it would be disastrous for Russia's prestige.
Of course, the pressure of certain forces set up for war also had an effect, including those associated with certain Serbian circles at the court, with Montenegrin circles. The well-known "Montenegrins", that is, the spouses of the Grand Dukes at court, also influenced the decision-making process.
It can also be said that Russia owed significant amounts of money received as loans from French, Belgian and English sources. The money was received specifically for the rearmament program.
But the question of prestige (which was very important for Nicholas II) I would still put in the foreground. We must give him his due - he always advocated maintaining the prestige of Russia, although, perhaps, he did not always understand this correctly.
- Is it true that the motive for helping the Orthodox (Orthodox Serbia) was one of the decisive factors that determined Russia's entry into the war?
One of the most important factors. Maybe not decisive, because - I emphasize again - Russia needed to maintain the prestige of a great power and not turn out to be an unreliable ally at the very beginning of the war. This is probably the main motive.
The sister of mercy writes down the last will of the dying. Western Front, 1917
Myths old and new
WWI became the Patriotic War for our Motherland, the Second Patriotic War, as it is sometimes called. In Soviet textbooks, the WWI was called "imperialist". What is behind these words?
Giving WWI an exclusively imperialist status is a serious mistake, although this moment is also present. But first of all, we must look at it as the Second Patriotic War, bearing in mind that the First Patriotic War was the war against Napoleon in 1812, and we had the Great Patriotic War back in the 20th century.
Taking part in WWI, Russia defended itself. After all, it was Germany that declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. The First World War became the Second Patriotic War for Russia. In support of the thesis about leading role Germany in unleashing WWI can also be said that at the Paris Peace Conference (which was held from 01/18/1919 to 01/21/1920), the Allied Powers, among other requirements, set the condition for Germany to agree with the article on "war crime" and recognize its responsibility for outbreak of war.
The whole people then rose up to fight against the foreign invaders. War, I emphasize again, was declared to us. We didn't start it. And not only active armies took part in the war, where, by the way, several million Russians were called up, but the whole people. The rear and the front acted together. And many of the trends that we later observed during the Great Patriotic War originate precisely in the period of WWI. Suffice it to say that they acted partisan detachments that the population of the rear provinces actively showed itself, when they helped not only the wounded, but also refugees from the western provinces fleeing the war. The sisters of mercy were active, the clergy who were at the forefront and often raised troops on the attack showed themselves very well.
It can be said that the designation of our great defensive wars by the terms: “First Patriotic War”, “Second Patriotic War” and “Third Patriotic War” is the restoration of that historical continuity that was broken in the period after WWI.
In other words, whatever the official goals of the war, there were ordinary people who perceived this war as a war for their Fatherland, and died and suffered precisely for this.
- And what, from your point of view, are the most common myths about WWI now?
We have already named the first myth. It is a myth that the WWI was unequivocally imperialistic and was conducted solely in the interests of the ruling circles. This is probably the most common myth that has not yet been eliminated even on the pages of school textbooks. But historians are trying to overcome this negative ideological legacy. We are trying to take a different look at the history of WWI and explain to our students the true essence of that war.
Another myth is the idea that the Russian army only retreated and suffered defeat. Nothing like this. By the way, this myth is widespread in the West, where, in addition to the Brusilov breakthrough, that is, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front in 1916 (spring-summer), even Western experts, not to mention the general public, no major victories of Russian weapons in WWI they cannot name.
In fact, excellent examples of Russian military art were demonstrated in WWI. Say, on the Southwestern Front, on the Western Front. This is the Battle of Galicia, and the Lodz operation. One defense of Osovets is worth something. Osowiec is a fortress located on the territory of modern Poland, where the Russians defended themselves from superior German forces for more than six months (the siege of the fortress began in January 1915 and lasted 190 days). And this defense is quite comparable with the defense of the Brest Fortress.
You can give examples with Russian pilots-heroes. One can recall the sisters of mercy who saved the wounded. There are many such examples.
There is also a myth that Russia fought this war in isolation from its allies. Nothing like this. The examples I gave earlier debunk this myth.
The war was coalition. And we received significant assistance from France, Great Britain, and then the United States, which entered the war later, in 1917.
- Is the figure of Nicholas II mythologized?
In many ways, of course, mythologized. Under the influence of revolutionary agitation, he was branded almost as an accomplice of the Germans. There was a myth according to which Nicholas II allegedly wanted to conclude a separate peace with Germany.
Actually, it wasn't. He was a sincere supporter of waging war to a victorious end and did everything in his power for this. Already in exile, he extremely painfully and with great indignation took the news that the Bolsheviks had concluded a separate Brest Peace.
Another thing is that the scale of his personality as a statesman was not quite adequate for Russia to be able to go through this war to the end.
None I emphasize , none documentary evidence of the desire of the emperor and empress to conclude a separate peace not found. He didn't even think about it. These documents do not exist and could not exist. This is another myth.
As a very vivid illustration of this thesis, one can cite Nicholas II’s own words from the Act of Abdication (March 2 (15), 1917 at 15:00): "In the days of the greatstruggle with an external enemy who has been striving to enslave our homeland for almost three years, the Lord God was pleased to send Russia a new ordeal. The outbreak of internal popular unrest threatens to have a disastrous effect on the further conduct of the stubborn war.The fate of Russia, the honor of our heroic army, the good of the people, the whole future of our dear Fatherland demand that the war be brought to a victorious end at all costs. <…>».
Nicholas II, V. B. Frederiks and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich at Headquarters. 1914
Russian troops on the march. Photo 1915
Defeat a year before victory
The First World War - is, as some believe, a shameful defeat of the tsarist regime, a catastrophe or something else? After all, as long as the last Russian tsar remained in power, the enemy could not enter the borders Russian Empire? Unlike the Great Patriotic War.
You are not quite right that the enemy could not enter our borders. He nevertheless entered the Russian Empire as a result of the offensive of 1915, when the Russian army was forced to retreat, when our opponents transferred virtually all their forces to the Eastern Front, to the Russian front, and our troops had to retreat. Although, of course, the enemy did not enter the deep regions of Central Russia.
But I would not call what happened in 1917-1918 a defeat, a shameful defeat of the Russian Empire. It would be more correct to say that Russia was forced to sign this separate peace with the Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany and with other members of this coalition.
This is a consequence of the political crisis in which Russia found itself. That is, the reasons for this are internal, and by no means military. And we must not forget that the Russians actively fought on the Caucasian front, and the successes were very significant. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was dealt a very serious blow by Russia, which later led to its defeat.
Although Russia has not fully fulfilled its allied duty, it must be admitted, it certainly made its significant contribution to the victory of the Entente.
Russia lacked literally a year of some kind. Maybe a year and a half in order to adequately end this war as part of the Entente, as part of a coalition
And how was the war generally perceived in Russian society? The Bolsheviks, representing an overwhelming minority of the population, dreamed of the defeat of Russia. But what was the attitude of ordinary people?
The general mood was quite patriotic. For example, women of the Russian Empire were most actively involved in charitable assistance. A lot of people signed up as sisters of mercy, even without being professionally trained. They took special short courses. A lot of girls and young women from different classes participated in this movement - ranging from members imperial family to the very ordinary people. There were special delegations Russian Society The Red Cross, who visited the prisoner of war camps, observed their content. And not only in Russia, but also abroad. Traveled to Germany, Austria-Hungary. Even in war conditions, this was feasible through the mediation of the international Red Cross. We traveled through third countries, mainly through Sweden and Denmark. During the Great Patriotic War, such work, unfortunately, was impossible.
By 1916, medical and social assistance to the wounded was systematized and took on a purposeful character, although initially, of course, much was done on a private initiative. This movement to help the army, to help those who were in the rear, the wounded, had a nationwide character.
Members royal family also took an active part in it. They collected parcels for prisoners of war, donations in favor of the wounded. A hospital was opened in the Winter Palace.
By the way, one cannot but mention the role of the Church. She provided great assistance both to the army in the field and in the rear. The activities of regimental priests at the front were very versatile.
In addition to their immediate duties, they were also involved in compiling and sending "funerals" (death notices) to relatives and friends of the fallen soldiers. Many cases have been recorded when priests walked at the head or in the forefront of the advancing troops.
The priests had to do the work, as they would say now, of psychotherapists: they conducted conversations, calmed them down, tried to remove the feeling of fear that is natural for a person in the trenches. It's at the front.
In the rear, the Church provided assistance to the wounded and refugees. Many monasteries set up free hospitals, collected parcels for the front, and organized the dispatch of charitable aid.
Russian infantry. 1914
Remember everyone!
Is it possible, given the current ideological chaos in society, including in the perception of WWI, to present a sufficiently clear and precise position on WWI that would reconcile everyone in relation to this historical phenomenon?
We, professional historians, are just now working on this, striving to create such a concept. But this is not easy to do.
In fact, we are now making up for what Western historians did back in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century - we are doing work that, due to the peculiarities of our history, we did not do. The whole emphasis was on the October Socialist Revolution. The history of WWI was hushed up and mythologized.
Is it true that the construction of a temple in memory of the soldiers who died in WWI is already planned, just as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built at one time with public money?
Yes. This idea is being worked on. And there is even a unique place in Moscow - a fraternal cemetery near the Sokol metro station, where not only Russian soldiers who died here in the rear hospitals, but also prisoners of war of the enemy armies were buried. That is why it is fraternal. Soldiers and officers of different nationalities are buried there.
At one time, this cemetery occupied a fairly large space. Now, of course, the situation is completely different. Much has been lost there, but the memorial park has been recreated, there is already a chapel, and restoring the temple there would probably be a very correct decision. Just like opening a museum (with a museum, the situation is more complicated).
You can announce a fundraiser for this temple. The role of the Church is very important here.
In fact, we can put an Orthodox church at the crossroads of these historical roads, just as we used to put chapels at the crossroads, where people could come, pray, and remember their dead relatives.
Yes, absolutely right. Moreover, almost every family in Russia is associated with WWI, that is, with the Second Patriotic War, as well as with the Great Patriotic War.
Many fought, many ancestors somehow took part in this war - either in the rear, or in the army. Therefore, it is our sacred duty to restore the historical truth.
Attitude towards the Brest Peace
"Left Communists" (Bukharin) - against peace, for a revolutionary war
L. Trotsky: "No peace, no war!"
V. I. Lenin: "Peace at any cost!"
Other political forces: against peace with Germany.
Consequences of the Brest peace:
The Bolsheviks got a breather and retained power
The loss of grain-producing areas led to famine
Pursuing a policy of "war communism" - the requisition of bread from the peasants, which led to discontent
Open intervention of the Entente
Russia was not invited to the Versailles Conference and received no compensation
Consequences of the war for Russia
Political:
Defeat in the war
End of an empire
October Revolution of 1917, power of the Soviets
Economic:
Militarization of the economy
Reduction of enterprises and output
Loss of a significant part of economically important territories
Social:
Significant decline in the standard of living of the population
Population decline. Decreasing birth rate
Famine, epidemics, diseases
From the history of the First World War:
The war lasted from July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918(officially the state of the world was approved on June 28, 1919)
38 states participated in the war (4 on the side of the German bloc: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria), the rest on the side of the Entente.
About 74 million people were mobilized, over 10 million were killed, over 20 million were wounded.
August 21-25, 1914 - battle at Charleroi, the defeat of the British and French troops.
September 5-12, 1914 - German defeat at the Battle of marne, stopped the advance of Germany in France.
February-December 1916- Verdun operation(“Verdun meat grinder”, more than 2 million soldiers died)
July-November 1916 - fighting on the river Somme.
In war first used tanks, aviation. chemical weapon.
All countries were seriously affected by the war. Only Great Britain remained the winner - new colonies were added, the country began to own almost a fourth of the land.
November 11, 1918 - signing of an armistice between the victors (the Entente countries) and Germany in Compiègne forest(France)
Parisian peace conference (January 18, 1919 - January 21, 1920) 27 countries participated. The conference prepared the main treaties following the results of the war. Russia - did not participate (it was considered a country that lost the war, Soviet power considered temporary)
Versailles peace treaty signed June 28, 1919, entered into force - January 10, 1920. The treaty officially ended the First World War, secured a new redistribution of the world. Russia - did not participate (for the same reasons as at the Paris Conference)
In the First World War FOR THE FIRST TIME:
Applied chemical weapon- Germans, near the river Ypres (hence mustard gas) in 1915
tanks- the British were the first to use them in the battle on the Somme on September 15, 1915 against Turkey
Submarines- England, Germany
Aviation- By the beginning of the war, aviation was part of the armies of developed countries as auxiliary forces. (First combat use aircraft refers to Balkan wars in 1912-1913)
Some terms
The Schlieffen Plan - plan lightning war Germany (2-3 months) - the defeat of France, without which Great Britain would not have been able to wage war. Then a peace conference would be held and the colonies would be divided in a new way.
Trench warfare - a war in which the struggle is fought on continuous, relatively stable fronts (positions), great attention is paid to defense.
"Progressive bloc ”- created in 1915, this is a coalition of progressive deputies in the State Duma, demanding reforms.
Organizations created during the war in Russia:
May 1915- Central Military Industrial Committee for the organization of production for defense needs and the distribution of military orders (headed by the Octobrist Guchkov)
July 10, 1915 - the joint committee of the All-Russian Zemsky and City Unions - Zemgor- supplying the army, helping it (at the head- Lviv, close to the cadets)
Versailles system- the world order approved by the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919: strengthening the positions of the victorious countries in the war (France and Great Britain)