Lexicology as a science. Subject of Lexicology Lexicology as the science of the vocabulary of a language
Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of a language.
The problem of the word as the basic unit of language is studied in the general theory of the word. The category of lexical units includes (the main lexical unit is the word):
individual words (solid-form units)
stable phrases (analytical, or compound, units).
Since the word is a unit characterized by the correlation of form and content, the problem of the word as a unit of language is considered in three aspects:
Structural aspect (selection of the word, its construction). In this aspect, the main task of the lexicological theory of the word is to establish the criteria for its separateness and identity (2, p. 38).
In the first case, the word is compared with the phrase, signs of its integral form and separateness are revealed, the problem of the analytical form of the word is developed;
In the second case we are talking about the establishment of the invariant of the word, which underlies both its grammatical forms (in connection with this, the category of the word form is determined), and its variants - phonetic, morphological, lexico-semantic (in connection with this, the problem of the word variant is being developed).
Semantic aspect (lexical meaning of the word). The semantic analysis of lexical units is the subject of study of lexical semantics, semasiology, which explores the correlation of a word with the concept it expresses (significate) and the object designated by it in speech (denotation). Lexicology studies the semantic types of words, highlighting lexicological categories that reflect the semantic features of lexical units (2, p. 75):
monosemy and polysemy;
general and special;
abstract and concrete;
wide and narrow (hyperonym and hyponym);
logical and expressive;
direct and figurative meanings of lexical units.
Particular attention is paid to:
the semantic structure of a multi-valued lexical unit;
identifying types of word meanings and criteria for their differentiation;
ways of changing and developing the meaning of words.
The phenomenon of desemantization is analyzed - the loss of a word of its lexical meaning and its transition to grammatical formants.
Functional aspect (the role of the word in the structure of language and speech). The word as a unit of language is considered from the point of view
its role in the structure and functioning of the language as a whole;
its relationship with units of other levels.
The interaction of vocabulary and grammar is especially significant: vocabulary imposes restrictions on the use of grammatical categories, grammatical forms contribute to the differentiation of the meanings of words. Lexical and grammatical means with general meaning form lexico-grammatical fields (an expression of quantity, time, etc.).
When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered (6, p. 49):
frequency of vocabulary in texts
vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and peculiarities of use (many of the lexicological categories are peculiarly refracted in speech, in connection with which language and speech synonyms, antonyms are distinguished; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech are usually eliminated or take the form puns miles of semantic syncretism
word compatibility. Differ:
Free combinations;
Related combinations (idiomatic ones are distinguished inside, which is the subject of study of phraseology).
The compatibility of words is considered at the levels:
semantic (compatibility of concepts denoted by these lexical units: “stone house”, “fish swims”);
Lexicology explores ways to replenish and develop the vocabulary of a language, distinguishing four ways to create nominations:
creation of new words;
the formation of new meanings (polysemy, the transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied);
formation of phrases;
borrowings (lexical borrowings and calques) (the factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are studied).
The first three methods are based on using the internal resources of the language, and the fourth one is based on attracting the resources of other languages.
An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings, that the life experience of the collective in a certain era is most directly fixed. In this regard, issues such as:
vocabulary and culture;
the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”);
linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of the word;
background vocabulary, etc.
Lecture 5
Lexicology, phraseology
The word as the main nominative unit of the language, its differential features.
Lexical meaning of the word and concept.
The lexical system of the language.
The concept of phraseological unit Types of phraseological units.
Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.
Lexicology(gr. lexis– word + logos- teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (lexicon) and the entire lexical system (lexicon) of the language. The term vocabulary (gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language (book vocabulary), in a separate work (the vocabulary of "The Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer (Pushkin's vocabulary) and even one person (The speaker has a rich vocabulary).
Lexicology studies the patterns of functioning and development of the vocabulary of a language, develops the principles of the stylistic classification of words, the norms of literary word usage in its relation to vernacular, questions of professionalism, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, normalization of lexicalized phrases.
Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous(gr. syn - together + chronos - time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its state of the art, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - through + chronos - time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language. There are also general lexicology, which examines the vocabulary of different languages, reveals the general patterns and functioning of their lexical systems, and private lexicology, which studies the vocabulary of one language. Subject comparative Lexicology is the vocabulary of one language in comparison with other languages in order to discover similarities and differences.
All sections of lexicology are interconnected: data of general lexicology is necessary when studying the vocabulary of a particular language to understand the deep essence of lexical units, their connection with the cognitive structures of consciousness; many lexical phenomena need historical commentary, clarifying the features of their semantics and use; information from comparative lexicology helps to understand many features and patterns of functioning of the vocabulary of a particular language, such as, for example, the common lexical composition, borrowing, interference, and others.
Lexicology occupies an equal place among other linguistic disciplines and is inextricably linked with them, for example, with phonetics: units of lexicology are signs of the connection established by our thinking between the complexes of sounds of human speech and what these complexes are called in the surrounding world, the nomination of objects of reality. Among the linguistic disciplines, lexicology is most closely associated with grammar. In order to accurately determine the meaning of a word, its paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections with other words, its role in the text, need to know grammatical status of this word (part of speech, general categorical meaning, main morphological features and syntactic function), in turn, the general categorical meaning of one or another part of speech is realized in private lexical meanings specific words as units of vocabulary. The formation of many grammatical forms of a word directly depends on the features of its lexical meaning, for example, short forms and forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. The compatibility of words in a phrase and a sentence also depends on the characteristics of these words as lexemes.
Object and subject of lexicology
Units of the lexico-semantic system
Specificity of the lexico-semantic system
Main problems of lexicology
Sections of lexicology
Literature
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Object and subject of lexicology
Lexicology(gr. lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in his state of the art And historical development.
Sections of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:
unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,
unit system, the relationship between these units.
Objects of lexicology- This
word as a lexical unit (LE),
vocabulary(vocabulary) as a collection of words, organized, structured in a certain way.
The word is an object of different linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word from a certain point of view, i.e. with a common object has its own item:
studied in phonetics sound side words,
in morphemic - structure words,
word formation - ways of education words,
in morphology - grammatical forms And grammatical meanings words,
in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYA, p. 165].
word like grammatical unit is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical a unit, or a dictionary unit, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian Grammar, p. 453].
In lexicology, the word is considered
in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content
and as a unit of the vocabulary of a language.
Word wing , for example, is of interest here
but as Name:
the organ of flight in birds, insects, and some mammals;
the carrier plane of an aircraft or other moving apparatus;
rotating blades of a windmill wheel;
tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;
side extension, outbuilding;
the extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;
extreme (right or left) grouping of some organization.
b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in a certain relationship with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of body parts of a bird along with words tail, beak etc.
opposition grammatical forms of the word(word form) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of grammar.
On the contrary, the study of the similarity and difference between the semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flying’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYA, p. 165].
However, when studying a word in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.
Units of the lexico-semantic system
Word a sound or set of sounds that has value and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].
It is fixed in the definition iconic nature words and his function.
The word, unlike the phoneme, is sign:
It also has a material side. sound or spelling(phonographic shell),
and the perfect side meaning.
Main function words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘naming, denomination’). Most words called objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and are full-fledged, independent.
Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects that arise in the minds of the speakers.
With a word correlate all language units:
phonemes And morphemes form the structure of a word
phrases And offers are made up of words.
This gives reason to some scholars to say that the word is central unit of language.
Since the word is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: they denote
and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);
and words like units of speech, text(words in specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).
For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend
three words in specific grammatical forms
And two words as dictionary units: Human And Friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].
The word is called unambiguous words, and individual meanings ambiguous words.
To designate these different objects in lexicology, more precise terms are used.
The most general term is lexical item(LE)
Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral nature, grammatical arrangement and performing nominative function.
Term lexical item is generic in relation to terms lexeme And lexico-semantic variant:
┌─────────┴─────────┐
lexeme lexico-semantic
lexeme(gr. lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of the language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].
Those. lexeme is bilateral unit 1 :
lexeme = –––––––––––––––––––––––
plan of expression
Term lexeme usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.
Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) is one of the lexical meanings of a lexeme, expressed by a phonographic shell.
Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one lexeme
differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)
and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).
For example, sleeve –
piece of clothing that covers the arm short sleeves);
offshoot of the main riverbed ( right arm of the Volga);
hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).
All these values are related semantic derivatives(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so word identity is not violated.
lexeme is a system of interconnected LSV:
lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3
If the word definitely, it is represented one LSV:
stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks while walking’.
Term "lexical item" also used in relation to lexeme, and in relation to LSV if there is no need to differentiate them.
LE, lexeme and LSV are language units, because represent set of meanings and forms.
IN speeches these abstract units are implemented in specific units, because selected every time one meaning and one form:
Dress with shortsleeves .
Concrete implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) is called:
lex(A) (the term is not very common),
word form- a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),
word usage is a relatively new term.
Question 1
Lexicology as a science of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology
Lexicology - from the Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science considers the vocabulary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. Lexicology considers the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Phraseology adjoins lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.
Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section general linguistics who study the vocabulary of any language, what belongs to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with general patterns structure of the lexical system, issues of functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages of the world.
Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.
Both general and particular problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of the word are considered within certain period or any one historical stage of their development. Such a study of vocabulary is also called descriptive, or descriptive (English, descriptive lexicology). Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) deals with the study historical development meanings and structure of words.
Contrastive lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages chosen for comparison.
Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or a whole group of words, and also explores changes in the names of objects of reality (see below for etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.
Main tasks lexicology are:
*) definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary ;
*) a characteristic of the lexico-semantic system, that is, the identification internal organization linguistic units and analysis of their relationships (the semantic structure of the word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relationships with other words, etc.).
The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.
Sections of lexicology:
Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.
Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of a lexeme.
Phraseology - studies phraseological units.
Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.
Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.
Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries. It is also often referred to as applied lexicology.
The concept of the term "modern Russian literary language».
Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of Russian National language and literary Russian. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all areas speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. The literary language is understood as the language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.
Question 2
The word is the basic unit of language. Word signs. Definition of a word. Word types. Word functions
The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, having a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features, specific to each language. Characteristic features words - integrity, separability and free reproducibility in speech.
Given the complexity of the multidimensional structure words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use a multidimensional analysis, point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:
phonetic (or phonemic) formality and the presence of one main stress;
lexico-semantic significance words, its separateness and impermeability (the impossibility of additional inserts inside words without changing its value)
idiomatic (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or its incomplete motivation);
related to certain parts of speech.
In the modern lexicology of the Russian language, it seems quite motivated short definition proposed by D.N. Shmelev: word- this is a unit of name, characterized by a complete design (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomatic.
There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, functional, pronominal, interjections.
According to the phonetic feature, words are distinguished: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.
According to the morphological feature, words are distinguished: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.
By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.
According to the semantic-grammatical feature, words are grouped into parts of speech.
From the point of view of structural integrity, words are distinguished as integral and segmented.
In the semantic sense, words are single-valued and polysemantic, absolute and relative, requiring an addition and transitive verbs. In a sentence, the word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the composition of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).
WORD FUNCTIONS
communicative function
nominative function
aesthetic function
language function
communication function
message function
impact function
IMPACT FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntarily function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is escresive, i.e. messages to the statement of expressiveness; emotive function, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.
COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and communication;
NOMINATIVE FUNCTION. The appointment of the word to serve as the name of the subject;
COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of the language, one of the parties communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange of statements of members of the language community.
MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in the transfer of some logical content;
AESTHETIC FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;
FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE. The use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.
Question 3
The lexical meaning of the word. Lexical Meaning Structure
Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which general properties for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that highlight given subject, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.
Question 4
Lexical value types
Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.
*) The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:
1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."
2. "Colors of soot, coal."
3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).
These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant "throne", "reign", "capital".
The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.
*) Portable (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
So, the word table has several figurative meanings:
1. "An item of special equipment or a part of a similarly shaped machine": operating table, raise the machine table.
2. "Food, food": rent a room with a table.
3. "Department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs": information desk.
The word black has such figurative meanings:
1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white": black bread.
2. "Darkened, darkened": black from sunburn.
3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): black hut.
4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": black thoughts.
5. "Criminal, malicious": black treason.
6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): the back door in the house.
7. "Physically heavy and unskilled" (long form only): menial work, etc.
The word boil has the following figurative meanings:
1. "To manifest in a strong degree": the work is in full swing.
2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong degree": seething with indignation.
As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit. In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.
However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a clock, etc. In such cases, we speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, of dry metaphors.
Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.
According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings (non-derivative, primary) are distinguished, which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word; motivated (derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-building affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words canteen, table, canteen, building, perestroika, anti-perestroika, turn white, whiten, whiteness have motivated meanings, they are, as it were, "produced" from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem (Ulukhanov I. S. Word-building semantics in the Russian language and the principles of its description, Moscow, 1977, pp. 100-101).
For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family ties of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows us to identify historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag (envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation of one or another meaning of the word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.
According to the possibility of lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free.
The first are based only on the subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink is combined with words denoting liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the "freedom" of the combination of words with unrelated meanings is relative.
The non-free meanings of words are characterized handicapped lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win is combined with the words victory, top, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say to lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can’t - “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).
Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned.
The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: a sworn enemy, a bosom friend (you cannot swap the elements of these phrases).
The syntactically conditioned meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, get the meanings " stupid man"; "stupid, insensitive person"; "sluggish, lack of initiative, muddler."
V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of meanings, called them functionally syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.
As part of the syntactically determined meanings of the word, there are also constructively limited meanings, that is, those that are realized only under conditions of a certain syntactic construction. For example, the word whirlwind with the direct meaning "gusty circular motion of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case receives a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events - "rapid development of events".
According to the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is the nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature is predominant. For example, in the phrase tall man, the word tall indicates great growth; this is its nominal value. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.
By the nature of the connections of some meanings with others in the lexical system of the language, the following can be distinguished:
1) autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific objects: a table, a theater, a flower;
2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;
3) deterministic meanings, i.e., "which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ..." (Shmelev D.N. Meaning of the word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979 pp. 89). For example: nag (cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); beautiful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).
Question 5
Polysemy in modern Russian. Direct and derived lexical meaning. Name transfer types
Polysemy(from the Greek rplhuzmeYab - “polysemy”) - polysemy, the presence of a word (unit of language) of two or more interconnected and historically determined meanings.
In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemy are distinguished. So, the form of 2 persons unit. hours of Russian verbs can be used not only in a proper-personal, but also in a generalized-personal sense. Compare: " Well, you'll outshout everyone!" And " You will not be shouted down". In such a case, one should speak of grammatical polysemy.
Often, when they talk about polysemy, they mean, first of all, the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve("part of the shirt" - "branch of the river"). The following relationships can be established between the meanings of a word:
metaphor
For example: horse - horse("animal" - "chess piece")
metonymy
For example: dish - dish("type of dishes" - "portion of food")
synecdoche
A distinction should be made between polysemy and homonymy. In particular, the word "key" in the meanings of "spring" and "musical sign" are two homonyms.
Question 6
Homonymy in modern Russian. Homonym types. Paronyms and paronomases
(Greek homfnyma, from homus - the same and ynyma - name), identically sounding units of the language, in the meaning of which (unlike the values of multi-valued units) there are no common semantic elements. Word-building and syntactic indicators are not decisive objective criteria for distinguishing homonymy from polysemy. Lexical O. arise: due to the sound coincidence of words of different origin, for example, "lynx" (running) and "lynx" (animal); as a result of a complete divergence of the meanings of a polysemantic word, for example, "peace" (universe) and "peace" (lack of war, enmity); with parallel word formation from the same stem, for example, "troika" (horses) and "troika" (mark).
1. Sometimes words are spelled differently, but they sound the same, due to the laws of phonetics of the Russian language: doc - dog ;cat - code ;rock-horn ;pillar - pillar ;to lead - to carry ;to disperse - to disperse(stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word or in the middle of it, before a subsequent deaf consonant, leads to a coincidence in the sound of words); to weaken - to weaken ;stay - arrive ;to multiply - to multiply(reduction uh in an unstressed position determines the same sound of verbs), etc. Such homonyms are called phonetic homonyms, or homophones.
2. Homonymy also occurs when different words match in sound in any grammatical form (one or more): alley(general participle from the verb redden)- alley(noun); guilt(offense) - guilt(gender singular noun wine);burners(gas) - burners(a game); ate(verb form There is)– ate(plural noun) spruce);braid oblique)– braid(gen. pl. noun braid);barking - barking - barking(case forms of a noun barking)- barking - barking - barking(forms of verb change bark);varnish(tv.p. singular noun varnish)– varnishes (short form adjective tasty);my(pronoun) - my wash);three(numeral) - three(imperative verb rub). Similar homonyms that appear as a result of the coincidence of words in separate grammatical forms are called grammatical homonyms, or homoforms.
A special group of homoforms are those words that have moved from one part of speech to another: directly(adverb) - directly(amplifying particle); exactly(adverb) - exactly(comparative union); Although(germs) - Although(concession union) and so on. Homoforms also include numerous nouns that arose as a result of the substantiation of adjectives and participles. These are, for example, the names of various public catering and trade enterprises that can be read on signs while walking along the streets of the city: Bakery-confectionery, Sandwich, Snack bar, Dumplings, Beer, Glass, Sausage, Canteen, Barbecue. The words of this group are distinguished from other homoforms by the fact that when they are declined both in the singular and in the plural in all case forms, they have the corresponding homoform - an adjective. However, a couple: noun, adjective namely homoforms, since the adjective forms have much more changes: the singular masculine and the singular neuter.
3. Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have a different sound: roast(dish) - roast(summer), flour(for pies) - flour(torment); soar(in the sky) - soar(in a saucepan); wire(diminutive to wire)- wire(delay, slowdown in doing something); taYa(general participle from the verb conceal)– taya(general participle from the verb melt), etc. It should be noted that not all scientists attribute such words to homonyms, since their main feature - a different sound - contradicts common definition homonymy.
4. Finally, the most numerous and most interesting and diverse group is lexical homonyms, or proper homonyms, i.e. such words that coincide with each other in all grammatical forms and regardless of any phonetic laws: Boer(drilling tool) – Boer(representative of the nationality inhabiting South Africa); dominoes(a game) - dominoes(fancy dress); rook(boat) - rook(chess figure); scrap(a tool that breaks ice, asphalt) - scrap(broken or recyclable, most often metal objects); sailor suit(sailor's wife) sailor suit(striped blouse worn by sailors); mandarin(citrus tree or its fruit) - mandarin(a major official in pre-revolutionary China); interfere(to be a nuisance) - interfere(soup in a pot); cartridge(combat) - cartridge(boss), etc.
paronyms noun pl. h.
Words that sound similar but differ in meaning.
"adviser" and "adviser"
"base" and "basis"
paronomasia w
A stylistic figure consisting in a punning convergence of words that are consonant, but different in meaning.
(paronomasia)
"He's not deaf, he's stupid."
Question 7
Ways of the appearance of homonyms in the language. Criteria for delimiting the meanings of a polysemantic word and homonyms
In the process of the historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons. One of them is semantic splitting, the disintegration of a polysemantic (polysemantic) word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in the modern language they are already perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their former semantic links according to some characteristics common to all values. In this way, even in antiquity, the homonyms light - lighting and light - Earth, the world, the universe appeared.
The discrepancy between the meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from one language. Interesting observations are made by comparing the homonymy of etymologically identical agent - representative of the state, organization and agent - the acting cause of certain phenomena (both words are from the Latin language).
Homonymy can be the result of the coincidence of the sound of words, for example, to speak “to speak teeth” (cf. conspiracy) and to speak (to speak, start talking).
Many of the derived homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms: the homonymy of derived verbs fall asleep from sleep and fall asleep - from pour. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of derivational affixes.
Modern science has developed criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, helping to separate the meanings of the same word and homonyms that arose as a result of a complete break in polysemy.
A lexical way of distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy is proposed, which consists in identifying synonymous relations between homonyms and polysemantics. If consonant units are included in the same synonymous series, then different meanings still retain semantic proximity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If they have different synonyms, then we have homonymy. For example, the word root 1 in the meaning of "native inhabitant" has synonyms original, main; A root 2 in the meaning of "root issue" - a synonym main. The words main and main are synonymous, therefore, we have two meanings of the same word. And here is another example; word thin 1 "in the meaning of "not well-fed" forms a synonymous series with adjectives skinny, skinny, lean, dry, A thin 2 - "devoid of positive qualities" - with adjectives bad, bad, bad. The words skinny, feeble, etc. are not synonymized with the words bad, nasty. This means that the lexical units under consideration are independent, i.e., homonymous.
A morphological method is used to distinguish between two similar phenomena: polysemantic words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. Thus, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words with the help of the same affixes. For example, nouns bread 1 - "cereal" and bread 2 - "a food product baked from flour", form an adjective with a suffix -n-; cf. respectively: grain shoots And bread smell. Another word formation is characteristic of homonyms thin 1 and thin 2. First derived words thinness, lose weight, skinny; at the second - worsen, deterioration. This convinces of their complete semantic isolation.
Homonyms and polysemantic words, in addition, have different morphogenesis; cf. thin 1 - thinner, thin 2 - worse .
A semantic way of distinguishing between these phenomena is also used. The meanings of homonymous words always mutually exclude each other, and the meanings of a polysemantic word form one semantic structure, while maintaining semantic proximity, one of the meanings implies the other, there is no insurmountable boundary between them.
However, all three ways of distinguishing polysemy and homonymy cannot be considered completely reliable. There are cases when synonyms for different meanings of a word do not enter into synonymous relations with each other, when homonymous words have not yet diverged during word formation. Therefore, discrepancies in the definition of the boundaries of homonymy and polysemy are not uncommon, which affects the interpretation of some words in dictionaries.
Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and polysemantic words - in one, followed by the selection of several meanings of the word, which are given under numbers. However, in different dictionaries, sometimes the same words are presented differently.
So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" by S. I. Ozhegov, the words put- "to put something, somewhere, somewhere" and put- "decide, decide" are given as homonyms, and in the "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" (MAC) - as polysemantic. There is a similar discrepancy in the interpretation of other words: duty- "duty" and duty- "borrowed"; fret- "harmony, peace" and fret"system piece of music"; glorious- "enjoying fame" and glorious- "very good, nice."
Question 8
semantic field. Lexico-semantic group. Hyponymy as a special type of relations between units of the semantic field
Semantic field- a set of linguistic units united by some common semantic feature. This is an association of language units, carried out according to content (semantic) criteria.
To sort the field, select the dominant in the field.
Dominant- a word that can serve as the name of the field as a whole. The dominant is included in the field.
Fields are synonymous And hyponymic. In the synonymous field, the dominant is included in the field along with other members of this field. If the dominant rises above other elements of the field, then such a field is called hyponymic.
Seme is a differential semantic feature.
One of the classic examples of a semantic field is a color naming field consisting of several color ranges ( red – pink – pinkish – crimson ; blue – blue – bluish – turquoise etc.): the common semantic component here is "color".
The semantic field has the following main properties:
1. The semantic field is intuitively understandable to a native speaker and has a psychological reality for him.
2. The semantic field is autonomous and can be singled out as an independent language subsystem.
3. The units of the semantic field are connected by certain systemic semantic relations.
4. Each semantic field is related to others semantic fields language and together with them forms a language system.
Lexico-semantic group- a set of words related to the same part of speech, united by intralinguistic links based on interdependent and interrelated elements of meaning. So, to the lexico-semantic group of the lexeme Earth words include:
planet - Earth- world;
soil - soil - layer;
possession - estate - estate - estate;
country - state - power.
Hyponymy (from the Greek urb - below, below, under and bputa - name) is a type of paradigmatic relationship in vocabulary that underlies its hierarchical organization: the opposition of lexical units that correspond to concepts whose volumes intersect, for example. a word with a narrower semantic content (hyponym; see) is opposed to a word with a broader semantic content (hyperonym, or superordinate). The value of the first is included in the value of the second, for example. the meaning of the word birch is included in the meaning of the word tree.
Question 9
Synonymy in modern Russian. Synonym types. Synonym functions
Synonyms are words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning: it is necessary - it is necessary, the author is a writer, brave - brave, applaud - clap etc. It is customary to distinguish between two main groups of synonyms: conceptual, or ideographic, associated with the differentiation of shades of the same meaning. (enemy - enemy, wet - damp - wet), and stylistic, associated primarily with the expressive and evaluative characteristics of a particular concept (face - mug, hand - hand - paw) .
A group of synonyms consisting of two or more words is called synonymous next. Can be synonymous series of nouns (work - work - business - occupation); adjectives (wet – wet – damp); verbs (run - hurry - hurry); adverbs (here - here); phraseological units (pour from empty to empty - carry water with a sieve) .
In the synonymic series, the leading word (dominant) is usually distinguished, which is the carrier of the main meaning: cloth – dress – suit – outfit .
Synonymous relations permeate the entire language. They appear between words. (everywhere - everywhere), between a word and a phraseological unit (rush - run headlong), between phraseological units (neither this nor that - neither fish nor meat) .
The synonymic richness of the Russian language includes various types synonyms For example:
lexical synonyms, i.e. synonym words;
phraseological synonyms, i.e. phraseological units-synonyms;
syntactic synonyms, for example:
1) allied and non-union complex sentences: I learned that the train arrives at six o'clock. - I learned: the train comes at six o'clock;
2) simple sentences with separate members and complex sentences: In front of me stretched a sandy shore strewn with shells. - In front of me stretched a sandy shore, which was strewn with shells;
3) compound and complex sentences: The messenger did not come, and they asked me to take the letter. -The messenger did not come, so they asked me to take the letter.
Exists also a special kind of synonyms - contextual synonyms. These are words that are not themselves synonyms, but become synonymous in a certain context, for example:
A strong wind freely flies over a wide distance ... Here he picked up thin flexible branches - And fluttered leaves, talking, murmuring, murmuring emerald scattering in the azure sky.
Synonyms play a very important role in the language, because, by conveying subtle nuances, different sides of the concept, they make it possible to more accurately express a thought, to present a specific situation more clearly.
The stylistic functions of synonyms are varied. The commonality of the meaning of synonyms allows the use of one word instead of another, which diversifies speech, makes it possible to avoid the annoying use of the same words.
The substitution function is one of the main functions of synonyms. Writers pay great attention to avoiding annoying repetition of words. Here, for example, is how N. Gogol uses a group of synonymous expressions with the meaning “to talk, talk”: “The visitor [Chichikov] somehow knew how to find himself in everything and showed himself an experienced secular person. Whatever the conversation was, he always knew how to support it: whether it was a horse factory, he said and about the horse factory; talking about good dogs and here he is informed very helpful remarks interpreted whether with regard to the investigation carried out by the Treasury, he showed that he was not unfamiliar with judicial tricks; whether there was a discussion about the billiard game - and in the billiard game he did not miss; did they talk about virtue, and about virtue reasoned he is very good, even with tears in his eyes; about making hot wine, and he knew the use of hot wine; about customs overseers and officials, and he judged them as if he were an official and overseer.
Synonyms can also perform the function of opposition. Alexander Blok, in an explanatory note to the production of The Rose and the Cross, wrote about Gaetana: "... not eyes, but eyes, not hair, but curls, not a mouth, but a mouth." The same with Kuprin: “He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground.”
Question 10
Antonymy in modern Russian. Semantic classification of antonyms (M. R. Lvova, L. A. Novikova - to choose from). Functions of antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning: question - answer, stupid - smart, loud - quiet, remember - forget. They are usually opposed on some basis: day And night - by time, easy And heavy- by weight up And at the bottom- by position in space, bitter And sweet- to taste, etc.
Antonymy relationships can be between words (North South), between words and phraseological units (win - lose), between phraseological units (win - lose) .
Different-root and single-root antonyms also differ: poor - rich, fly in - fly away .
A polysemantic word in its different meanings can have different antonyms. So, the antonym of the word easy in the meaning of "insignificant in weight" is an adjective heavy, and in the meaning of "easy to learn" - difficult .
main function antonyms(And linguistic And contextual speech) is an expression of opposition, which is inherent in the semantics of such oppositions and does not depend on the context.
The opposite function can be used for different stylistic purposes:
To indicate the limit of manifestation of quality, properties, relationships, actions:
To update the statement or enhance the image, impression, and so on;
· to express an assessment (sometimes in comparative terms) of opposite properties of objects, actions, and others;
· for the statement of two opposite properties, qualities, actions;
· to approve one of the opposing signs, actions or phenomena of reality at the expense of denying the other;
· to recognize a certain intermediate, intermediate quality, property, and so on, possible or already approved between two words opposite in meaning.
Question 11
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. borrowed vocabulary. Adaptation of borrowed vocabulary in modern Russian
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.
Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.
1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.
The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.
Borrowed are words that came into the Russian language from other languages at different stages of its development. Cause borrowing are close economic, political, cultural and other ties between peoples.
Assimilated in a foreign language for them, Russian, borrowed words undergo semantic, phonetic, morphological changes, changes in morphemic composition. Some words (school, bed, sail, loaf, chandelier, club) fully mastered and live according to the laws of the Russian language (that is, they change and behave in sentences like native Russian words), and some retain the features borrowing(that is, they do not change and do not act as agreed words), as, for example, indeclinable nouns (avenue, kimono, sushi, haiku, kurabye).
stand out borrowing: 1) from Slavic languages (Old Slavic, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, etc.), 2) from non-Slavic languages (Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Germanic, etc.).
Yes, from Polish borrowed words: monogram, hussar, mazurka, tradesman, guardianship, courage, jam, allow, colonel, bullet, donut, draw, harness; from Czech language: polka(dance), pantyhose, robot; from Ukrainian language: borscht, bagel, kids, grain grower, schoolboy, chaise.
From German language came the words: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, package, office, percentage, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, workbench, jointer, nickel, potatoes, onions.
From Dutch borrowed nautical terms: , harbor, pennant, berth, sailor, yardarm, rudder, fleet, flag, navigator, boat, ballast.
The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. From it, everyday words entered the Russian language: suit, jacket, blouse, bracelet, floor, furniture, office, sideboard, salon, toilet, chandelier, lampshade, service, broth, cutlet, cream; military terms: captain, sergeant, artillery, attack, march, salute, garrison, sapper, landing, squadron; art words: parterre, play, actor, intermission, plot, repertoire, ballet, genre, role, stage.
In the last decade, in connection with the development of computer technology, a large number of words have entered the Russian language, borrowed from in English: diskette driver, converter, cursor, file. Began to be more actively used borrowed words reflecting changes in the economic and socio-political life of the country: summit, referendum, embargo, barrel, ecu, dollar. |
Borrowed words are fixed by the etymological dictionaries of the Russian language.
Many new words come from other languages. They are called differently, most often - borrowings. The introduction of foreign words is determined by the contacts of peoples, which makes it necessary to name (nominate) new objects and concepts. Such words may be the result of the innovation of a particular nation in any field of science and technology. They can also arise as a result of snobbery, fashion. There are also linguistic reasons proper: for example, the need to express multi-valued Russian concepts with the help of a borrowed word, to replenish the expressive (expressive) means of the language, etc. All words, getting from the source language into the borrowing language, go through the first stage - penetration. At this stage, the words are still connected with the reality that gave birth to them. IN early XIX century, among the many new words that came from the English language were, for example, tourist and tunnel. They were defined in the dictionaries of their time as follows: a tourist is an Englishman traveling around the world (Pocket dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Ed. Ivan Renofants. St. Petersburg, 1837), a tunnel is an underground passage in London under the bottom of the River Thames (there same). When the word has not yet taken root in the borrowing language, its pronunciation and spelling are possible: dollar, dollar, dollar (English dollar), for example: "By January 1, 1829, there were 5,972,435 dollars in the treasury of the United States of North America" 1 At this stage even a foreign-language reproduction of a word in writing is possible. In Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin": "Before him is a bloodied roast-beef, / And truffles, the luxury of youth ..." (Ch. I, XVI). Let us pay attention to the fact that the word truffles, written in Russian, seems to Pushkin to have already mastered the language. Gradually word foreign language, thanks to frequent use in oral and written form, takes root, its external form acquires a stable form, the word is adapted according to the norms of the borrowing language. This is the period of borrowing, or entry into the language. At this stage, the strong semantic (relating to meaning) influence of the source language is still noticeable.
At the stage of assimilation of a foreign word among native speakers of one language, folk etymology begins to take effect. When a foreign word is perceived as incomprehensible, they try to fill its empty sound form with the content of a close-sounding and similar in meaning native word. A famous example is spinzhak (from the English pea-jacket - jacket) - an unfamiliar word, correlated in the popular mind with the word back. Final stage penetration of a foreign word into a borrowing language - rooting, when the word is widely used among native speakers of the recipient language and is fully adapted according to the grammar rules of this language. It is included in full life: can acquire single-root words, form abbreviations, acquire new shades of meaning, etc.
Question 12
Tracing as a special type of borrowing. Exoticisms and barbarisms
In lexicology tracing paper(from fr. Calque- copy) - a special type of borrowing foreign words, expressions, phrases. There are two types of word cripples in Russian: derivational and semantic.
Word-building tracing paper- these are words obtained by "pomorphemic" translation of a foreign word into Russian. Kalka usually does not feel like a borrowed word, as it is made up of native Russian morphemes. Therefore, the real origin of such words is often unexpected for a person who recognizes it for the first time. So, for example, the word "insect" is a tracing paper from the Latin insectum (in-- on the-, sectum- insect).
Among other word-formation cripples, one can note such words as chronicler , painting(from Greek); hydrogen , adverb(from Latin); performance , peninsula , humanity(from German); subdivision , concentrate , impression , influence(French), skyscraper (English) skyscraper), semiconductor (from the English. semiconductor). Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - literal translation from Latin into Polish the word Republic and into Russian is translated - "common cause"
There is partial tracing: in the word workaholic (eng. workaholic) only the first part of the word is tracing.
Semantic calques- these are Russian words that have received new meanings under the influence of the corresponding words of another language as a result of literalism in translation. So, for example, the meaning of "cause sympathy" of the word touch came from French. Similarly, the origin of the meaning "vulgar, unwitty" in the word flat .
exoticisms- a group of foreign borrowings denoting objects or phenomena from the life of another, usually overseas people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, ecotisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. Close to exoticisms are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms that describe the life realities of a sub-ethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the szeklers (székelys) and changos (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Culinary and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, tacos, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)
Exoticisms are in principle translatable, in extreme cases they can be translated descriptively, i.e. using expressions (for example, the English "nesting doll" to describe the Russian concept of "matryoshka"). However, due to the lack of an exact equivalent, their conciseness and originality are lost in translation, so exoticisms are often borrowed in their entirety. Having entered the literary language, for the most part they still remain on the periphery of the vocabulary, in its passive reserve. Exoticisms also come and go in fashion. In modern print and electronic media, including Russian-language ones, the problem of the abuse of exotic vocabulary often arises. Thanks to cinema, some exotic concepts have spread quite widely and are often used in an ironic, figurative sense (shaurma, hara-kiri, samurai, tomahawk, machete, yurt, wigwam, chum, harem, etc.)
Foreign inclusions (barbarisms)- these are words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment. Foreign inclusions (barbarisms) are not mastered or incompletely mastered by the language of their host.
Question 13
Aboriginal vocabulary
The words of the original vocabulary are genetically heterogeneous. In them, Indo-European, common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper are distinguished. Indo-European words are words that, after the collapse of the Indo-European ethnic community (the end of the Neolithic era), were inherited by the ancient languages \u200b\u200bof this language family, including the common Slavic language. So, for many Indo-European languages, some terms of kinship will be common (or very similar): mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, plants, food products: sheep, bull, wolf; willow, meat, bone; actions: take, carry, command, see; qualities: barefoot, dilapidated and so on.
It should be noted that even during the period of the so-called Indo-European linguistic community, there were differences between the dialects of different tribes, which, in connection with their subsequent settlement, moving away from each other, all increased. But the obvious presence of similar lexical layers of the very basis of the dictionary allows us to conditionally speak of a once single basis - the parent language.
Common Slavic (or Proto-Slavic) are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes, who by the beginning of our era occupied a vast territory between the Pripyat, Carpathians, the middle reaches of the Vistula and the Dnieper, and later moved to the Balkans and to the east. As a single (conventionally called) means of communication, it was used approximately until the 6th-7th centuries of our era, that is, until the time when, due to the settlement of the Slavs, the relative linguistic community also broke up. It is natural to assume that during this period there were territorially isolated dialect differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of separate groups of Slavic languages: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in the languages of these groups, words are distinguished that appeared in the common Slavic period in the development of language systems. Such in Russian vocabulary are, for example, names associated with flora: oak, linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, mountain ash, bird cherry, forest, pine forest, tree, leaf, branch, bark, root; cultivated plants: peas, poppy, oats, millet, wheat, barley; labor processes and tools: weave, forge, whip, hoe, shuttle; dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, shelter; with domestic and forest birds: rooster, nightingale, starling, crow, sparrow; food products: kvass, jelly, cheese, lard; names of actions, temporary concepts, qualities: mutter, wander, share, know; spring, evening, winter; pale, near, violent, cheerful, great, evil, affectionate, mute, and so on.
East Slavic, or Old Russian, are words that, starting from the 6th-8th centuries, appeared only in the language of the Eastern Slavs (that is, the language of the Old Russian people, the ancestors of modern Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians), who united by the 9th century into a large feudal Old Russian state - Kievan Rus . Among the words known only in the East Slavic languages, names of various properties, qualities, actions can be distinguished: blond, selfless, lively, cheap, musty, sharp-sighted, brown, clumsy, gray-gray, good; flounder, seethe, wander, fidget, start, shiver, boil, shovel, sway, while away, rumble, swear; kinship terms: uncle, stepdaughter, nephew; household names: hook, twine, rope, stick, brazier, samovar; names of birds, animals: jackdaw, chaffinch, kite, bullfinch, squirrel, viper, cat; counting units: forty, ninety; words with a temporary meaning: today, after, now and many others.
Actually, all words (with the exception of borrowed ones) are called Russian, which appeared in the language after it became, first independent language Russian (Great Russian) nationality (from the XIV century), and then the language of the Russian nation (the Russian national language was formed during the XVII-XVIII centuries).
Properly Russian are many different names of actions: to coo, to influence, to explore, to loom, to thin out; household items, food: top, fork, wallpaper, cover; jam, cabbage rolls, kulebyaka, flatbread; natural phenomena, plants, fruits, animals, birds, fish: blizzard, ice, swell, bad weather; bush; antonovka; desman, rook, chicken, chub; the names of the sign of the object and the sign of the action, state: convex, idle, flabby, painstaking, special, intent; suddenly, in front, in earnest, completely, briefly, in reality; names of persons by occupation: driver, racer, bricklayer, stoker, pilot, compositor, adjuster; the names of abstract concepts: total, deceit, bluff, neatness, caution and many other words with suffixes -ost, -stvo and so on.
Question 14
Old Church Slavonicisms
A special group of borrowed words are Old Church Slavonicisms. So it is customary to call the words that came from the Old Slavonic language, the most ancient language of the Slavs. In the ninth century this language was a written language in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and after the adoption of Christianity, it began to spread in Rus' as a written, book language.
Old Church Slavonicisms have hallmarks. Here are some of them:
1. Disagreement, i.e. combinations of ra, la, re, le in place of Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - coast).
2. Combinations ra, la at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro, lo (work - a grain grower, boat - a boat).
3. The combination of railway in place w (alien - alien, clothes - clothes, driving - I drive).
4. Щ in place of the Russian h (lighting is a candle, power is power, burning is hot).
5. Initial a, e, u instead of Russian l, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - take away).
6. In the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes of Old Slavonic origin: - suffixes eni-, enstv-, zn-, tel-, yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride);
Suffixes of adjectives and participles: eish-, aish-, ash-, usch-, om-, im-, enn- (the kindest, bitterest, burning, running, led, kept, blessed);
Prefixes: voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre- (repay, regurgitate, overthrow, excessively, despise, prefer);
The first part of compound words: good, god, evil, sin, great (grace, God-fearing, slander, fall into sin, generosity).
Many of the Old Slavonic words have lost their bookish hue and are perceived by us as ordinary words of everyday speech: vegetables, time, sweet, country. Others still retain the stylistic connotation of "highness" and are used to give special expressiveness to speech (for example, A. Pushkin's poems "Anchar" or "Prophet", M. Lermontov's poem "The Beggar", etc.).
Question 15
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock
By frequency, active and passive vocabulary is distinguished.
PHRASEOLOGY, a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic (in the broad sense) phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units themselves of a particular language is also called its phraseology.
Most often, phraseological units are understood as stable phrases of the following types: idioms ( beat the buckets ,drink bitter ,lead by the nose ,shot sparrow ,till you drop ,in full); collocations ( pouring rain ,decide ,grain of truth ,pose a question); proverbs ( the quieter you go, the further you'll get ,do not sit in your sleigh); sayings ( It is for you ,grandmother ,and yuri day ;the ice has broken!); grammatical phraseological units ( almost ;near ;whatever it was); phrase schemes ( X he is also in Africa X ;to all X's X ;X like X).
The term " phraseological unit” in relation to the term “phraseology” as a discipline that studies the corresponding means of language, does not raise objections. But it is inaccurate as a designation of the linguistic means themselves, which are the object of phraseology; it is enough to compare the correlations of established terms: phoneme - phonology, morpheme - morphology, lexeme - lexicology (cf. phraseme - phraseology).
In the educational and scientific literature attempts were made to define the concept of phraseological object. For example, the following definition is given: “a ready-made whole expression with a known and pre-given value is called phraseological turn, or idiom". Signs of phraseological turns: direct meaning, figurative meaning, ambiguity, emotional richness.
Phraseological turnover - it is a reproducible linguistic unit of two or more stressed words, integral in its meaning and stable in its composition and structure.
At the same time, the following features are distinguished: reproducibility, stability of the composition and structure, constancy of the lexical composition. The presence of at least two words in the unit, the stability of the order of words, the impenetrability of most phraseological turns.
Question 20
Lexico-grammatical classification of phraseological units
Classification of phraseological units by composition.
One of the most characteristic features phraseological turnover as a reproducible linguistic unit is the constancy of its composition. Taking into account the nature of the composition of phraseological units (specific features of the words that form them), N.M. Shansky singled out two groups of phraseological units:
phraseological turns formed from words of free use, belonging to the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language: “like snow on the head, in an hour a teaspoon, friend of life, cast a glance, green longing, stand with your chest, take it by the throat”;
phraseological turns with lexico-semantic features, that is, those in which there are words of related use, words that are outdated or with a dialectal meaning: “goosebumps run, I found it dumbfounded, the parable is in the talk, in the arms of Morpheus, upside down, does not care for the soul, is fraught with consequences , like chickens in cabbage soup, smash to smithereens.
5. Classification of phraseological units by structure.
Phraseological phrases always act as reproducible linguistic units as a structural whole of a composite nature, consisting of words that are different in their morphological properties and are in different syntactic relations with each other. According to the structure of phraseological units N.M. Shansky divided into two groups:
Relevant to the offer
Corresponding to a combination of words
Phraseological phrases that correspond in structure to the sentence.
Among the phraseological units, according to the structure corresponding to the sentence, according to the meaning, N.M. Shansky distinguishes two groups:
Nominative - phraseological units that call this or that phenomenon of reality: “the cat cried, hands do not reach, chickens do not peck wherever they look, the trace is cold”, acting as a member of the sentence;
Communicative - phraseological units that convey whole sentences:
“Happy hours are not observed, hunger is not an aunt, grandmother said in two, they carry water on angry ones, their head is spinning, they found a scythe on a stone, don’t get into your sleigh, you won’t spoil porridge with oil”, used either independently or as part of a structural more complex sentence.
Phraseological turns, according to the structure corresponding to the combination of words.
N.M. Shansky identifies the following typical groups of combinations
. "adjective + noun"
The noun and the adjective can be semantically equal and both are meaningful components: “golden fund, good hour, White Night, Siamese twins, in hindsight."
The semantic component is the noun, the adjective is used as an insignificant member, which has an expressive character: “garden head, pea jester, Babylonian pandemonium, green melancholy”.
. "noun + genitive form of noun"
Such phraseological turns are equivalent in meaning and syntactic functions to a noun: “an open secret, a bone of contention, a point of view, a gift of words, a palm.” Words in such turns are semantically equal.
. "noun + prepositional case form of the noun"
These phraseological units are lexico-grammatically correlative with the noun, in all dependent components are unchanged, and the supporting ones form different case forms, have a strictly arranged order of the components: “struggle for life, running on the spot, it's in the bag - Czech. ruka je v rukave, caliph for an hour, art for art's sake.
. preposition + adjective + noun
According to the lexico-grammatical meaning and syntactic use in the sentence, these phraseological units are equivalent to the adverb, the words that make them are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “with a broken trough, in seventh heaven, with a clear conscience, according to old memory, from time immemorial”.
. "case-prepositional form of a noun + genitive form of a noun"
These turns can be adverbial or attributive, they fix the order of the components of the phraseological unit: "forever and ever, to the depths of the soul, in the costume of Adam, in the arms of Morpheus, in the color of years, worth its weight in gold."
. "prepositional case form of a noun + prepositional case form of a noun"
Phraseologisms of this group are equivalent to adverbs in terms of lexico-grammatical meaning and syntactic functions, nouns are tautologically repeated in them, the words forming them are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “from dawn to dawn, from cover to cover, from year to year, from the ship to the ball, from young to old.
. "verb + noun"
Phraseologisms of this group are mainly verb-predicative and act as a predicate in a sentence, the order of the components and their semantic correlation can be different: “throw a bait, put down roots, burst into laughter, remain silent, prick up your ears”.
. "verb + adverb"
Phraseological turns are verbal and act as a predicate in a sentence, the components are always semantically equal, the order of the components can be direct and reverse: “see through, get into trouble, shatter into smithereens, abyss for nothing”.
. "germ + noun"
Phraseologisms of this type are equivalent to an adverb, they act as a circumstance in a sentence, the order of the components is fixed: “head-on, reluctantly, with folded arms, slipshod”.
. "constructions with coordinating conjunctions"
Phraseologism components are homogeneous members sentences expressed in words of the same part of speech, the order of the components is fixed: “entirely and completely, without a rudder and without sails, here and there, at random, oohs and sighs.”
. "constructions with subordinating conjunctions"
According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are adverbial, in which the order of the components is fixed, at the beginning there is always a union: “like snow on your head, at least a stake on your head, even though the grass does not grow, like two drops of water, like a saddle for a cow.”
. "constructions with the negation of not"
According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are verbal or adverbial, perform the function of a predicate or circumstance in a sentence, the components are semantically equal with a fixed order of location: ".
Question 21
Polysemy and homonymy in phraseology
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable: a stumbling block - "an obstacle", to hover in the clouds - "to indulge in fruitless dreams", at first glance - "at first glance", to confuse - "lead to extreme difficulty, confusion", etc.
But there are phraseological units that have several meanings. For example, the phraseological unit wet chicken can mean: 1) "a weak-willed, ingenuous person, a weakling"; 2) "a person who looks miserable, depressed; upset by something"; play the fool - 1) "do nothing"; 2) "behave frivolously, fool around"; 3) "do stupid things".
Polysemy usually occurs in phraseological units that have retained a partial motivation of meanings in the language. For example, the idiom baptism of fire, which originally meant "the first participation in the battle," began to be used in a broader sense, indicating "the first serious test in any business." Moreover, polysemy develops more easily in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning and are correlated with phrases in their structure.
For modern language characteristic is the development of figurative, phraseological meanings in terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, birthmark, bring to the same denominator and so on.
Homonymous relations of phraseological units arise when phraseological units of the same composition act in a completely different way. different meanings: take word 1 - "to speak at a meeting on your own initiative" and take word 2 (from someone) - "to receive a promise from someone, an oath assurance of something."
Homonymous phraseological units can appear in the language if figurative expressions are based on different features of the same concept. For example, the idiom to let a rooster in the meaning - "set fire, set fire to something" goes back to the image of a fiery red rooster, resembling a flame in color and shape of the tail (a variant of the phraseological unit is to let a red rooster go); the phraseological unit let (give) a rooster in the meaning - "make false sounds" was created on the basis of the similarity of the singer's voice, breaking on a high note, with the "singing" of a rooster. Such homonymy is the result of a random coincidence of the components that form phraseological turns.
In other cases, the source of phraseological homonyms is the final gap in the meanings of polysemantic phraseological units. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit to walk on tiptoe - "to walk on the tips of your toes" served as the basis for the appearance of its figurative homonym to walk on tiptoe - "to curry favor, in every possible way to please someone." In such cases, it is difficult to draw a line between the phenomenon of polysemy of a phraseological unit and the homonymy of two phraseological units.
Special mention should be made of the so-called "external homonymy" of phraseological units and free phrases. For example, the phraseological unit lather the neck means "to teach (someone), punish", and the semantics of the free combination lather the neck is fully motivated by the meanings of the words included in it: lather your neck child to wash away all the dirt. In such cases, the context suggests how this or that expression should be understood - as a phraseological unit or as a free combination of words that act in their usual lexical meaning; for example: A heavy and strong fish rushed ... under the shore. I began take her to clean water (Paust.). Here, the highlighted words are used in their direct meaning, although the metaphorical use of the same phrase has also become entrenched in the language - the phraseological unit to bring to light.
However, since free phrases are fundamentally different from phraseological units, there is no reason to talk about the homonymy of such expressions in the exact meaning of the term: this is a random coincidence of linguistic units of a different order.
Question 22
Synonymy and antonymy in phraseology
Phraseologisms that have a close or identical meaning, enter into synonymous relations: with one world smeared - two boots of steam, one field of berries; there are no numbers - even a dime a dozen, that the sand of the sea, like uncut dogs. Like lexical units, such phraseological units form synonymous rows, which may include the corresponding lexical synonyms of one row; cf .: leave with a nose - leave a fool, circle around your finger, look away [to someone], rub glasses [to someone], take it to the gun and: deceive - fool, spend, get around, inflate, cheat, fool. The richness of phraseological, as well as lexical, synonyms creates huge expressive possibilities of the Russian language.
Phraseological synonyms may differ from each other stylistic coloring: not to leave a stone unturned - bookish, to inflict reprisal - common, to cut it like a nut - colloquial, to ask pepper - colloquial; far away - commonly used, in the middle of nowhere - vernacular. They may not have semantic differences: a shot sparrow, grated kalach, or they may differ in shades of meaning: far away, where Makar did not drive calves; the first means - "very far", the second - "to the most remote, deaf places, where they are exiled as a punishment."
Phraseological synonyms, like lexical ones, can also differ in the degree of intensity of the action, the manifestation of the sign: shed tears - shed tears, drown in tears, cry out all eyes (each subsequent synonym calls a more intense action compared to the previous one).
Certain phraseological synonyms may have some components repeated (if phraseological units are based on different images, we have the right to call them synonyms): game not worth it candles - sheepskin tanning not worth it , ask bath - ask pepper, hang up head - hang up nose, drive dogs - drive loafer.
Phraseological variants should be distinguished from phraseological synonyms, the structural differences of which do not violate the semantic identity of phraseological units: don't hit face in the dirt don't hit face in the dirt throw fishing rod - throw fishing rod; in the first case, phraseological variants differ in grammatical forms of the verb, in the second - in the so-called "variant components".
Phraseological units that are similar in meaning, but differ in compatibility and therefore are used in different contexts, are not synonymous. So, phraseological units with three boxes and chickens do not peck, although they mean "a lot", but in speech they are used in different ways: the first is combined with the words to slander, chat, promise, the second - only with the word money.
Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymic ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by the antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - he won’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a blood in the face (pale).
A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart, not from a brave ten - not from a cowardly ten, turn your face - turn your back. Components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms (heavy - light, brave - cowardly), but can get the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back)
Question 23
Semantic classification of phraseological units by V. V. Vinogradov
V.V. Vinogradov, also basing his classification on various types of stability, as well as motivation, singled out three main types of phraseological units:
*) Phraseological fusions and idioms - these include phraseological units in which motivation is not traced. They act as word equivalents. Examples of phraseological fusions or idioms include such expressions as headlong, upside down, etc.
*) Phraseological units - phraseological units include motivated phraseological units that have a common inseparable meaning that arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of the components, for example: bend into a ram's horn, give hands, etc. In this group, V.V. Vinogradov also includes phrases-terms: nursing home, exclamation point, etc.
*) Phraseological combinations - these include turns, which include a component that characterizes a phraseologically related meaning, which manifests itself only within a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal meanings.
These restrictions are created by the laws inherent in a certain language, for example: goggle, but you cannot say: goggle; to refuse outright, but one cannot say to agree outright, etc. [Vinogradov, 1986].
Classification V.V. Vinogradova is often criticized for not having a single classification criterion. The first two groups - fusion and unity - are distinguished on the basis of the motivation of the phraseological unit, and the third group - phraseological combinations - is distinguished on the basis of the limited compatibility of the word.
N.M. Shansky adds to the above types of phraseological units one more - phraseological expressions. By them, he understands turnovers that are stable in composition and management, which are not only segmented, but also consisting of words with a free meaning; for example, if you like to ride, love to carry sleds, the spool is small, but expensive, etc. [Shansky 1964]
The selection of phraseological expressions seems quite logical, because while retaining their direct meaning, these lexical combinations are distinguished by a very high degree of stability.
Lexicology (from the Greek lexikos - related to the word and logos - teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, its vocabulary.
The subject of lexicology is the word. And its object is the definition of the word as the basic unit of the language.
The main tasks of lexicology are:
Clarification of the connection between the meaning of the word and the concept, the allocation of different types of meanings of words;
Characteristics of the lexico-semantic system, i.e. identification of the internal organization of language units and analysis of their relationships (the semantic structure of the word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relations with other words, etc.);
Establishment various kinds systemic relations that exist within different groups of vocabulary, the definition of those objective (including syntactic) indicators that unite words (in certain meanings).
Lexicology studies the stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary, separate thematic and lexico-semantic groupings of words, their relationship with each other and the ratio of units within these groupings. From the point of view of stylistic differentiation, words, firstly, can belong to certain functional types of speech. Secondly, there are a significant number of words in the language that give speech a “high” or “lowered” character.
In addition, in lit. language includes words that retain dialect coloring, and in artistic literature (ch. arr. for the purposes of speech characteristics characters) slang words and expressions are also used.
Exploring the vocabulary of a language in its systemic connections, the lexicologist takes into account that, being the designations of objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality, words naturally reflect the connections that exist between objects and phenomena of reality itself. At the same time, words are units of the language and between them there are actually linguistic connections: they are combined into certain lexical-semantic groups, in each language in their own way segmenting certain segments of reality (for example, in Russian - the names of hills: mountain, hill, hillock, mound, hill, etc., verbs of motion: go, ride, fly, swim, crawl, etc. - do not find full correspondence in other languages).
One of the main tasks of lexicology is to clarify those semantic oppositions that exist between different words, incl. synonymous and antonymous; it is the opposition of the meanings of different words that makes it possible to single out the essential semantic features that determine the given meaning of the word (for example, the common semantic element for the words mountain and hill is “hill”, which allows them to be compared; the essential differential feature for them is the sign of size).
In lexicology, stable combinations of words are also studied, which are dissected names of individual objects and phenomena of reality and are the equivalent of a word. These combinations refer to phraseology, which is included in lexicology as one of its sections (some researchers, however, consider it an independent section of the science of language).
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