The human factor in language. Book: Boris Serebrennikov "The Role of the Human Factor in Language
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR
INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTICS
B.A. SEREBRENNIKOV
HUMAN
FACTOR IN LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE AND MIND
Executive Editor Corresponding Member V.M. SUNS
BBK 81 S 32
Doctor reviewers philological sciences HELL. Schweitzer, V.G. Gak
Serebrennikov B.A.
C 32 The role of the human factor in language: Language and thinking. - M.: Nauka, 1988. - 242 p.
ISBN 5-02-010878-2
There is an extensive literature on the role of a person in the existence, functioning and development of a language, however, many aspects of this problem continue to be debatable and require further research. This work represents a fundamental study of a complex complex problem, covering the functioning of the language at all levels. It is a logical continuation of the collective work "The role of the human factor in the language. Language and picture of the world" (M., 1987).
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There is a voluminous literature on the role of a man in existing, functioning and deve-
still many aspects |
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question and demand a further |
study. The present work is a fun- |
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the complex problem |
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of the collective |
human factor in language. Language and the world picture" (Moscow, 1987).
FOREWORD
The monograph "The role of the human factor in language. Language and thinking" is an organic continuation of the previous work "The role of the human factor in language. Language and picture of the world" (M., 1987), in which, in particular, the topic of creating a language inventory was developed (the main way in the field of vocabulary). The initial sections of the new work offered to the reader are devoted to this topic: "The role of the grammatical structure in displaying the language picture of the world", "Processes of borrowing and mutual influence in languages", as well as, to a certain extent, a specific section "Processes occurring in the language, but not directly related to displaying a picture of the world. All these processes unfold in a sphere where specific laws operate, which in one way or another affect these processes.
However, bringing this information was clearly not enough for the completeness of the presentation of the topic "The role of the human factor in the language." It is well known that language is closely connected with thinking, although it does not completely coincide with it, as some scientists, in particular the Marrists, tried to assert. It was necessary to show the complex nature of human thinking in the totality of its various types and to define more precisely the role of the so-called verbal thinking.
The section "Public and individual consciousness. The problem of the subjective and the objective in language" deserves special attention. The clarification of this problem is especially important, since the subjective plays a huge role in the knowledge of the phenomena and processes of the world surrounding a person. Philosophers do not always pay due attention to this problem.
Some categories of Marxist dialectics are clearly manifested in the language, so it was necessary to highlight the problem of contradictions in the language, since insufficient attention is paid to this issue in the existing linguistic literature. There are few examples of contradictions in the language, and their essence is often not explained with sufficient clarity. Of particular importance here are the sections that explain the essence of the contradictions that have not been overcome and overcome.
Followers of N.Ya. Marr usually tried to eliminate the problem of immanent laws of language development in linguistics. As known-
but, N.Ya. Marr argued that any change in language reflects changes in human society. The assertion that there could be changes in language independent of changes in human society was qualified without any hesitation as something contrary to Marxism. There is no doubt that the struggle against the immanent laws of language development reflects a vulgar sociological conception of the laws of language development. It can be argued that in some cases the history of the people can exert a certain influence on the language, and at the same time recognize the immanent laws of the development of the language. You don't have to look far for examples. For a long time, for example, it was proved that the sound complex
does not strive for an absolutely accurate description of the object it designates, cf. Russian bear, i.e. "one who eats honey." But the bear does not only eat honey. These features of the language reflect the immanent laws of change in the verbal sign, which in themselves do not depend on the changes taking place in human society. Changes in language such as assimilation are also independent of any changes in human society. Therefore, the denial of the immanent laws of language development has absolutely no grounds, it reflects a complete misunderstanding of what is actually happening in languages. Thus, this work has a dual focus. On the one hand, it expresses the desire to present certain processes and phenomena of the language in a new light, on the other hand, to free Soviet linguistics from the remnants of Marrism, which, unfortunately, still exist in some cases.
When creating this monograph, grammatical sketches of various languages contained in the work of the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR "Languages of the Peoples of the USSR", as well as essays on languages created by domestic and foreign linguists, were widely used.
THE ROLE OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURE IN DISPLAYING THE LANGUAGE PICTURE OF THE WORLD
Words by themselves do not constitute a language. Language practically exists in sentences. A sentence cannot be constructed if it does not express certain connections between the words that make up this sentence.
To explore the role of grammatical structure in creating a linguistic picture of the world means to determine what grammatical formatives express and what relation this expression has to the creation of a linguistic picture of the world. The idea of the grammatical structure of a language is often associated with a certain set of linguistic means expressing relationships between words. But this view is not entirely correct.
Grammar has two purposes. It has 1) means that indicate the relationship between words, and 2) means that express the properties of various objects and phenomena. The latter include, for example, various derivational suffixes of adjectives and nouns, as well as verbs. A well-known exception is the pledge-forming suffixes, which can express certain relations. If words can name individual objects, signs, actions, for example head, leg, black, green, do, eat
There are different views on the nature and character of language: *1* language is completely dependent on society, *2* language is independent of social factors. Domestic linguists adhere to the golden mean. Differentiation is the territorial, social, and other division of the language. As a result of differentiation, a language can divide, causing the appearance of related languages and dialects. In a class society, language can be highly differentiated. (the face is sublime, the face is the norm, the face is vulgarism / money, women, lave). In different situations of communication, different language means are used. Linguistic socialization - linguistic entry into society. A distinction is made between spontaneous influence on language and conscious influence on language (language policy). This can be both the creation of alphabets and writing, and the forecasting of language development and planning of language construction, based on sociological theory. (Note: Tatarstan, Europe).
Society influences language:
1. Level economic development society affects the degree of spread of the language. National languages arose with the growth of capitalist relations.
2. The language reflects the social division of society: sociolects - slang
3. Language is affected by demographics
Koine - a supra-dialect formation, which is used as a means of communication between speakers of different dialects in large cities. Subsequently, literary languages began to emerge on the basis of the Koine (especially the metropolitan ones).
4. Society can consciously influence the language, its structure. The influence on the language is limited to certain areas - graphics (the Chinese reformed writing), spelling, terms - their production, normative and stylistic systematization (compilation of dictionaries, reference books, etc.)
5. Sometimes the emergence of words can be due to certain events in the life of society (loafer - originated from Dr. Loder)
6. In the heyday of society, some words are introduced into literary language outstanding personalities - poets, writers. (Lomonosov - constellation, drawing, earth's axis, absurdity ...; Tredyakovsky - society, art, probability, gratitude, foresight, publicity)
Territorial variation of the language. Dialectology, linguistic
Geography, areal linguistics.
20-30s - works on sociolinguistic issues - Shor "Language and Society", Derzhavin, Larin and others.
Hence the development of social dialectology, and later Marxist sociolinguistics.
Sots dialectology– the study of linguistic phenomena in close connection with the territorial and social-group changes of speakers given language, as well as language changes within the various groupings of these speakers.
Zhirmunsky – « National language and social dialects"
Allocates 2 forms of language existence:
1) a single common or national or literary language, carriers - the bourgeoisie
2) territorially fragmented dialects of subordinate social groups - the peasantry, the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Polivanov:
1) language definition as historical fact
2) description of languages and dialects from a sociological point of view
1) development of a language policy
→ He said that not changes in phonetics and morphology depend on socio-economic factors, but the formation of families of languages and language crossing.
→ The purpose of linguistics is to explain the causes of language changes.
→ The theory of language evolution is the central place of its theory.
→ the need to highlight phraseology as a special linguistic discipline.
The achievement of Soviet linguistics - the formation of a new science - linguistic geography.
30s, is closely connected with the problems of social dialectology.
→ compiling an atlas of the Russian language in 1935, Filin.
→ 30-40s – questionnaires for compiling a regional linguistic atlas of the respective area.
Since the 60s: compilation of national atlases, but so far only an atlas of folk dialects and a dialectological atlas of the Belarusian people have been published.
Works on 3 atlases:
1) common Slavic linguistic
2) Carpathian dialectological
3) atlas of Turkic languages
The goal is to present the dialect material as an element of the language system and to restore the historical past of these languages.
Areal linguistics (neolinguistics) the first decades of the 20th century.
It develops under the influence of French geography and the ideas of Schuhard.
Territorial distribution of linguistic phenomena:
Ideas of linguistic continuity;
The languages are mixed;
- Much attention was paid to the compilation of atlases and isoglosses.
Language is a system of isoglosses. Isogloss - a line that outlines the areas of distribution of one linguistic phenomenon
· Interested in Romance languages.
· The idea of a distinctive chronology of linguistic phenomena based on their geographical distribution.
· It was believed that the relative age of a linguistic phenomenon can be determined by the area of its distribution.
The most ancient phenomena in the following types:
Isolated areas;
Outlying areas;
More ancient phenomena exist in younger areas.
· The idea of mixing languages.
· We used the concepts of substrate/superstratum and adstratum.
· The idea of language unions based on the concept of language adstratum. Balkan Language Union.
Bonfonte - Russian/Slavic + Finougorian
French/Latin + Frankish
Spanish/Latin + Arabic
Italian / Latin + Greek + Oxo-Umbian.
The concept and types of bilingualism. Bilingualism as a kind of language
Politicians.
Bilingualism is a type of linguistic integration in which individual person or a group of people, or the whole people, use 2 languages at the same time, alternating them in different communicative situations. It can be natural and real on the one hand and communicative on the other. Natural bilingualism is formed in an environment where people of different nationalities communicate with different native languages. Such bilingualism is typical for multinational states with common language international communication. Such natural bilingualism can be formed at the family level during interethnic marriages. Bilingualism does not imply equal knowledge of 2 languages. One language (most often the native language) is known better, the other (the language of international common language) is known worse. Equal knowledge of 2 languages is often an exception. Functional bilingualism- such knowledge of the second language, which is necessary for the successful conduct of business and nothing more. Artificial bilingualism is characteristic of those who study foreign languages. Passive bilingualism can become active Bilingualism is not only a social but also a psycholinguistic problem. A bilingual person has at least 2 language systems coexisting in their minds. There is an imposition of the 1st system on the other, errors of bilinguals arise, provoked by the language system that he knows better (these errors are accents). But these errors can spread not only to phonetics.
There is a narrow and broad understanding of bilingualism: in narrow sense- this is more or less fluency in two languages: native and non-native, and in broad sense- relative knowledge of a second language, the ability to use it in certain areas of communication. From this point of view, the minimum level of second language proficiency can be considered the level sufficient for an individual to perform speech actions, in the process of which certain functions of the second language are implemented. If language proficiency is below this level, then there are no sufficient grounds to consider such proficiency as a sign of bilingualism.
Delimit also the following types of bilingualism:
a) subordinative (the subject speaks one language better than another) / coordinative (he speaks different languages equally fluently),
b) active (subject more or less regularly refers to both languages) / passive (more often refers to one of the languages),
c) contact (observed when a bilingual maintains contact with native speakers) / non-contact (lack of such a connection),
d) autonomous / parallel (with autonomous bilingualism, languages are acquired by the subject without sequentially correlating them with each other, with parallel mastery of one of the languages, based on the mastery of another language).
Active bilingualism can, in turn, be divided into "pure bilingualism" and "mixed bilingualism" (Shcherba). From point of view species speech activity it was proposed to identify several types of subordinate bilingualism: receptive, reproductive, productive (Verishchagin). At receptive bilingualism the subject is able to understand the speech works read (heard) by him in a non-native language and convey their content in his native language.
Reproductive bilingualism consists in the fact that the individual can reproduce the statements of other persons in the language in which he perceived them.
Productive bilingualism is the ability to express one's own thought in different languages. When communication takes place at home in the native language, and outside the home - in the second, then in such cases there is a natural bilingualism.
artificial bilingualism acquired as a result of learning a second language after the mother tongue. At mixed bilingualism a native speaker creates a unified conceptual system for the two languages. When learning a second language, subordinative bilingualism is most often created, in which the words of the second language are associated not with a system of concepts, but with words. mother tongue. Subordinative bilingualism is typical for non-fluent language proficiency, and coordinative - for a higher level.
Also stands out combinatorial type of bilingualism(Nechaev), which involves the ability of the subject, as a result of a conscious comparison of forms of expression in two languages, to choose the best translation option. It is this type of bilingualism that is considered the basis of translation competence, which, in addition to a certain level of proficiency in two languages, includes a number of special translation skills and abilities.
It is known that modern psycholinguistics usually distinguishes three types of bilingualism: coordinative, subordinate, mixed though language personality in principle, it always balances, depending on the speech environment, between these three types. Coordinative is considered ideal, when the student freely switches from one semantic base to another, that is, he speaks two languages fluently. However, the third one is superimposed on two semantic bases (for some - the Russian language, for others - Tatar, for the third - English). Determining the degree of dominance and interaction of different semantic bases in a particular student is very important for determining the overall strategy for the coordinated teaching of three languages. The absence of such a strategy negatively affects not only speech activity, but also mental, aesthetic, moral activity.
To determine the dominant semantic base, it is proposed to take texts of statements made by children in their native and second languages for the same period of time, then the level of concentration of information, logical relationship, syntactic complexity of speech, etc. is calculated. The distribution by types of bilingualism turned out to be as follows: coordinative bilingualism, if the obtained indicators were approximately the same in two languages; subordinate, if these rates were high in only one language; mixed if the scores were low in both languages, etc. Today, mixed bilingualism dominates (47%), followed by subordinate (42%), coordinative (11%). The results obtained made it possible to determine the strategy for the development of coherent speech in the framework of the integrated study of different languages.
5. The role of the human factor in the language. Language picture of the world
Everyone has an idea of how the world works, based on your personal life, religion, etc. This view of the world is complexly organized.
There are cognitive representations and language units (which are not identical). How do they compare? Let's take a word (because behind the word there is a mental picture or concept). The concept must necessarily be reflected in some linguistic sign, in the word, but not always in the word.
Concepts are mental entities, meaningful concepts.
For example, conscience, soul, shame.
The language picture of the world is verbalized in linguistic units. Inconsistencies of different lexical systems (gaps) are visible. Sometimes there is no such concept in a foreign culture, because of this, the problem of translatability of meanings arises. The set of words depends on the living conditions of the people: the Eskimos have many designations for snow, walruses. The language universal is the gender of the child, whether he is older or younger. But age classifications are different for everyone. August Pott, back in 19, gave examples of comparing the names of children in Hungarian, Malay: in Hung. older / younger brother / sister (gender and age are important), in Russian. brother and sister, in small. - one word.
Color classifications are also different for everyone. The first was the binary opposition "light-dark", then - white, black, then red, then blue, the most recent - pink. One of the most voluminous color systems is in French. No language reflects real world, it is always an interpretation, a simulation. Linguistics has developed 2 approaches:
Semasiology studies the meanings of words, proceeds from how words are built, how they are grouped; onomasiology- the structure of the surrounding world and its reflection in the language. A theory of nomination appeared: how this or that word appears. The nomination of the subject occurs according to a certain principle. In Sanskrit, a dog is called "living to 12 years old", a cat - "cleaning itself." Man considers himself the measure of the universe, hence the anthropomorphic metaphors.
It is important not only what people call, but also what they do not name (for example, parts of the body - native speakers distinguish different parts, although the structure of the body is the same for everyone). The language selectively names what it is interested in, objects can be called synonyms: in Arabic there are more than 300 names of a lion, in Sanskrit there are a lot of words for an elephant.
Theory of linguistic relativity
That is the world, but there is a linguistic interpretation, the language begins to compare - what does this new phenomenon look like, the nomination of the subject according to characteristic feature, this feature can be arbitrary. This is where the theory of lingua comes in. Relativity - language and myth. Myth is created by language. Main the idea - how thinking is reflected in language, this idea that language conveys culture was expressed by Humboldt, supported - in Germany by Weisgerber, in America - by Sapir and Whorf.
Whorf studied the Hopi language, comparing it with European ones. In European languages, there are countable and uncountable nouns. In the Hopi language there are no uncountable, no abstract entities denoting a substance in general, there is only each specific example. They have a completely different idea of matter, quantity. We count cattle according to their heads, among the Turkic peoples - according to their legs.
The linguistic picture is reflected not only in vocabulary, but also in grammar. In Russian, there are only 2 types, in Chukchi - several, they grammatically indicate how often an action is performed. There are languages where there are almost no adjectives. The name and the verb are everywhere.
Now linguists are beginning to develop the relation of word formation to nomination. Humboldt suggested looking at word formation from the point of view of speech activity. It exists in every language. The language reflects the changing life, but word formation serves only 10th part of phraseological units.
The word has general meaning, but also the shade of meaning that is given in the context. Semantics underlies both mental and linguistic actions. Semantics allows you to connect mental structures with linguistic ones.
Linguists are trying for different language structures feel the uniqueness of the language.
Boris Serebrennikov
B. A. Serebrennikov
Boris Aleksandrovich Serebrennikov(March 6, Kholmogory -, Moscow) - Russian linguist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1984). Proceedings on the problems of general and comparative-historical linguistics, Ural, Altai, Indo-European languages.
He worked in the Serpukhov printing house of the Mospoligraph trust, in 1931-1933. studied at the German department of the Moscow Institute of New Languages as a translator. In 1940 he graduated from the classical department of the philological faculty of the Moscow IFLI and received a qualification as a teacher of ancient languages and ancient literature. Member of the Great Patriotic War.
In 1945-1948. studied in graduate school at the Department of Comparative Grammar Indo-European languages Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov. He defended his thesis "General questions of the theory of the article and the problem of the semantics of the use of the article in the ancient Greek language" on February 14, 1949. He worked as a senior lecturer at the same department.
Predecessor: Victor Ivanovich Borkovsky |
Director - |
Successor: Fedot Petrovich Filin |
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Benjamin Whorf's Theory of Linguistic Relativity
Language, according to Whorf, to a large extent forms concepts and contributes to the connection of concepts, predetermining the process of thinking for you. Hand - handarm
But the divergence of the boundaries of similar concepts does not yet indicate differences in the way of thinking. This difference manifests itself in the analysis of more subtle and indefinite phenomena. Whorf distinguished between explicit and implicit classifications of words in the language. The former form an explicit class - the phenotype, since they have morphological indicators (cf., for example, the category of gender in Russian, Latin and German). Hidden classes are cryptotypes. They don't have clear indications. boy ('boy') - he ('he'), girl ('girl') - she ('she'), dog ('dog') - it ('it'), sag ('car') - it ('it').
Whorf's merit lies in the fact that he drew the attention of linguists to the existence of hidden types of classification - cryptotypes. But he is wrong in saying that native speakers think or feel as the cryptotypes of their languages suggest.
According to Whorf, the meanings of explicit and hidden classes, grammatical categories, together with the lexical system of the language, form a complex system of the main categories of thinking of each people, a kind of philosophical picture of the world through which native speakers perceive it: “We must recognize influence of language on different kinds people's activities not so much in special cases of the use of language, but in its constantly operating general laws and in its everyday assessment of certain phenomena by him ”(“ The Relationship of the Norms of Behavior and Thinking to Language ”, 1939).
But how to prove that people think according to the dictation of their language? We want to learn about thinking, but we turn to the study of language. The word empty on the tanks causes carelessness.
Thought is a stream, language is the rocks on its way: solid rocks make it change its course, but the stream can change its course by carrying sedimentary rocks.
The language picture of the world is defined as follows:
The idea of reality, reflected in linguistic signs and their meanings - the linguistic division of the world, the linguistic ordering of objects and phenomena, embedded in system values words information about the world;
the result of the reflection of the objective world by the ordinary (linguistic) consciousness of a particular linguistic community.
The concept of a linguistic picture of the world goes back, on the one hand, to the ideas of W. von Humboldt and neo-Humboldtians (L. Weisgerber and others) about the internal form of language, and on the other hand, to the ideas of American ethnolinguistics, in particular, the so-called Sapir hypothesis of linguistic relativity -Whorf.
The concept of "linguistic picture of the world" was introduced into the scientific terminological system by L. Weisgerber. The main characteristics of the linguistic picture of the world, which the author gives it, are the following:
The linguistic picture of the world is a system of all possible contents: spiritual, determining the uniqueness of the culture and mentality of a given linguistic community
linguistic picture of the world, on the one hand, is a consequence historical development ethnos and language, and on the other hand, is the reason for the peculiar way of their further development;
the linguistic picture of the world is changeable in time;
the linguistic picture of the world creates the homogeneity of the linguistic essence, contributing to the consolidation of linguistic and cultural originality in the vision of the world and its designation by means of language;
The linguistic picture of the world exists in a homogeneous, original self-consciousness of the linguistic community and is transmitted to subsequent generations through the worldview, rules of conduct, lifestyle, captured by the means of language;
It is argued that the totality of ideas about the world, contained in the meaning different words and expressions of a given language, is formed into a kind of unified system of views, or prescriptions (for example, it’s good if other people know what a person feels), and is imposed as a must on all native speakers, because the ideas that form the picture of the world are included in the meanings of words implicitly.
According to V. N. Telia, the linguistic picture of the world is a product of consciousness, inevitable for mental and linguistic activity, arising as a result of the interaction of thinking, reality and language as a means of expressing thoughts about the world in acts of communication.
Metaphor is one of the most productive means of forming secondary names in creating a linguistic picture of the world.
It is noted that the linguistic picture of the world reflects the state of perception of reality that has developed in past periods of the development of the language in society. At the same time, the linguistic picture of the world changes over time, and its changes are a reflection of the changing world, the emergence of new realities, and not the desire for identity with the scientific picture of the world.