Results of the 30 Years' War 1618 1648. Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War: Causes, Course and Results.
The Thirty Years' War is a war that lasted from 1618 to 1648 and was fought for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and, in general, throughout Western Europe. Almost all large and small states of Western Europe were participants in the war.
Reasons for thirty summer war.
After the Reformation, which swept throughout Europe, the Catholic Church began to try to win back the influence it had lost earlier, and because of this movement, religious unrest increased in many states of Europe.
The popes of Rome by any means tried to set the monarchs to eradicate Protestantism and return to the bosom of the Vatican. Meanwhile, the power of the Jesuit order and the Holy Inquisition was seriously increasing.
In the Holy Roman Empire, Catholics, who were still in the minority, began to flare up. To suppress the rising uprisings, the Protestant princes united in the Evangelical Union, and the Catholics, in turn, created the Catholic League. However, this conflict extended beyond the Holy Roman Empire.
course of the Thirty Years' War.
On the one hand, there was the Habsburg camp and a number of Catholic states: Spain, papal states, Portugal and the Commonwealth. And on the other side, there were Protestants who created an anti-Habsburg coalition, which included France, Denmark, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Venice, the Netherlands and several other smaller states. This or that support of the anti-Habsburg coalition was provided by Russia, Scotland and England.
It should be said that the camp of the Habsburgs and their allies were more united, as they fought on the same side more than once. And their opponents had great contradictions, but they were forced to discard them in order to confront such a powerful opponent.
At the first stage fighting unfolded on the territory of the Czech Republic, where the Protestants remained dissatisfied with the Catholic monarch. The beginning was for the Protestants, they won a number of several important victories, including the capture of the largest Catholic city in the Czech Republic - Pilsen. Then, in 1619, the Catholics seized the initiative.
The key battle of this period should be considered the battle on White Mountain in 1620, where the Catholics inflicted a crushing defeat on the Protestant forces.
The first period of the war ended in 1624, and the victory remained with the Habsburgs.
During the Danish period (1625-1629), Sweden joined the Protestants. Despite the fact that the northern princes of the empire gained new allies, they still could not resist the Catholic League and its forces occupied Northern Germany.
The third period - Swedish (1630-1634) also ended with the defeat of the Protestant Sweden and the German princes and another victory for the Catholic League and the Habsburgs.
During final stage war - Franco-Swedish (1635-1648) against the Habsburgs went to war with France along with its many allies. The war took place with varying success, and both sides greatly exhausted themselves with hostilities.
It was not until the 1640s that France, together with its allies, began to seize the initiative, which soon led to the defeat of the Catholic League.
Results of the Thirty Years' War.
The total losses during the Thirty Years' War amounted to approximately 8 million people. This figure makes it clear that this war was one of the bloodiest in the entire history of Western Europe. Some lands of the Holy Roman Empire lost half of their population. In total, Germany lost 40% of the rural and 30% of the urban population of the country.
Due to the war, inflation began, which seriously undermined the economy of the empire.
If before the start of the war the hegemony in Europe was held by the Habsburgs, then after the war France acquired it. A serious decline began for Spain, although the Habsburgs were not completely defeated. Sweden also gained its heyday during the war, which lasted until the Great Northern War.
This war also brought changes in military tactics, artillery began to play an increasingly important role on the battlefield, and infantry with cold weapons began to play a smaller role. The role of supplying the army increased, as the troops themselves grew in numbers and demanded huge amount provisions.
It was the largest of the nation-states.
In Europe, there were several explosive regions where the interests of the warring parties intersected. The greatest number of contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions was also directly related to the Empire -. The Protestant (and also, in part,) sought to turn it into their inland lake and gain a foothold on its southern coast, while the Catholic actively resisted the Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated the freedom of Baltic trade. The third disputed region was fragmented Italy, for which France fought with. Spain had its opponents - (), which defended its independence in the war - years, and which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.
The brewing of war
periodization of the war. Opposing sides.
The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Outside of Germany, there were several separate conflicts: the Polish-Swedish War, etc.
On the side of the Habsburgs were:, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, united with,. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition, the Protestant principalities of Germany provided support, and. (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) at that time was busy with the war with and did not interfere in the European conflict. In general, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with growing nation-states.
The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic, the Austrian and Spanish houses kept in touch with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Wealthier Spain provided financial support to the emperor. There were major contradictions in the camp of their opponents, but they all receded into the background before the threat of a common enemy.
The course of the war
Czech period
In the autumn of the same year, 15,000 imperial soldiers led by and entered the Czech Republic. The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, in response to the requests of the Czechs, the Evangelical Union sent 2000 soldiers under the command of . Dampier was defeated and Buqua had to retreat to.
Thanks to the support of the Protestant part of the Austrian nobility, Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met with stubborn resistance. At this time, Buqua defeated Mansfeld near ( ), and Turn had to retreat to the rescue. At the end of the year, the Transylvanian prince with strong army also moved against Vienna, but the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai hit him in the rear and forced him to retreat from Vienna. On the territory of Bohemia, protracted battles were fought with varying success.
Meanwhile, the Habsburgs made some diplomatic progress. Mr. Ferdinand was elected emperor. After that, he managed to get military support from Bavaria and Saxony. For this, the Elector of Saxony was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electoral rank. Spain sent a 25,000-strong army to the aid of the emperor under the command of .
Danish period
Another period of the war ended, but the Catholic League sought to return the Catholic possessions lost in the Peace of Augsburg. Under her pressure, the emperor issued the Restitution Edict (). According to it, 2 archbishoprics, 12 bishoprics and hundreds of monasteries were to be returned to the Catholics. Mansfeld and Bethlen Gabor, the first of the Protestant military leaders, died the same year. Only the port of Stralsund, abandoned by all the allies (except Sweden), held out against Wallenstein and the Emperor.
Swedish period
Both Catholic and Protestant princes, as well as very many of the Emperor's entourage, believed that Wallenstein wanted to seize power in Germany himself. In Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein. However, when the Swedish offensive began, I had to call him again.
Sweden was the last major state capable of changing the balance of power. , the king of Sweden, like Christian IV, sought to stop the Catholic expansion, as well as to establish his control over the Baltic coast of northern Germany. Like Christian IV, he was generously subsidized by the First Minister of the King of France.
Prior to this, Sweden was kept from the war by the war with Poland in the struggle for the Baltic coast. By the year Sweden ended the war and enlisted the support of Russia ().
The Swedish army was armed with advanced weapon and . It did not have mercenaries, and at first it did not rob the population. This fact has had a positive effect. In the year Sweden sent 6 thousand soldiers under the command of Stralsund to help. At the beginning of the year, Leslie captured the island, as a result, control was established over the Straits of Stralsund. A year, the king of Sweden, landed on the continent, at the mouth of the Oder.
Ferdinand II had been dependent on the Catholic League ever since he disbanded Wallenstein's army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Catholic League under the command of Tilly. A year later, they met again, and again the Swedes won, and General Tilly died (). With the death of Tilly, Ferdinand II turned his attention back to Wallenstein.
Wallenstein and Gustav Adolf clashed at the fierce Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes narrowly won, but Gustav Adolf died. In March, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities formed the Heilbronn League; the entirety of military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. But the lack of a single authoritative commander began to affect the Protestant troops, and the previously invincible Swedes suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634).
The suspicions of Ferdinand II again prevailed when Wallenstein began to conduct his own negotiations with the Protestant princes, the leaders of the Catholic League and the Swedes (). In addition, he forced his officers to take a personal oath to him. On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was arrested and killed ( ).
After that, the princes and the emperor began negotiations that ended the Swedish period of the war with the Peace of Prague (). Its terms provided for:
- "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the framework of the Peace of Augsburg.
- The unification of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into one army of the "Holy Roman Empire".
- The ban on the formation of coalitions between princes.
- Legalization.
This peace, however, could not suit France, as the Habsburgs, as a result, became stronger.
Franco-Swedish period
Having exhausted all diplomatic reserves, France entered the war itself (war on Spain was declared). With her intervention, the conflict finally lost its coloring of the religious, since the French were Catholics. France involved in the conflict its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic. She managed to prevent a new war between Sweden and, which allowed the Swedes to transfer significant reinforcements from behind the Vistula to Germany. The French attacked Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands. In response, the Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Spain crossed the Somme and entered Compiegne, and the imperial general Matthias Galas tried to capture Burgundy.
Other conflicts at the same time
- War between Spain and France
- Danish-Swedish War (1643-1645)
Peace of Westphalia
Under the terms of the peace, France received South Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian duke became .
Effects
The Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all sections of the population. In Western memory, it has remained one of the most difficult pan-European conflicts in the series of predecessors of the World Wars. The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died.
The immediate result of the war was that St. 300 petty Germanic states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation persisted until the end of the existence of the first empire.
The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic.
It is customary to count the modern era in international relations from the Peace of Westphalia.
Military tactics and strategy
The study by military theorists of the successes of the Swedish troops under the leadership of Gustavus Adolphus gave its results. The advanced armies of Europe began to make the main bet on increasing the effectiveness of fire. The role of field artillery has increased. The structure of the infantry changed - by the end of the war, the musketeers began to outnumber the pikemen.
During the course of the war, armies were often forced to retreat due to lack of supplies even after victories. Many states, following the example of Gustavus Adolphus, began to create an organized supply of troops with ammunition and provisions. “Shops” (military stores) began to appear. The role of transport communications has increased.
Shops and communications, as well as the troops themselves, began to be seen as objects of attack and defense. A series of skillful maneuvers could interrupt the enemy's communications and force him to retreat without losing a single soldier. The concept of "maneuvering war" appeared.
At the same time, the Thirty Years' War was the height of the era of mercenary armies. Both camps used landskhets, recruited from various social strata and without regard to religion. They served for money and turned the military into a profession. The concept itself was born in the era of war. Its origin is associated with the name of one of the two famous commanders who bore the surname Merode and took part in the Thirty Years' War: this is a German, General Count Johann Merode or a Swede, Colonel Werner von Merode.
At the turn of the 2nd centuries of the 16th and 17th centuries, this situation was unstable and carried the prerequisites for another all-European conflict. From 1494 to 1559 Europe experienced a conflict called the Italian Wars. In the era of modern times, conflicts are becoming more and more large-scale and acquire a pan-European character. What is the complexity of the international situation?
France, after the religious wars ended and Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon reigned, began to prepare to expand its territory, strengthen its borders and establish claims to hegemony in Europe. Those. the place of hegemon, which was occupied by Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs in the middle of the 16th century, did not remain vacant for a long time. In order for his hegemonic aspirations to have some grounds, Henry 4 resumes, or rather confirms, the agreement concluded in 1535-36 with Ottoman Turkey, aimed at inciting the Turks against the Venetian Republic and the Austrian Habsburgs.
In the 16th century, the French tried to solve the problem of the Habsburgs and eliminate, at least for a while, the pliers of the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian, who squeezed France from the east and west.
Now the French are preparing to start wars to expand their territory and finally overthrow the Habsburgs. This preparation was completed in 1610 by unexpected event. The religious fanatic Revolier stabbed Heinrich 4 with a dagger. This attempt was caused not only by internal religious and political events French society, but also by the machinations of the Austrian Habsburgs.
Therefore, the preparation of France for an active offensive foreign policy and territorial expansion was disrupted for at least 10 years, because an inter-power was established in France, the young Louis 13, his mother regent. In fact, another Fronde has been hit - disagreements between the nobility, Protestant and Catholic. In general, this nobility tried to weaken the power of royal power.
Therefore, from 1610 to 1620, France sharply weakens its position and activity in the European arena.
Louis then becomes an adult. Most recently, they showed a film about how he regained power. He kills his mother's favorite and regains power. And after Cardinal Richelieu came to power in 1624, who ruled the country together with the king, until 1642, France was gaining momentum to strengthen the absolute monarchy and strengthen state power.
This policy met with support from the third estate, from the growing population of cities, crafts, trade, the bourgeoisie and the untitled nobility. Richelieu managed to pacify the titled nobility at least for a while.
In foreign policy expansionist sentiments are again intensifying, and France resumes preparations for the struggle for the establishment of French hegemony, at least in the continental part of Europe.
The opponents of the French are the Spaniards, Austria, to some extent England. But here qualitative changes begin in French politics, because both Henry 4 and Cardinal Richelieu preached an active foreign policy.
Henry 4 believed that there are territories where they speak French, there are territories where they speak Spanish, German, then Henry 4 believed that French-speaking territories should be part of his kingdom. Those lands where German dialects are spoken should go to the Holy Roman Empire, and Spanish - to the Spanish kingdom.
Under Richelieu, this moderate expansionism is replaced by an immoderate one. Richelieu believed that the purpose of my being in power was to revive Gaul and return to the Gauls the borders intended for them by nature itself.
Remember the period of antiquity. Gaul is a rather huge amorphous region, and the return of the boundaries intended for it meant that the French, at least in the east, should go to the Rhine and include the left bank of the Rhine together with the Netherlands in the new Gaul, and go to the Pyrenees in order to expand the territory in the west and south countries.
Thus, put France in the place of Gaul and, according to Richelieu's idea, form a new Gaul. This unbridled expansion was naturally presented in a shell, camouflaged in beautiful expressions: safe borders, natural frontiers, restoration of historical justice, etc.
Beneath these sentiments lay certain economic, social, and demographic problems in France. The fact is that France was the most populated country. This is at least 15 million people. And of course, living space is required.
Since the 16th century, as a result of the VGO and other changes, France has entered a phase of rapid economic growth, and not just an economy, but the creation of a market economy, which requires and is the basis of expansion. On the one hand, a powerful economy allows for an active foreign policy and offensive policy, and on the other hand, this economy requires new markets. The construction of the French colonial empire begins in a new light, in India, etc.
Early 17th century France and the French are faced with the problem of a new rise of the Habsburgs. We know that in the 16th century the Habsburgs were weakened. Since the beginning of the 16th century, the memory of these defeats and the effect of the factors that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs have been weakening to some extent. These factors are 5:
1) The desire to create a universalist, unified monarchy in Europe. This aspiration suffers a crushing defeat in 1556. Charles 1 (Charles 5) goes to the monastery, his possessions are divided into Austrian branch Habsburgs and the Spanish branch. Those. this state is falling apart. This is the first factor that led to the weakening of the Habsburgs in the middle-second half of the 16th century.
2) The fight against the rebellious Netherlands, the Dutch revolution. Dates are different. From the iconoclastic uprising to 1609, the conclusion of a 12-year truce. Or the end of the Anglo-Dutch wars by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. In fact, the revolution lasted about 80 years. 3 generations of Dutch revolutionaries fought for the ideals of the revolution. This factor weakened the power of the Habsburgs.
3) The struggle against the dominance of the Habsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, not only Protestant rulers fought, such as the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, but also Catholic rulers such as the Duke of Bavaria, who believed that a weak emperor was better than a strong one.
4) Anglo-Spanish rivalry on the seas. The defeat of the Great Armada, the largest fleet in the history of the 16th century in 1588. These wars at sea are correspondingly weakened in the 17th century after the change of dynasty in England, the arrival of the Stuarts, because the Stuarts are trying on the one hand to compete with Spain, and on the other hand to establish normal relations, to conclude dynastic union to descend not only by war, but also by dynastic diplomatic relations.
5) The rivalry between the two branches of the Habsburgs, Austrian and Spanish, for supremacy in the House of Habsburg on the one hand, and secondly for establishing their influence both in southern Germany and in the Italian lands, which mostly went to the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.
These 5 factors that divided the Habsburgs and weakened in the 16th century, these factors cease to operate in the 17th century, or weaken.
And there is a desire to connect these 2 branches through a dynastic marriage and unite the broken state again into a single monarchy.
As you understand, these death plans are similar for many European countries. For the same France, the restoration of the power and unity of the Habsburgs means that the nightmare of the 16th century is reborn, these Habsburg pincers, from the east and from the west, which threatened to crush France, and France felt like between a rock and a hard place.
The strengthening of the Habsburgs is facilitated by a factor that is often underestimated in our literature: this is the weakening of the Ottoman threat by the end of the 16th century.
1573 - 4th Venetian-Turkish war.
1609 - the 6th Austro-Turkish war ends and also land wars for 10 years, the threat to Austria and Hungary weakens. This means that the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs have freed up a resource and can direct it to other areas of their foreign policy, i.e. send their forces against France and other European countries.
This is how the international situation changes in the early-first half of the 17th century.
The threat of the strengthening of the Habsburgs, and they are orthodox Catholics, no less than the Pope, and the threat of a revival of Catholic reaction, i.e. counter-reformation, the onset of the corresponding inquisition and the revision of the results of the Reformation in religious, social, political, property terms - it was a very serious threat at the beginning of the 17th century. And this threat was directed against a number of states.
First of all, for the German Protestant lands and cities of the Hansa, the victory and strengthening of the Habsburgs was like death. Why? Because then it was necessary to return to the Catholic Church everything that they had taken away from it during the years of the Reformation. But it would not be limited to this, but there would be an inquisition, bonfires, prisons, gallows, etc.
The same would have been true for the insurgent Netherlands, who, up to 1609, were conducting military operations against the Spaniards. Then both of them fizzled out, and in 1609 they concluded a 12-year truce or the Peace of Antwerp until 1621.
Even Protestant Denmark could not agree with the strengthening of the Habsburgs. Because the Danes considered themselves the heirs of the weakened Hansa, they believed that Denmark should regain control over the trade routes in the North and Baltic Seas. Accordingly, the increase in the territory of the Danish kingdom at the expense of the North German lands was always welcomed by the Danes.
Sweden - Sweden was ruled by a talented monarch, a reformer, Gustav 2 August. He constantly waged wars with his neighbors Russia, Poland. Its goal is to establish Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region, to take control of the coast, all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers in the Baltic in order to control profitable trade in the North Sea, to turn the Baltic into an inland Swedish lake. To saddle (control) trade meant to impose trade with its duties, taxes, so that Sweden could live comfortably through the exploitation of this trade, increase its economic, political and military power. Therefore, for Sweden, the strengthening of the Habsburgs was dangerous and unprofitable.
England. The position of Protestant England was more complex, not so definite. On the one hand, for England, as a Protestant country, the threat of the restoration of Catholicism, the counter-reformation was unacceptable. In addition, England continued to be a potentially dangerous rival of the Catholic countries ... Therefore, the strengthening of the Habsburgs in the Mediterranean or the Atlantic was not included in the plans of the British. Therefore, the British tried to harm them wherever they could, and supported all the anti-Habsburg forces.
Riots in the Netherlands, unrest in the Holy Roman Empire, England gladly supported.
On the other hand, another factor acted on the British. The Dutch and French competed with the English crown in shipping. Therefore, there was no particular reason for the British to get involved in this conflict either. And they sought to pursue such a policy that the opposing pro-Habsburg forces and the Antti-Habsburg forces, without the active participation of England in hostilities, would exhaust each other, and the British would benefit from this. Therefore, England sometimes took an indecisive position and sought to minimize its participation in the European struggle during the 30 Years' War.
The main epicenter of the arena of the future all-European war, which we know as the 30-year war, 1618-1648, was Germany, the Holy Roman Empire. This is the main theater of war for the opposing sides. What are these sides?
In the early 1610s, 2 blocks were formed.
1 block Habsburg, which included the Catholic princes of Germany, Spain and Austria. Accordingly, this coalition was actively supported by the throne of St. Peter, this is the Pope, who at some moments also participated in this war, and the Commonwealth, which waged its wars, but dreamed of reuniting through the German lands ..., to get direct access to the Austrian lands, to receive the support of European catholic monarchs.
Anti-Habsburg bloc. If the Catholic forces supported the Habsburgs, accordingly, the Protestants were opponents of both the Catholic princes and the Habsburgs, Spanish and Austrian. Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Catholic France. The anti-Hasburg bloc was also strongly supported by Russia, to a large extent by England (before the revolution), and Holland. Holland did not formally enter into any agreements on military alliances, but from 1609 and from 1621 there were wars between the Dutch and the Spaniards until 1648. And these wars became like integral part this 30 year war.
Germany became the main theater of operations, the focus of the pan-European crisis. Why? First of all, the geographical factor. The country is terribly fragmented: 300 medium, large principalities, 1.5 thousand small possessions, imperial cities. Everyone is fighting with each other like a cat and a dog. Accordingly, it is a pleasure for hired troops to walk, rob, and fight in this territory.
Secondly - the Holy Roman Empire is a fiefdom Austrian Habsburgs who tried on this territory to establish the triumph of the counter-reformation, the Catholic Church and consolidate their power.
Germany experienced during the 16th and early 17th centuries a period of economic, social, and political decline. The country was fragmented according to the religious peace of 1555. The Augsturg religious world played a huge role in weakening the German lands and expanding the rivalry of the German princes.
In addition, the unsuccessful attempt of the early bourgeois revolution led to the weakening of the forces that advocated the renewal of German society. This means the creation of a market economy, the development of market bourgeois-capitalist relations and the strengthening of the forces that were for the conservation of these relations, the preservation of the old order: feudalism, Catholicism.
The last factor is the WGO and the changes in the trade and economy of Europe to which they led, the displacement of the main trade routes. This led to German states, which flourished in the 14th century-early 16th century, they lost the impetus for their development. Accordingly, the handicraft and manufacturing economy fell into decay, the urban economy fell into decay. And this means a reduction in the market for agricultural. products and the decline of the overall economy of the country. And in conditions of decline, tendencies towards conservatism triumph; not the development of agriculture along the market path, but the commutation of agriculture, a return to the old feudal rails.
The political and religious struggle within the Holy Roman Empire intensified by the beginning of the 17th century under Emperor Rudolf 2 of Habsburg (1576-1612). Under him, the prerequisites for a future pan-European conflict were outlined. First of all, the Catholic Church and the Jesuits under Rudolf 2 went on the offensive from the beginning of the 17th century in order to change the fragile balance of religious and political forces established by the Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555.
This threat forces the Protestant rulers to rally. And by 1608, create a Protestant or Evangelical union headed by the ruler (elector) of the Palatinate, Frederick 5 of the Palatinate.
In response to this, in 1609, the Catholic princes created the Catholic League, headed by the Duke of Bavaria, Elector Maximilian (Max) of Bavaria.
These 2 leagues start their own troops, their own treasury, their own coin, conduct completely independent external relations. The formation of both religious and political groups in Germany by 1608-1609 means that the struggle on the territory of the German lands is entering a decisive phase. But Elector Frederick of the Palatinate is guided by France in foreign policy, by Henry 4 of Bourbon, although he is a Catholic. With his support, he is trying to resist the pressure of Rudolf 2 of Habsburg, the pressure of the Spaniards and Austrians. At the same time, he is married to the daughter of James 1 Stuart, i.e. is his son-in-law, and is oriented to some extent to England.
Max of Bavaria relies on the Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs.
However, the conflict by 1610 nevertheless does not receive its development. The reasons:
The fact is that the main participants in the future conflict are not yet ready for war.
The Spaniards until 1609 are busy suppressing the revolution in the Netherlands. They are exhausted by this war and are not able to immediately enter into a new war. Although Philip 3 is in contact with the Austrian Habsburgs, supports Bavaria, the Catholic League, but cannot start a war.
1610 Armagnac kills Henri (Henry) 4 of Bourbon and therefore France leaves active world politics for decades, as civil strife and the weakening of royal power take place there.
England, which is in principle interested in a pan-European conflict that should destroy and weaken its competitors, also in the 1610s, James 1 Stuart pursues such a policy: on the one hand, he supports the anti-Habsburg Protestant forces in Europe, and on the other hand, he tries to agree on dynastic marriage with the Spanish Habsburgs. Therefore, he is also not entirely interested in this conflict.
Sweden, Russia are also busy with their own affairs in Poland and the Baltics. The Poles undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Moscow in 1617-18 (Smoot, False Dmitry).
Those. until 1618, all the countries of Europe are busy with their own affairs.
The first period of this 30-year war was called the Bohemian-Pfalian. 1618-1624. The main events took place on the territory of the Palatinate and the Czech Republic. Both sides, both the Habsburg and anti-Habsburg supporters, proved to be quite aggressive forces that sought to weaken each other, to wrest a fatter piece from each other.
The fact is that the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Empire in 1526. This is the active phase of the peasant war, the Reformation. Ferdinand of Habsburg, who became the Czech king, promised the Czechs, when the Czech Republic was included in the Habsburg Austrian Empire, the preservation of religious freedoms, the rejection of persecution of Protestants, and the preservation of liberty and self-government of both Czech cities and the Czech kingdom as a whole.
But promises are made by politicians in order not to fulfill them later, but to think about how to get around them. Subsequent development led to the fact that all these liberties were crushed and reduced. Therefore, claims from the growing cities of the Czech population grew. And the Czech Republic, the Czech cities were the most prosperous region of the Habsburg Austrian state.
By the beginning of the 17th century, the ruler of the Palatinate, Frederick 5, begins to flirt with the Czechs, begins to incite them to riots and promises to create an anti-Habsburg alliance consisting of the Palatinate, the Czech Republic, Holland, the Swiss cantons, the Venetian Republic, etc. Those. create an anti-Habsburg coalition that will help the Czechs free themselves from the influence of the power of the Catholic Habsburgs.
Under these conditions, Rudolph in 1611 was forced to confirm all existing liberties and concessions to the Czechs. And what's more, he received the Letter of Majesty. The essence of this charter was that since the Czechs had accumulated many complaints against Austrian officials who did not fulfill their obligations, violated the rights of Czechs, the liberties of cities, then we establish a government consisting of 10 deputies, called lieutenants, who govern on behalf of the Austrian monarch Czech Republic. But the Czechs, for their part, elect their own proxies- controllers who must monitor both the observance of civil rights of Czechs and religious freedoms and the prevention of persecution of the Protestant Czech population. It looks like a dual power. On the one hand, the official authorities, on the other hand, the Czech controllers.
Dual power does not exist in any country for a long time, because some kind of scale begins to pull. These 10 lieutenants, deputies of the Austrian monarch, gradually begin to bribe controllers, to force cooperation. And the four most incorruptible were declared opposition and tried to expel.
As a result, on May 5, 1618, an uprising broke out in Prague, the territory, the Prague Castle, was seized, and two of the most irreconcilable lieutenants were thrown out of the windows. This uprising thus begins the era of the 30 Years' War.
The Czechs are quickly creating their own government, which is building up its own armed forces, its own treasury. They begin to call for rebellion other Slavic lands, these are Moravia, upper and lower Lusatia, and Silesia in order to form their own association within the Austrian Empire, which would then break out of the orbit of the Habsburgs' attraction and create an independent state.
This is unacceptable, although the Czechs are counting on the help of the German princes, the same Palatinate. This leads to the final split in Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs quickly find common ground, agreements with the Spaniards, and hire Spanish troops. The Bavarian ruler Max sends his troops under the command of the talented commander Baron Tilly.
Habsburg is deprived of the Czech throne, and Frederick 5 of the Palatinate is proclaimed Czech king. This leads to the beginning of serious hostilities on the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia. Catholic troops, Spanish troops, Austrian Habsburg troops invade, and the 30 Years' War begins.
The preponderance of forces is on the side of the Habsburg coalition. But in the end, the German Protestant princes enter into an agreement with the Catholic princes of Germany, according to which the status quo is maintained in the German lands, and the Catholic troops get a free hand to operate in the Slavic lands (the Germans do not feel sorry for the Slavs).
As a result, on November 8, 1620, the Czech army was defeated in the battle of Belaya Gora. The failed Czech king, ruler of the Palatinate, flees to Brandenburg. By 1624, Catholic troops, these are Spanish mercenaries, the troops of the Catholic League under the leadership of Max of Bavaria and the troops of Emperor Wallenstein themselves, capture all the rebellious Slavic lands.
As a result, a regime of terror is established on the territory of the Czech Republic and Moravia. All opponents of the Habsburgs are exterminated. Their property is being seized. Protestant worship and churches are prohibited. A fully Catholic reaction is established.
From that moment to this day, the Czech Republic is a Catholic country.
The Spaniards invade the Palatinate and also capture and ravage it.
In 1625-29, the second stage of the 30-year war begins. It is called the Danish period.
The essence of this period is that the position of the Protestant camp in the German lands becomes simply desperately difficult. All of central Germany is occupied, northern Germany is next.
All this leads to the fact that Denmark, which itself is striving for territorial expansion in northern Germany, and is trying to take both the North Sea and the Baltic under its control, cannot come to terms with the triumph of the Catholic Spaniards and the Austrian Habsburgs. She receives subsidies from England and France. France is not yet ready for war. And Denmark enters the war. Therefore, the second period is called the Danish period.
Austrian army led by Wallenstein to a large extent hired, operates thanks to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the 30-year war is basically, with the exception of the Swedish armies, these are mercenary troops. If you have money, then you have hired troops. If there is no money...
Denmark enters the war. On the one hand, it is supported by Wallenstein, on the other hand, Baron Tilly, who commands the troops of the Catholic League. The Austrians are creating a powerful mercenary army that operates according to the Wallenstein system. The essence of this system was that the troops had to be paid, as a rule, there was not enough money in the treasury. Wallenstein's system lies in the fact that the troops where they lodge, at the expense of this territory, live. Either they rob the local population, or they feed in a civilized way through withdrawals, indemnities, taxes. This army of Wallenstein, like locusts, passes through all of southern and central Germany, enters northern, defeats the Danish troops. As a result, by the spring of 1629, both the Protestant princes and Denmark are on the verge of final defeat.
On March 6, 1629, all this forces the Protestant princes and Denmark to conclude a difficult peace for them. According to this peace, Denmark refuses to participate in any German and withdraws its troops outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. All the ambitions of the Danes are unfulfilled. Wallenstein is given as a gift the Duchy of Mecklenburg in northern Germany, which is a springboard for further Austrian aggression both against Denmark and against the north German territories.
On March 6, 1629, the Protestant princes were forced to agree to the introduction of a restorative edict. Restitution means restoration, return of some position. The essence of this edict of March 6, 1629 is that all the rights of the Catholic Church, its lands, its property, which it lost as a result of the Reformation, are returned back to the old owners, monasteries, the Catholic Church. Plus, all the bishops, archbishops of the Catholic Church are restoring their not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power within the Holy Roman Empire.
This biggest success of the Habsburg coalition by the spring of 1629 to some extent plays a cruel joke on these forces, because the rulers always look at their commanders as possible competitors. So the Habsburgs looked at this Wallenstein, one of the greatest generals, with suspicion. Therefore, in 1630 he was retired.
In 1630, the next, Swedish stage of this war begins. 1630-1635 years.
The point is that the Peace of Lübeck and the Edict of Restoration opened up opportunities for the realization of the political plans of the Habsburgs to create a universalist monarchy in Europe and establish the political hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. Therefore, the states that opposed the Habsburgs faced a real threat that had to be confronted.
In 1628, Richelieu takes La Rochelle, turns the head of the Huguenots (Protestants) in France. But France does not yet want to enter the war. Therefore, Richelieu decided to use as a weapon of war the young energetic monarch King Gustavus Adolf - indeed one of the most talented monarchs of the 17th century, a reformer and a major military commander. France provides financial assistance. With this money, Gustav Adolf is reforming his army. Its essence is as follows: before Gustavus Adolf, Catholic troops fought in huge regiments. Before Gustavus Adolphus, there were mercenary troops who fought when they were paid. Therefore, the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus introduces a regular army, based on national armies. Not mercenaries, but a recruiting kit. They have a higher degree of consciousness.
Further, he is reforming the Swedish army, which consists in the introduction of linear progressive tactics. In this army, the main emphasis is on firearms. Swedish troops are being equipped with more powerful artillery, including field artillery for the first time. Shelves line up...
As a result, in 1630, Swedish troops landed in northern Germany, quickly captured it, entered Central Germany, Saxony. They conclude allied relations with the Saxon duke, and inflict 2 most powerful defeats on the troops of the Habsburg coalition.
September 7, 1631 Battle of Breitenfeld. The army commanded by Baron Tilly is defeated.
However, the battle of Lutzen turned out to be fatal for Gustav 2 Adolf. He died. Historians debate how this happened. The Austrians fled, the Swedes began to pursue them. The king, at the head of a small detachment, rode in the hope of capturing one of the prominent military leaders. Either he ran into a more powerful detachment, or he was slaughtered by his own military, who were bribed.
After this tragic victory, the affairs of the Swedes are upset, discipline is falling. The Swedish army was already defeated in September 1634 in the battle of Nervingen, and the Swedes were losing their positions in Germany. They retreat to the North Sea and the Polish border.
In 1635 the Swedish stage ends.
The last stage from 1635 to 1648 was called the Franco-Swedish.
France concludes the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Sweden, which is gradually joined by other states: Holland, Mantua, Savoy, Venice. The preponderance of the forces of the anti-Habsburg coalition is gradually formed, which begins to affect the course of hostilities.
On May 19, 1643, in the battle of Rokur, Prince Condé actually destroys, leads the army of the Habsburgs and German princes to flight.
And the Swedes on November 2, 1645, in the battle of Jankov, also defeat the Austrian army.
As a result, in 1846, the Swedish and French armies unite and hostilities are transferred to the territory of the Czech Republic and Austria. In fact, the winners of the Swedes and the French can divide the territory of the Holy Roman Empire among themselves. They threaten to storm Vienna. All this forces the Austrians and the German Catholic princes to enter into peace negotiations in order to end the war.
France is also interested in ending the war. All this leads to the fact that at the negotiations in the two cities of Osnabrück and Münster on October 24, 1648, 2 peace treaties are concluded, which we know under the general name as the Westphalian Peace Treaty.
Sweden concludes a treaty in Osnabrück between Sweden, Holy Roman Emperor, i.e. Austria, and Protestant and Catholic princes. And the treaty in Munster is between France and Holland and their opponents. The Spaniards do not sign the treaty in Munster, they continue this war for many more years.
The main significance of the Treaty of Westphalia is that:
Sweden receives the northern coast of Germany, control over all major ports and estuaries of navigable rivers. As a result of the 30-year war, Sweden began to dominate the Baltic and became part of the Holy Roman Empire.
France receives territorial increments: upper and lower Alsace, recognition of its rights to the previously captured bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, which were captured back in 1552. This is a powerful springboard for further advancement to the east.
Under the Treaty of Münster, Spain and the whole world in 1648 finally de facto and de jure recognize the independence of the Netherlands.
The Peace of Westphalia ends the 10th anniversary of the Spanish-Dutch Wars started in 1572 to 1648.
Holland also receives some territorial increments.
Their allies, Brandenburg, also receive territorial increments and compensations in Germany.
The Franco-Spanish War continues until 1659, i.e. 11 more years, and ends with the signing of the Peace of the Pyrenees, according to which France expands its southern border to the Pyrenees, and in the east it receives important counties: part of Flanders, and Artois.
The Peace of Westphalia and the 30 Years' War have great value for European countries. First of all, during the 30 years of the war, the population of Germany decreased from 16 to 10 million people. This is a demographic disaster. This population was restored only by the middle of the 18th century. In some territories, such as Bavaria, Thuringia, Brandenburg, population losses amounted to 50%. In other principalities, 60-70% of the population was destroyed or died as a result of famine and epidemics.
1618. The Margraviate of Brandenburg seizes the Duchy of Prussia and becomes the Brandenburg-Prussian state, which further builds up its muscles.
The results of the 30-year war: the demographic blow to Germany. Economic decline and ruin of cities and agriculture.
Under these conditions, conservative tendencies to return to feudal property and strengthen feudal rather than early bourgeois exploitation of both the urban and rural peasant population triumph. Most importantly, the fragmentation of Germany remained until the middle of the 19th century. The disunity of the German nation.
As a result of the 30-year war and the Peace of Westphalia, 2 states triumph: Sweden, which is turning into the largest power in the Baltic and subordinating the Baltic region to its influence. And France is getting stronger too. From the middle of the 18th century, it begins to claim the role of hegemon in European politics.
2 new states appear: the Netherlands or the United Provinces and Switzerland, the Swiss cantons. These 2 states leave the Holy Roman Empire and become independent independent states.
Russia's participation in the 30 Years' War lies in the fact that Russia did not directly participate in the 30-year war, although the wars that were fought between Poland and Russia took away strength from the Catholic bloc.
Besides. Russia indirectly participated in this war, helping countries that were part of the anti-Habsburg coalition. Until 1625, Russia sold strategic goods to them at low prices: bread and saltpeter. Until 1625, the main flow of bread and saltpeter went to England and Holland. From 1625 to 1629, Denmark was supported in the same way. Since 1630 - Sweden.
Dates:
30 year war. 1618-1648
Stage 1. Czech-Palatinate. 1618-1624.
Stage 2. Danish. 1625-1629. Ended with the Peace of Lübeck, Restorative Edict March 6, 1629. Defeat of Denmark, Protestant princes.
Stage 3. Swedish. 1630-1635. 2 battles: at Breitenfeld on September 7, 1631. The defeat of the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Baron Tilly. Battle of Lützen (Saxony, near Leipzig) November 16, 1632. The death of Gustav 2 Adolf.
Stage 4. French-Swedish. 1635-1648. The battle of Rokua, the troops of the Prince of Condé won on May 19, 1643. The victory of the Swedes in the battle of Jankov on November 2, 1645.
The French frontier was advancing towards the Pyrenees. This treaty contained the seeds of future wars that Louis 14 waged.
One of major events 17th century - 30-year war of 1618-1648. Almost all European countries participated in it, it left behind millions of human victims. The decisive point in this war was put by an agreement called the Peace of Westphalia. Its results were of great importance for all subsequent European history. It was concluded on October 15 and 24, 1648, after lengthy negotiations that had dragged on since 1644 and could not satisfy the conditions of all participants.
1648
He united Münster and Osnabrück peace treaties concluded this year in Westphalia. In the city of Munster, negotiations were held with representatives of Catholicism, and in Osnabrück - with the Protestant side. Sometimes the Peace of Westphalia also includes the treaty concluded on January 30 of the same year by Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which ended the Eighty Years' War, since researchers consider the struggle between these states to be part of the Thirty Years' War.
What were the combined treaties?
The Treaty of Osnabrück was an agreement between Sweden and its allies.
The Roman Empire signed Munster with France and those countries that supported it (these included Holland, Venice, Savoy, Hungary). It was these two states that took such an active part in the fate of a large part of Europe because in the third and most important, critical period of the Thirty Years' War, they contributed to the loosening of the Roman forces, which contributed to their fragmentation in the future. The Peace of Westphalia mainly denoted the provisions that determined the territorial changes, political structure and religious features in the Holy Roman Empire.
The results of the 30-year war
How did the confrontation between countries end? Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Also, according to this document, the countries that won the Thirty Years' War - France and Sweden, were appointed guarantors of peace. These powerful powers controlled the operation of the signed treaty, and without their consent they could not change a single article in it. Thus, the whole of Europe was reliably protected from any global changes, which could lead to a threat to the security of many countries. And since, thanks to the German emperor, he was powerless, the rest of the strong powers could not be afraid of his influence. The Peace of Westphalia contributed to significant territorial reshaping, primarily in favor of the victorious powers of France and Sweden.
One such cardinal change on the map was that, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This state, having begun its liberation war against Catholic Spain as a rebellion, received international recognition in 1648.
What did the countries that won the war get?
According to the decision taken at the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the empire paid an indemnity to Sweden, amounting to 5 million thalers. In addition, the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania (together with Stettin), the city of Wismar, the Bishopric of Verden and the Archbishopric of Bremen departed (the city of Bremen itself was not included there).
Sweden also got the mouths of many navigable rivers in Northern Germany. Having received the German principalities at his disposal, the king of Sweden had the opportunity to send deputies to the imperial diet.
The signing of the Peace of Westphalia made it possible for France to obtain the possessions of the Habsburgs located in Alsace, however, without the city of Strasbourg, as well as sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. New possessions after the signing of the treaty and the increased influence of the country helped her to further take the position of hegemon in Europe.
The German principalities of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Braunschweig-Lüneburg and Brandenburg, which supported the victorious countries, also benefited - they were able to expand their possessions as a result of the annexation of secularized bishoprics and monasteries. As a result of this treaty, Lusatia was annexed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate became part of Bavaria. The Elector of Brandegburg also received vast lands in his possession, on which Prussia was later formed.
What did this peace bring to the Germans?
The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia were such that the German emperor lost a significant amount of his former rights. At the same time, the German princes became independent of the Roman ruler and were able to conduct an independent external and internal politics. For example, they could participate in decision-making regarding the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace, their department had the determination of the amount of taxes, and the adoption of laws in the Roman Empire largely depended on them.
The specific princes could also conclude treaties with other states. The only thing that was inaccessible to them was the conclusion of alliances with other powers against the ruler of the Roman Empire. If to speak modern language, after the signing of this agreement, the specific German princes became subjects international law and could take an active part in political life Europe. The strengthening of their positions contributed to the formation of the federal structure of modern Germany.
Religious life after 1648
As for the religious sphere, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans were equalized in rights, and also legalized, which was held in the 20s of the 17th century. From now on, the electors could not determine their religious affiliation for their subjects. In addition, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of Holland. Recall that freedom movement in this country began with a speech against Catholic Spain. In fact, this treaty legitimized the political fragmentation of Germany, ending the imperial history of this power.
Thus, the Peace of Westphalia significantly increased the power of France, ridding it of its main rival, Spain, which claimed the first role among all European states.
Another important function of this treaty, which historians talk about: it was the basis for all subsequent European agreements until the 18th century, when French Spain recognized the independence of the Northern Netherlands under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia. The Swiss Union also received international legal recognition.
Significance of the Peace of Westphalia
Thus, this treaty is called the event that marked the beginning of the modern world order, which provides for the existence of nation-states in the world and the operation of certain principles of international law. The principle of political equilibrium probably developed precisely as a result of the appearance of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. The tradition of solving complex territorial, legal, religious problems in relations between two or more states with the help of the intervention of other strong and influential European powers has appeared since then.
The Significance of the 30 Years' War for the Formation of the Current Legal System
The concept of "Westphalian system", which refers to the field of world law and appeared after 1648, means ensuring the sovereignty of any state in its legal territory. Until the 19th century, the norms of the treaty and the terms of the Peace of Westphalia largely determined the laws
After the appearance of the agreement, the rights of reformed Christianity with traditional Roman Catholic Christianity were especially strengthened, which is important from the point of view of cultural studies. True, many scholars find certain shortcomings in the provisions according to which, after the signing of the treaty, the inhabitants of Germany were to live. So, they were forced to profess the religion chosen by the ruler, that is, in fact, there was no freedom of religion yet. But, despite all the shortcomings, the Peace of Westphalia was indeed the first (and successful) attempt to create a system of international law.
The Thirty Years' War in Germany, which began in Bohemia and lasted a generation in Europe, had one specific feature in comparison with other wars. The “first violin” in this war (a couple of years after it began) was not the Germans, although they, of course, took part in it. The most populous provinces of the Roman Empire became the battlefield for the armies of Spain, Denmark, Sweden and France. How and for what reason did the Germans manage to survive this?
1618 - Ferdinand of Styria (1578-1637) was heir to the throne of the Habsburgs. Ferdinand was a staunch Catholic, raised by the Jesuits. He was extremely radical towards the Protestants among his servants. In fact, this man could become such a powerful emperor of the Roman Empire, which has not been since the time of Charles V. However, the Protestant rulers did not aspire to this.
He could even surpass the great Charles as emperor. In the Austrian and Bohemian lands, which were ruled directly by the Habsburgs, Ferdinand had real power. As soon as he became King of Bohemia in 1617, he abolished the conditions of religious toleration and tolerance that his cousin Rudolf II had granted to Protestants in 1609. The inhabitants of Bohemia were in the same position as the Dutch in the 1560s, alien to their king in language, customs and religion.
As in the Netherlands, an uprising broke out in Bohemia. 1617, May 23 - hundreds of armed representatives of the nobility of Bohemia literally cornered two of Ferdinand's most hated Catholic advisers in one of the rooms of the Gradshin castle in Prague and threw them down from a window from more than 50 meters high. The victims survived: perhaps (according to the Catholic point of view) they were saved by angels or (as the Protestants believed) they simply fell on the straw. As a result of the incident, the rebels were brought to justice. They declared it their goal to preserve the former privileges of Bohemia and save Ferdinand from the Jesuits. But they actually violated the laws of the Habsburgs.
The crisis quickly spread from Bohemia to the edges of the empire. The elderly Emperor Matthias, who died in 1619, gave the Protestant German rulers a chance to join the rebellion against Habsburg rule. Seven electors had the exclusive right to choose Matthias' heir: three Catholic archbishops - Mainz, Trier and Cologne, three Protestant rulers - Saxony, Brandenburg and the Palatinate - and the king of Bohemia.
If the Protestants had deprived Ferdinand of the right to vote, they could have canceled his candidacy as emperor of the Roman Empire. But only Frederick V of the Palatinate (1596-1632) expressed his desire for this, but was forced to yield. 1619, August 28 - in Frankfurt, all but one vote was cast for Emperor Ferdinand II. A few hours after the election, Ferdinand learned that as a result of a riot in Prague, he was overthrown from the throne, and Frederick of the Palatinate took his place!
Frederick received the crown of Bohemia. War was now inevitable. Emperor Ferdinand was preparing to crush the rebels and punish the German upstart who dared to lay claim to the lands of the Habsburgs.
The uprising in Bohemia was at first very weak. The rebels did not have a heroic leader like John Hass (c. 1369-1415), who led the uprising in Bohemia two centuries earlier. Members of the nobility of Bohemia did not trust each other. The Bohemian government hesitated in deciding whether to introduce a special tax or create an army.
Lacking their own candidate to replace Ferdinand, the rebels turned to a German elector from the Palatinate. But Frederick was not the best choice. An inexperienced young man of 23 years old, he had no idea about the religion he was going to defend, and also could not raise enough money and people. To defeat the Habsburgs, the inhabitants of Bohemia turned to other princes who could help Frederick. However, only a few went to meet them, Frederick's friends, such as his stepfather, King James I of England, also remained neutral.
The main hope of the rebels was based on the weakness of Ferdinand II. The emperor did not have his own army, and it is unlikely that he could create one. The Austrian lands of the Habsburgs and for the most part the nobility and the townspeople supported the rebels. But Ferdinand was able to buy an army from three allies. Maximilian (1573-1651), duke of Bavaria and the most powerful of the Catholic rulers, sent his army to Bohemia in response to a promise that the emperor would grant him the right to elect Frederick and part of the lands of the Palatinate.
King Philip III of Spain also sent an army to help his cousin in exchange for the lands of the Palatinate. More surprisingly, the Lutheran Elector of Saxony also helped conquer Bohemia, his target being the Habsburg Puddle. The result of these preparations was a lightning military campaign (1620-1622), during which the rebels were defeated.
The army of Bavaria easily defeated Bohemia at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. From the Alps to the Oder, the rebels capitulated and surrendered to the mercy of Ferdinand. The Bavarian and Spanish armies further conquered the Palatinate. Stupid Frederick was nicknamed "the king of one winter": by 1622 he had lost not only the crown of Bohemia, but also all his Germanic lands.
This war did not end in 1622, because not all issues were resolved. One of the reasons for the continuation of the conflict was the emergence of free armies, controlled by landsknechts. Among their leaders, Ernst von Mansfeld (1580-1626) was the most memorable. A Catholic from birth, Mansfeld fought against Spain even before converting to Calvinism, and after giving his army to Frederick and Bohemia, he later switched sides frequently.
After Mansfeld fully supplied his army with everything necessary, robbing the territories through which he passed, he decided to move to new lands. After Frederick's defeat in 1622, Mansfeld sent his army to Northwest Germany, where he met with the troops of Maximilian of Bavaria. His soldiers did not obey the captain and ruthlessly robbed the population of Germany. Maximilian benefited from the war: he received a significant portion of Frederick's lands and his place in the electorate; besides, he received a good sum of money from the emperor.
So Maximilian was not too eager for peace. Some Protestant rulers who had remained neutral in 1618-1619 now began to invade the imperial frontiers. In 1625, King Christian IV of Denmark, whose lands of Holsten were part of the empire, entered the war as a protector of the Protestants in Northern Germany. Christian longed to prevent a Catholic takeover of the empire, but he also hoped to gain his own, as did Maximilian. He had a good army, but he could not find allies. The Protestant rulers of Saxony and Brandenburg did not want war, and they decided to join the Protestants. In 1626 Maximilian's troops defeated Christian and drove his army back to Denmark.
So, Emperor Ferdinand II benefited the most from the war. The capitulation of the rebels in Bohemia gave him a chance to crush Protestantism and rebuild the country's scheme of government. Having received the title of Elector of the Palatinate, Ferdinand gained real power. By 1626 he had accomplished what had proved impossible in 1618—created a sovereign Habsburg Catholic state.
In general, Ferdinand's military goals did not fully coincide with the aspirations of his ally Maximilian. The emperor needed a more flexible tool than the Bavarian army, although he was Maximilian's debtor and could not support the army on his own. This situation explained his surprising disposition to Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634). A Bohemian Protestant from birth, Wallenstein joined the Habsburgs during the revolution in Bohemia and managed to stay afloat.
Of all those who took part in the Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein was the most mysterious. A tall, menacing figure, he embodied every ugly human trait imaginable. He was greedy, mean, petty and superstitious. Achieving the highest recognition, Wallenstein did not set a limit to his ambitions. His enemies were afraid and did not trust him; it is difficult for modern scientists to imagine who this man really was.
1625 - he joined the imperial army. Wallenstein quickly became friends with the Bavarian general, but still he preferred to campaign on his own. He drove Mansfeld out of the empire and captured most of Denmark and the German Baltic coast. By 1628 he commanded 125,000 soldiers. The emperor made him Duke of Mecklenburg, granting him one of the newly conquered Baltic lands. Neutral rulers, such as the Elector of Brandenburg, were too weak to stop Wallenstein from taking over their territories. Even Maximilian begged Ferdinand to protect his possessions.
1629 - The emperor felt it was time to sign his Edict of Restitution, perhaps the most complete expression of autocratic power. Ferdinand's edict outlawed Calvinism throughout the Holy Roman Empire and forced the adherents of Lutheranism to return all church property that they had confiscated since 1552. 16 bishoprics, 28 cities and about 150 monasteries in Central and Northern Germany were converted to the Roman religion.
Ferdinand acted independently, without recourse to the imperial parliament. The Catholic princes were just as intimidated by the edict as the Protestant ones, because the emperor trampled on their constitutional freedoms and established his unlimited power. Wallenstein's soldiers soon captured Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Bremen and Augsburg, which for many years were considered truly Protestant, and by force established Catholicism there. It seemed that there was no obstacle to Ferdinand, with the help of Wallenstein's army, completely abolishing the Augsburg formula of 1555 and establishing Catholicism on his territory of the empire.
The turning point came in 1630, when Gustavus Adolphus came with his army to Germany. He announced that he had come to defend German Protestantism and the freedom of the people from Ferdinand, but in reality, like many, he tried to make the most of this. The Swedish king faced the same obstacles as the previous leader of the Protestant movement, King Christian of Denmark: he was an outsider without German support.
Fortunately for Gustavus Adolphus, Ferdinand played into his hands. Feeling secure and in control of Germany, Ferdinand convened a parliament in 1630 to name his son as successor to the throne and help the Spanish Habsburgs move against Holland and France. The emperor's plans were ambitious, and he underestimated the hostility of the German princes. The princes refused both of his proposals, even after he tried to please them.
Having removed Wallenstein from the post of commander-in-chief of the army, Ferdinand did everything possible to strengthen his power. Gustavus Adolf, however, had another trump card. The French parliament, led by Cardinal Richelieu, agreed to sponsor his intervention in German affairs. In fact, the Cardinal of France had no reason to help Gustavus Adolphus. Still, he agreed to pay Sweden a million lire a year to maintain an army of 36,000 in Germany, because he wanted to crush the Habsburgs, paralyze the empire, and voice French claims to territory along the Rhine. All that Gustavus Adolf needed was support from the Germans, which would allow him to become almost national hero. It was not an easy task, but as a result he persuaded the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony to join Sweden. Now he could act.
1631 - Gustavus Adolphus defeated the imperial army at Breitenfeld. It was one of the biggest battles of the Thirty Years' War as it destroyed the achievements of the Catholics in 1618-1629. Over the next year, Gustavus Adolphus systematically occupied previously untouched Catholic regions in Central Germany. The campaign in Bavaria was carefully thought out. The King of Sweden was preparing to behead Habsburg Austria and was increasingly active in seeking to take Ferdinand's place on the throne of the Holy Empire.
Gustavus Adolf's intervention was powerful because he preserved Protestantism in Germany and broke the Habsburg imperial backbone, but his personal victories were not so bright. 1632 - Wallenstein returned from his retirement. Emperor Ferdinand had already approached the general with a request to take command of the imperial troops again, and Wallenstein finally gave his consent.
His army more than ever became his personal instrument. On a dark, foggy November day in 1632, the two commanders met near Lützen in Saxony. The armies clashed in a furious battle. Gustavus Adolphus set his horse at a gallop in the mist at the head of the cavalry. And soon his horse returned wounded and without a rider. The Swedish troops, thinking that they had lost their king, drove Wallenstein's army away from the battlefield. In the dark, they eventually found the body of Gustavus Adolf on the ground, literally littered with bullets. “Oh,” one of his soldiers exclaimed, “if only God would give me such a commander again to win this glorious battle again! This dispute is as old as the world!”
The old disagreements in fact led to a stalemate by 1632. No army was strong enough to win and weak enough to surrender. Wallenstein, who was still the most intimidating figure in Germany, got a chance to settle all issues through peaceful compromises. Unencumbered by passionate religious convictions or loyalty to the Habsburg dynasty, he was willing to make a deal with anyone who would pay for his services.
1633 - he served the emperor little, periodically turning to the enemies of Ferdinand: the German Protestants who rebelled in Bohemia, the Swedes and the French. But now Wallenstein was too weak for a decisive and dangerous game. February 1634 - Ferdinand removed him from the post of commander in chief and ordered the new general to capture Wallenstein dead or alive. Wallenstein spent the winter in Pilsner, Bohemia. He hoped that his soldiers would follow him and not the emperor, but they betrayed him. Soon after his flight from Bohemia, Wallenstein was cornered. The final scene was gruesome: an Irish mercenary threw open the door to Wallenstein's bedroom, speared the unarmed commander, dragged the bleeding body across the carpet, and threw him down the stairs.
By that time, Ferdinand II was convinced that he lacked Wallenstein's military talent. 1634 - the emperor made peace with the German allies of the Swedes - Saxony and Brandenburg. But the end of the war was still far away. 1635 - France, under the rule of Richelieu, sent new people and a considerable amount of money to Germany. To fill the gap due to the Swedish defeat, the belligerents were now Sweden and Germany against Spain and the emperor.
The war turned into a clash of two dynasties - the Habsburgs and the Bourbons, which was based on religious, ethnic and political reasons. Only a few Germans agreed to continue the war after 1635, most of chose to stay away. Nevertheless, their lands continued to be battlefields.
The final part of the war from 1635 to 1648 was the most destructive. The Franco-Swedish army eventually gained the upper hand, but their aim seemed to be to keep the war going, not to hit their opponent decisively. It is noted that the French and Swedes rarely invaded Austria and never ravaged the emperor's lands as they plundered Bavaria and the territory of Central Germany. Such a war required more talent in looting than in battle.
Each army was accompanied by "sympathizers" - women and children lived in the camp, whose duties included making the life of the army as comfortable as possible so that the soldiers would not lose their desire for victory. If we do not take into account the plague epidemics that often raged in military camps, then the life of the military in the middle of the 17th century was much more calm and comfortable than the townspeople. Many German cities became military targets in that era: Marburg was captured 11 times, Magdeburg was besieged 10 times. However, the townspeople had the opportunity to hide behind the walls or outbid the attackers.
On the other hand, the peasants had no other option but to run away, so they suffered the most from the war. The total loss in population was staggering, even if one does not take into account the deliberate exaggeration of these figures by contemporaries who reported losses or demanded exemption from taxes. The cities of Germany lost more than one-third of the population, during the war the peasantry decreased by two-fifths. Compared with 1618, the empire in 1648 had 7 or 8 million fewer people. Until the beginning of the 20th century, no European conflict led to such human losses.
Peace negotiations began in 1644, but it took 4 years for the diplomats gathered in Westphalia to finally reach an agreement. After all the controversy, the Treaty of Westphalia in 1644 became the actual confirmation of the Peace of Augsburg. The Holy Roman Empire was again becoming politically fragmented, divided into three hundred autonomous, sovereign principalities, most of which were small and weak.
The emperor - now Ferdinand II's son Ferdinand III (reigned 1637-1657) - had limited power in his lands. The imperial parliament, in which all sovereign princes were represented, continued to exist de jure. So the hope of the Habsburgs for the unification of the empire in united country with the absolute power of the monarch collapsed, this time final.
The peace treaty also reaffirmed the provisions of the Treaty of Augsburg regarding churches. Each prince had the right to establish Catholicism, Lutheranism or Calvinism on the territory of his principality. Compared with the treaty of 1555, significant progress was made in terms of guaranteeing personal freedom of religion for Catholics living in Protestant countries, and vice versa, although in reality the Germans continued to practice the religion of their ruler.
Anabaptists and members of other sects were excluded from the provisions of the Treaty of Westphalia and continued to suffer persecution and persecution. Thousands of their followers emigrated to America in the 18th century, especially to Pennsylvania. After 1648, the northern part of the empire was almost entirely Lutheran, while the southern part was Catholic, with a stratum of Calvinists along the Rhine. In no other part of Europe have Protestants and Catholics achieved such a balance.
Almost all the main participants in the Thirty Years' War received part of the land under the Treaty of Westphalia. France got part of Alsace and Lorraine, Sweden - Western Pomerania on the Baltic coast. Bavaria retained part of the lands of the Palatinate and its seat in the Electorate. Saxony received Puddle. Brandenburg, given its passive role in the war, annexed Eastern Pomerania and Magdeburg.
Even the son of Frederick V, the future king of Bohemia, was not forgotten: the Palatinate was returned to him (albeit reduced in size) and presented with eight seats in the electoral college. The Swiss Confederation and the Dutch Republic were recognized as independent from the Holy Empire. Neither Spain nor Habsburg Austria received territories in 1648, but the Spanish Habsburgs already owned the largest block of land.
And Ferdinand III had to control the political and religious situation in Austria and Bohemia more strictly than his father before the uprising in Bohemia. It was hardly possible to say that everyone received enough under the contract for 30 years of war. But the state in 1648 seemed unusually stable and solid; Germany's political borders were virtually unchanged until the rise of Napoleon. Religious borders remained until the 20th century.
The Treaty of Westphalia ended the Wars of Religion in Central Europe. Even after 1648, the Thirty Years' War in the works of the 17th and 18th centuries. was considered an example of how not to wage wars. According to the authors of those times, the Thirty Years' War demonstrated the danger of religious unrest and armies led by mercenaries. Philosophers and rulers, despising the religious barbarian wars of the 17th century, came up with a different way of waging war with an army professional enough to avoid looting, and boxed in to avoid bloodshed as much as possible.
For 19th-century scholars, the Thirty Years' War seemed disastrous for the nation for many reasons, including because it slowed down the national unification of Germany for many centuries. Scholars of the 20th century may not have been so obsessed with the idea of German unification, but they vehemently criticized the Thirty Years' War for the absolutely not rational use of human resources.
One of the historians formulated his thoughts as follows: “Spiritually inhuman, economically and socially destructive, disorderly in its causes and entangled in its actions, ineffectual in the end, this is an outstanding example of senseless conflict in European history.” This saying highlights the most negative aspects of the war. It is difficult to find pluses in this conflict.
Modern critics draw parallels, which are not entirely pleasant for us, between the ideological positions and brutality of the mid-seventeenth century and our modern style of constant warfare. That is why Bertolt Brecht chose the Thirty Years' War as the period for his anti-war play Mother Courage and Her Children, written after the end of World War II. But to be sure, the analogies between World War II and the Thirty Years' War are a stretch: when everyone eventually got tired of the war, the diplomats in Westphalia were able to negotiate peace.
Dunn Richard