Russian language and other world languages. Abstract Russian language among other languages of the world
The Russian language is closely related by origin to other languages of the world. This conclusion can be drawn on the basis of a comparison of the vocabulary of languages. They speak about the relationship of languages when in different languages such words sound similar, which are known to have existed in ancient times. Obviously, several hundred years or millennia ago, such languages were one language that belonged to a single people, and only later this people was divided into several peoples speaking different, albeit somewhat similar languages.
The Ukrainian and Belarusian languages have the greatest similarity with the Russian language. This closeness is not accidental: until the 14th century, the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians constituted a single people (the Old Russian people within the Kyiv state), who spoke the so-called Old Russian language. In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, on the basis of a single language, three independent language which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages. Therefore, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages are very closely related. These three languages are called East Slavic.
Somewhat more distantly related to Russian are the languages of Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbo-Croatian and other languages of the southern and western Slavs. Together with Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, all these languages are called Slavic (Fig. 3).
However, languages such as English, German, French, Spanish and Italian have some similarities with Russian and other Slavic languages. All these languages are distantly related and belong to the family Indo-European languages.
The Russian language is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. On the the globe it is spoken by about 250 million people. In terms of prevalence, the Russian language ranks fifth in the world, behind only Chinese (it is spoken by over 1 billion people), English (420 million), Hindi and Urdu (320 million) and Spanish (300 million).
At the same time, the Russian language is used in communication not only by those people for whom it is their native language. Russian language is official language Russia, i.e. common language understandable to employees public institutions and citizens throughout the state. It is in this capacity that the Russian language is used in the highest bodies of state power and administration of Russia, in official office work and correspondence. Russian institutions and enterprises, in television and radio programs intended for the whole territory of the country. It, as a state language, is studied in secondary and higher educational institutions Russia.
The Russian language is also widely used outside of Russia, for example, for interethnic communication among residents of the CIS countries. Also, the Russian language is widely used in the work of international conferences and organizations. It is one of the six official and working languages of the UN. Thus, the Russian language is one of the world languages (included in the club of world languages along with English, French, Chinese, Spanish and Arabic).
State status
Russian is the only state language in Russia and one of two in Belarus (along with Belarusian).
official status
Russian is the official language in:
Kazakhstan (In state organizations and local governments, Russian is officially used along with Kazakh - the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan),
Kyrgyzstan (In the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian language is used as the official language - the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic),
Abkhazia and South Ossetia,
parts of Moldova (Transnistria and Gagauzia).
parts of Romania (Tulcea and Constanta counties)
part of the USA (state of New York).
World status
Until 1991, it was the language of interethnic communication in the USSR, de facto performing the functions of the state language. It continues to be used in countries that were previously part of the USSR, as a native language for part of the population and as a language of interethnic communication. In places of compact residence of emigrants from countries former USSR(Israel, Germany, Canada, USA, etc.) - Russian-language periodicals are published, radio stations and television channels operate. In the countries of Eastern Europe, until the end of the 1980s, Russian was the main foreign language in schools.
Distribution in the world
According to data published in the journal Language Monthly (No. 3, 1997), approximately 300 million people around the world speak Russian (which puts it in 5th place in terms of prevalence), of which 160 million consider it their native language (7- its place in the world). Russian is the working language of the CIS, one of six official languages UN, one of the working languages of the OSCE.
Russian language in the modern world.
According to the total number of speakers, the Russian language ranks among the top ten world languages, but it is rather difficult to determine this place precisely.
The number of people who consider Russian as their mother tongue exceeds 200 million people, 130 million of whom live in Russia. The number of people who are fluent in Russian and use it as a first or second language in everyday communication is estimated at 300-350 million.
In total, more than half a billion people in the world speak Russian to one degree or another, and according to this indicator, Russian ranks third in the world after Chinese and English.
- Language as a sign system.
- The words of the human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main characters in the language. Other units of the language are also signs.
- A sign is a substitute for an object for the purposes of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke in the mind of the interlocutor the image of an object or concept.
- The sign has the following properties:
- The sign must be material, accessible to perception;
- the sign is directed to the meaning;
- the content of the sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of the thing is exhausted by its material properties;
- the content and form of the sign are determined by distinctive features;
- A sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system.
- The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements of the culture of speech.
- · Firstly, the speaker (writer) must make sure that the signs of his speech (sounding words or signs of writing) are convenient for perception: they are quite clearly audible, visible.
- Secondly, it is necessary that speech signs express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech.
- Thirdly, it must be borne in mind that the interlocutor may be less aware of the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which only in the opinion of the speaker is already contained in the spoken words.
- · Fourthly, it is important to ensure that the sounds of oral speech and the letters of the letter are quite clearly distinguished from each other.
- · Fifthly, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, keep in mind the associative links of words.
- Thus, knowledge from the field of semiotics (the science of signs) contributes to the improvement of speech culture.
- · A language character can be a code character and a text character.
- o Code signs exist in the form of a system of units opposed in the language, connected by a significance relation that determines the content of signs specific to each language.
- o Text characters exist as a formally and semantically linked sequence of units. The culture of speech implies the attentive attitude of the speaker to the coherence of the spoken or written text.
- Meaning is the content of a linguistic sign, which is formed as a result of the reflection of extralinguistic reality in the minds of people. The value of a language unit in the language system is virtual, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific utterance, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit is related to a specific object, to what it actually means in the utterance. From the point of view of speech culture, it is important for the speaker to clearly direct the interlocutor's attention to the actualization of the meaning of the statement, to help him correlate the statement with the situation, and for the listener it is important to show maximum attention to the speaker's communicative intentions.
- Distinguish between subject and conceptual meaning.
- o Objective meaning consists in correlating a word with an object, in designating an object.
- o The conceptual meaning is used to express a concept that reflects an object, to specify a class of objects denoted by a sign.
- Structure and functions of the language
- The language is made up of:
- Phoneme - letters and sounds. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language
- morpheme is part of a word. Root, suffix, ending...
- word
- phrase
- phraseological unit - a stable combination of words
- sentence
- text.
- Language Features
- communicative (or communication function) - the main function of the language, the use of language as a means of communication.
- cognitive (or mental) - language as a means of cognition. the formation of the thinking of the individual and society
- accumulative - information transfer and storage
- volitional (or invocative-incentive function) - the function of influencing the audience
- emotive - a means of conveying emotions.
- Social forms of the existing language:
- Literary language is the highest form national language. Language processed by masters.
- Dialect is divided into territorial and social.
- Territorial-used
- IN SHORT ALL THIS IN LECTURES UP TO 8 QUESTIONS INCLUDING.
- 9. Culture of verbal communication
- If a person first of all knows how to listen to his interlocutor in the process of communication, while correctly expressing his thoughts at a good level of language, without slang, obscenities and slang, we can say about such a person that he fully owns the culture of communication.
- There are several classifications of speech errors. We will focus on classification in the aspect of secondary communicative activity (the perception of errors by the addressee) and consider errors associated with difficulties in interpreting the text.
- 1. Wrong choice of lexical equivalent often leads to inappropriate comedy, to the absurdity of the statement. For example: “Our Russian birches are standing in a wedding shroud” (instead of “in a wedding dress); "In February, the length of the day will increase by two hours" (instead of "... daylight hours will increase by two hours").
- Such errors occur when a person chooses words from a certain thematic group without bothering to analyze their exact meaning. This negligence turns into vagueness of the statement, and sometimes complete absurdity.
- 2. Alogism. Consistency is a quality that characterizes the semantic structure of a text (statement). It refers to the correct correlation of the semantic structure of the text with the laws of development of the thought process.
- Logic conditions - the correctness of the construction of syntactic structures, the order of words in a sentence; structural and logical connectivity of paragraphs and the entire text; thoughtfulness of the semantic content of the structures of sentences and phrases.
- 3. Violation of lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other, because in speech words are used not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility.
- It happens that in terms of meaning, the words seem to be suitable for expressing one or another meaning, but “do not want” to be combined into phrases. We say bow your head and kneel, not bow your head, bow your knees.
- The rules for combining words in speech are also determined by grammatical compatibility, on which the possibility of connecting one part of speech with another depends. Grammatical compatibility allows the combination of nouns with adjectives (deep silence), but “forbids” the combination of adjectives with numerals (you can’t say a big hundred), possessive pronouns with verbs (my yours doesn’t understand).
- Lexical compatibility often conflicts with grammatical. So, all transitive verbs are combined with nouns in the accusative case without a preposition (I am reading a book), however, the form of this case often depends on whether the nouns belong to animate or inanimate: for the former, the accusative case coincides in form with the genitive (I met a friend), for the latter - with nominative (met the train). At the same time, in special occasions grammatical compatibility helps to correctly determine the meaning of the word: to see a satellite (about a spaceship) and to see a satellite (about a person).
- 4. Speech redundancy or verbosity. An economical, precise expression of thought is the main requirement of style.
- There are two types of speech redundancy: tautology and pleonasm. Tautology - the unjustified use of words with the same root, for example: "I believe that those speakers who will speak will speak about the case." Numerous examples of tautology can often be found in Everyday life: “May I ask a question?”, “This phenomenon is ...”, “It is natural that a pattern follows from this”, “For example, let's give such an example ...”, etc.
- Pleonasm is a form of verbosity in which extra clarifying words are used in sentences and phrases (“Their leader died, and they chose a new one from among the living”).
etc.................
Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. On the globe, it is spoken by about 250 million people. According to the number of speakers, the Russian language occupies 5th place in the world, yielding Chinese(over 1 billion people), and English(420 million people), Hindi and urdu(320 million people) and Spanish(300 million people).
Nowadays, the Russian language performs important public functions: national the language of the Russian people and state the language of Russia; language international communication peoples of Russia; one of the most important world languages. All these functions testify to the high status of the Russian language, which is due to both linguistic and social factors.
Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation
used in the highest bodies of power and administration, in the official
office work and official correspondence, federal programs radio and television, it is studied in secondary and higher educational institutions of Russia.
Languages widely used as a means of international communication
called world languages. Russian language has a status
official or working language in most international
intergovernmental organizations of which Russia is a member: the UN,
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), IAEA
(International Atomic Energy Agency), OSCE (Organization for
security and cooperation in Europe), etc.
At the UN, Russian is one of the six official languages.
(together with English, Spanish, French, Arabic and Chinese), i.e., simultaneous interpretation of all speeches in the bodies of the Organization and translation of all resolutions, decisions and other main documents are provided.
Nowadays, the Russian language is state language of the Russian Federation where all state acts are made, all official documents regulating the life of society are created. Taking into account the fact that Russia is a multinational state, it is he who is currently means of international communication peoples of Russia . Russian language in present stage is one of the richest languages in the world. In addition, it is also the language of international diplomacy. It is studied by more than a third of the population of the entire planet.
The development of the language is continuous and leads to the enrichment of its vocabulary and streamlining grammatical forms. The Russian language, like other languages, is constantly evolving: changing vocabulary, pronunciation norms, grammatical structure of the language. The development of the language is influenced by changes taking place in society, as well as the actual language features. In the last decades of the past century, Russian vocabulary was replenished with foreign words denoting phenomena new to our reality. public life: fishburger, player, chips, management, monitoring, leasing, parking, selfies, etc.
Questions for self-control
1. To what language family, group and subgroup belongs to Russian
language?
2. What is the classification of Slavic languages?
3. What is the Proto-Slavic language? When did it exist?
4. What are the main periods in the development of the Russian language? Briefly
describe each period.
5. When was the ancient Russian nationality formed and what is the language of this
nationalities?
6. When is the Great Russian people formed and what kind of state
formed at this time? What dialects formed the basis of the language of the Great Russian people?
7. Tell us about the main periods in the development of the Russian language. Give the most typical examples.
8. Describe the latest period in the development of the modern Russian language. Give examples that testify to its dynamic development.
9. What is the position of the Russian language among other languages? Why is Russian one of the world languages?
10. What are the features of the Russian language as a means of interethnic communication?
Training exercises
Ex. ten.The Russian language is included in the Slavic group (East Slavic subgroup) of the Indo-European family of languages. From the list of languages below, select Slavic languages related to Russian. Find languages that, along with Russian, have the status of a world language.
Serbian, English, Greek, Polish, Moldovan, Latin, Ukrainian, Spanish, Italian, Estonian, Belarusian, Chinese, Czech, Bulgarian, Arabic, French, Georgian, Hindi, Iranian, Albanian, Croatian, Slovak.
Exercise 11.What is the process of transition of words into the category of obsolete? The left column lists obsolete words, while the right column lists their modern equivalents. From the words of the right and left columns, make semantic pairs. Separately write down the lexemes that do not have modern correspondences. Explain why in modern language there are no equivalents for these words. Give an interpretation of their meanings.
Ex. 12.Write down the neologisms of the modern era of the development of the Russian language, related to the thematic groups "Economy", "Politics", "Technology", "Mass culture" (5-6 examples each). Use these words in context.
Introduction
1. The place of the Russian language among the languages of the world
2.Russian language in interethnic communication
3. Russian language as one of the Indo-European languages
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The Russian language is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. On the globe, it is spoken by about 250 million people. In terms of prevalence, the Russian language ranks fifth in the world, second only to Chinese (it is spoken by over 1 billion people), English (420 million), Hindi and Urdu (320 million) and Spanish (300 million). Language - it's not only essential tool communication between people, but also a means of cognition that allows people to accumulate knowledge, passing it on from person to person and from each generation of people to the next generations. Collection of achievements human society in industrial, social and spiritual activities is called culture. Therefore, we can say that language is a means of developing culture and a means of assimilation of culture by each member of society.
1. The place of the Russian language among the languages of the world
The Russian language acts not only as the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of the USSR, but also as the language of international communication. The growth of the authority of our country in the world was also the growth of the world authority of the Russian language. An interesting fact is the sharp increase in the number of Russian language learners in the years after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites in the Soviet Union, and especially after Gagarin's flight. In England in 1957 the Russian language was taught in 40 educational institutions, and in 1959 - already in 101, in 1960 - in 120 and in 1964 - in 300; in the USA in 1958 the Russian language was taught in 140, in 1959 - in 313, in 1960 - in 450 schools*. Mastering the Russian language now is mastering the heights modern science and technology. Therefore, the Russian language is widely studied in higher educational institutions in many countries. In 1969/70 academic year the Russian language was studied in 40 universities in England, 40 in India, in Italy - in Italy, in 15 - in Canada, in 24 - in France, in 643 - in the USA; in all universities of the GDR, Hungary, Vietnam, Mongolian People's Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia**. In addition to the study of the Russian language, in higher and secondary educational institutions in all countries, European, Asian, African, etc., courses are being created for the study of the Russian language. Total number There are more than 18-20 million people studying Russian at the same time outside the USSR.
The International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature and the Institute of the Russian Language. A. S. Pushkin, who provides constant and multifaceted methodological assistance to all teachers of the Russian language in foreign countries.
The Institute publishes a special journal "Russian Language Abroad", which is very interesting in content and design *, and a large number of educational and fiction. In 1979, the textbook "Russian Language for All" prepared by the staff of the Institute received the State Prize of the USSR.
The Russian language is recognized by all as one of the most important world languages, which was reinforced by its inclusion among the official world languages of the United Nations.
The concept of a world language has been formed in the modern era, the era of the scientific and technological revolution and further development mature socialist society in the USSR. Strengthening the connection between peoples in development scientific and technological progress, in the struggle for the preservation of peace, led by the Soviet Union, determined the need for the promotion of intermediary languages that contribute to the rapprochement of peoples and the development of their mutual understanding. Naturally, one of these languages turned out to be Russian. Its status as a world language is determined by its wide distribution outside our country, active study in many countries, the great prestige of Russian science and culture, the progressive role of our country in the process of international, universal development in the 20th century, its historical richness, expressiveness, which was noted by many, writing about the Russian language. Even F. Engels pointed out that the Russian language "in every possible way deserves to be studied in itself, as one of the most powerful and richest of living languages, and for the sake of the literature it reveals" *.
global importance Russian language is manifested not only in the wide distribution of its study in modern world, but also in the influence, primarily of its lexical composition, on other languages. Growth of authority Soviet state in world public, scientific and cultural life leads to an ever wider penetration of words from the Russian language into other languages. Everyone knows and understands Russian word companion, already included in the dictionaries of many languages. Following the word satellite, other words and expressions related to space exploration began to be used in the languages of other countries: lunar, soft landing, lunar rover, astronaut, spaceport. The Russian language also introduced the word orbit (from Latin orbis - circle, wheel, wheel track) into international wide use in expressions to go into orbit, put into orbit and under. New words associated with the space age have become so firmly established in the speech of a number of countries that they began to be used both as proper names and as common nouns. So, in the GDR, the new hotel was called Lunik. This episode is very interesting. “Once Leonov was translating a “space” article from a German magazine and came across an unknown verb “leoniren”. I looked in dictionaries and did not find it. ..."*.
Along with "cosmic" words, Russian words also entered other languages, reflecting various aspects of the life of the new, socialist state. AT English language dictionaries note: Bolshevik, Leninism, udarnik, commissar, kolkoz, komsomol, jarovization; in French: bolchevique or bolcheviste, Uninisme, oudarnik, kolkhoze, sovkhoze, mitchourinien, soubotnik, stakhanovets, pavlovisme (supporter of the teachings of the physiologist Pavlov), etc. These and similar words are widely represented in German, Italian and a number of other languages*.
Even a new term has entered linguistic science - sovietisms, that is, words borrowed from the Russian language in the Soviet era.
The richness and expressiveness of the Russian language is not accidental, they are associated with the peculiarities of the development of its social and functional components.
2.Russian language in interethnic communication
Traditionally, the language of interethnic communication is called the language, through which they overcome the language barrier between representatives of different ethnic groups within one multinational state. The exit of any language beyond the boundaries of its ethnic group and its acquisition of the status of an international one is a complex and multifaceted process, including the interaction of a whole range of linguistic and social factors. When considering the process of becoming a language of interethnic communication, priority is usually given to social factors, since the functions of the language also depend on the characteristics of development society. However, only social factors, no matter how favorable they may be, are not able to put forward this or that language as an interethnic one, if it lacks the necessary linguistic means proper.Rus. a language that belongs to the number of widely spoken languages of the world (see Russian language in international communication), satisfies the language needs of not only Russians, but also people of other ethnic origins living both in Russia and abroad. It is one of the most developed world languages. It has a rich vocabulary and terminology in all branches of science and technology, expressive brevity and clarity of lexical and grammatical means, a developed system of functional styles, and the ability to reflect the diversity of the surrounding world. Rus. the language can be used in all spheres of public life, the most diverse information is transmitted through the second language, the subtlest shades of thought are expressed; in Russian language, a world-renowned artistic, scientific and technical literature was created.
The maximum completeness of public functions, the relative monolithic Rus. language (the obligatory observance of the norms of the lit. language for all its speakers), writing, containing both original works and translations of everything valuable that has been created by world culture and science (in the 80s of the 20th century, about a third of artistic and scientific-technical literature from the total number of printed materials in the world) - all this ensured a high degree of communicative and informational value of Russian. language. Its role in the transformation of Russian. ethno-linguistic factors also played a role in the means of interethnic communication. From the beginning of formation grew. statehood, Russians were the most numerous nation, the language of which was spread to one degree or another throughout the entire state. According to the data of the 1st All-Russia. population census in 1897, out of 128.9 million inhabitants of Ros. empire in Russian the language was spoken by two-thirds, or ca. 86 million people According to the All-Union Population Census of 1989, out of 285.7 million people in the USSR, approx. 145 million - Russians, Russian. 232.4 million people spoke the language. Linguistic, ethno-linguistic and social factors, taken separately, are not sufficient to promote a particular language as a means of interethnic communication. They testify only to the readiness and ability of the language to perform this function, as well as to the presence of favorable conditions for the spread of the language throughout the state. Only the combination of all factors - linguistic, ethno-linguistic and social - leads to the formation of a language of interethnic communication.
In any multinational state, there is an objective need to choose one of the most developed and widespread languages in order to overcome the language barrier between citizens, to maintain the normal functioning of the state and all its institutions, to create favorable conditions joint activities representatives of all nations and nationalities, for the development of the economy, culture, science and art. The language of interethnic communication common to all provides every citizen of the country, regardless of nationality, with the possibility of constant and diverse contact with representatives of other ethnic groups. Promotion, formation and functioning of the Rus. languages as a means of interethnic communication took place in different historical conditions and at different stages of the development of society. The use of Russian language as a non-native to overcome the language barrier between representatives of different sthocod has more than one century, therefore, in the history of Russian. language as a means of interethnic communication can be conditionally divided into three periods, each of which is characterized by its own specific features: the first period - before the beginning. 20th century in Russia and Ros. empires; the second period - to the end. 80s in the USSR; the third period - from the beginning. 90s in the Russian Federation and neighboring countries.11the beginning of the spread of Rus. language among representatives of other ethnic groups coincides, judging by the data of comparative historical linguistics and annalistic information, with the development by the ancestors of Russian new territories; this process developed more intensively in the 16th-19th centuries. during the period of formation and expansion grew. states, when Russians entered into various economic, cultural and political contacts with the local population of a different ethnicity. In Ros. Russian empires. the language was state. language.
Reliable statistical data on knowledge of Russian. non-Russian language population of the country as a whole and the breadth of its use in interethnic communication in Russia con. 19 - beg. 20th century no. However, the ratio of the volume of the functional load Rus. language as a state language and other national languages in various fields, data on the study of Rus. language in Russian-native (according to the then accepted terminology) schools and other educational institutions in certain regions of the state, written testimonies of contemporaries and some other materials confirm the use of Russian. language as a means of interethnic communication, although the level of proficiency in most cases was low. The second period is characterized by features that are due to changes in the national language policy in the USSR at different stages of its existence. After 1917, compulsory state registration was abolished in the country. language. In 1919, the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR" was adopted, in accordance with the Crimea, "the entire population ... aged from 8 to 50 years old, who cannot read and write, is obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language optional".
Initially Russian. the language was not a compulsory subject in schools with a national language of instruction: its spread as a language of interethnic communication was objectively promoted by cultural, educational, economic, and sociopolitical transformations in the country. However, existing in the 20-30s. the rate of distribution of Russian. language among non-Russians. population of the country did not meet the needs centralized state in a common language of interethnic communication for all citizens. In 1938, a resolution was adopted by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On the compulsory study of the Russian language in schools national republics and regions." There is no direct indication in the resolution of the privileged position of the Rus. language, but with its practical implementation in the regions, the limitation of the spheres of functioning of some native languages of citizens of the USSR gradually began. nationality, fluent in Russian. language as a second (non-native) language. Between 1970 and 1989 this number increased from 41.9 to 68.8 million; in 1989 in the USSR as a whole the number of non-Russian persons. nationality, fluent in Russian. language, amounted to 87.5 million people.
From Ser. 80s, when the Russian. the language continued to perform the function of the language of interethnic communication, the attitude towards Russian. the language in this capacity began to change, which was a natural result of the costs of the national language policy pursued in the USSR from the end. 30s, as well as a consequence of certain socio-political processes in the country. Rus. some politicians began to call the language “imperial language”, “the language of totalitarianism”, “the language of the occupiers”; in the resolutions of some conferences on national language problems (for example, in Ukraine, 1989) national-Russian. bilingualism has been characterized as "politically harmful" and "scientifically untenable". During this period, the officially prescribed narrowing of the spheres of functioning of the Russian began in the former union and autonomous republics. language as a means of interethnic communication, a significant reduction in the number of hours devoted to the study of Russian. language in national schools, and even the exclusion of the subject “Russian. language” from school and university programs. However, conducted in the early 90s sociolinguistic research in Russia. republics and a number of CIS countries testify to the recognition by the majority of society of the fact that in modern. stage to solve the problem of interethnic communication without Russian. language is difficult.
A feature of the third period is the functioning of the Rus. language as a means of interethnic communication not only in the Russian Federation. but also in the group of sovereign states. In the Russian Federation, according to the 1989 census, out of 147 million people, approx. 120 million people are Russian, more than 50% are non-Russian. The population of the country is fluent in Russian. language as a second. In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993) | and the "Law on the Languages of the Peoples of the RSFSR" (1991)] Rus. language is state. language of the Russian Federation throughout its territory. The constitution provides that the functioning of the Russian. language as a state and international language should not hinder the development of other languages of the peoples of Russia. Spheres of application rus. language as a state and international language is subject to legal regulation; at the same time, legal norms for the use of Russian are not established. language in interpersonal informal relationships, as well as in the activities of public and religious associations and organizations. Rus. language as state the language of the Russian Federation performs numerous and diverse functions in society, which determines the social need for its study by the entire population of Russia. In the middle. 90s 20th century Russian the language retains its position as the language of interethnic communication in the CIS countries due to a number of objective circumstances, as well as in view of the historically established traditions of its use by the population of these countries. The materials of the 1989 census show that 63.8 million people are non-Russian. population of the former Soviet republics of the USSR (except for the RSFSR) speak Russian. language as a native or as a second language. Linguistic aspects of the study of Russian. languages as a means of interethnic communication are characterized by certain specifics. Expanding the ethnic base of users Rus. language as non-native, the functioning of Russian. language in a foreign language environment leads to the appearance of phonetic, grammatical, lexical and semantic features in it. According to some scientists (N. M. Shansky, T. A. Bobrova), the totality of such features, which are not the same in different regions of the existence of Rus. language as a means of interethnic communication, contributes to the formation of national (in other terminology - regional) variants of Russian. language.
Other scientists (V. V. Ivanov, N. G. Mikhailovskaya) believe that meeting the needs of interethnic communication is one of the functions of Russian. lit. language, violation of norms to-rogo by foreign-language users is caused by an interference (see). There is also a point of view (T. Yu. Poznyakova), according to which the language of interethnic communication is a functional variety of Russian. language, hallmark to-rogo is the specialization of grammatical and lexical means of Russian adapted to the conditions of interethnic communication. lit. language: increasing the number of analytic constructs to express grammatical meanings, frequency and stability of the use of syntactic models for expressing the category of gender, etc. morphological forms and syntactic constructions, lexical units, evaluated primarily as communicatively significant and sufficient. The study of Rus. language in terms of various types of national-Russian. bilingualism confirms the presence of a number of common specific features in the language of interethnic communication, regardless of the region of its existence. However, in Russian In the language of non-Russians, linguists have also noted such features, which are characterized as purely regional, not represented in other foreign-speaking regions. On this basis, a conclusion is made about the regional variation of non-native Rus. speech (non-original Russian speech - a set of texts, both written and oral, produced by people for whom Russian is not a native language). However, the maximum permissible qualitative and quantitative levels of regional variation remain unknown, allowing to qualify the language of interethnic communication as precisely Russian. language, and not a certain pidgin - a mixed language resulting from the interaction of languages (in a pidgin, the grammar of one language is often represented, and the vocabulary of another). Identification of the essential linguistic characteristics of Russian. language as a means of interethnic communication is associated with the study of its different levels, the study of the results and forms of interlingual contacts, the consideration of the processes of interaction between the language of interethnic communication and national languages in the context of specific types of bilingual and multilingualism, the areal characteristics of Russian. speeches of non-Russians but in relation to Russian. lit. language. The results of such studies are important for practical actions to optimize the learning process Rus. language as a non-native language in an amount that provides communicative competence users.
3. Russian language as one of the Indo-European languages
Russian is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation, one of the 6 official languages of the UN.
More than 250 million people use it, including about 140 million people in Russia, according to the 1989 All-Union Census. The Russian language is among the top ten most widely spoken languages on the planet.
In total, more than half a billion people in the world speak Russian to one degree or another, and according to this indicator, Russian ranks third in the world after Chinese and English.
Together with Ukrainian and Belarusian languages Russian belongs to the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. You can find the similarity of the words of Russian and other Indo-European languages:
Russian - night,
Belarusian - night,
Ukrainian - nich,
Bulgarian - night
Polish - nos
Czech - nos
Slovak - nos
Lithuanian - naktis
Latvian - nox
Italian - notte
French - nuite
English - night
German - nacht.
In his historical development The Russian language has gone through several stages. The first stage in the formation of the future Russian language is associated with Kievan Rus, the feudal state of the East Slavic tribes, whose dialects formed the basis of the Old Russian language. After the adoption of Christianity (988-989), church books began to spread in Russia, which were sent from Bulgaria and were written in the Old Slavonic language, which arose as a result of translations of liturgical books by Cyril and Methodius from Greek into the South Slavic Thessalonica dialect (863). This language was the first written language of the Slavs in the 9th - 11th centuries.
The adoption of Christianity in Russia contributed to the promotion of the Old Church Slavonic language as the language of the church to the east, where it was influenced by living dialects of the native East Slavic language, which led to the emergence of its local varieties. The continuation of the Old Church Slavonic language is the Church Slavonic language, which was used in the church, scientific literature and influenced the development of the Russian literary language.
The formation of the language of the Great Russian people (and later the national language) is associated with the rise of Moscow, which in the 14th century became the center of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and from the second half of the 15th century - the capital of a single Russian state. At this time, the norms of oral and written Moscow speech begin to form and consolidate. The Moscow dialect is the basis of the Russian language, the formation of which is closely connected with the development of the Russian people into a nation and dates back to the second half of the 17th century. This language is subjected to processing and normalization, enriched by the work of writers and becomes the highest form of the Russian national language.
Today, the question remains whether the influence of the Russian language in the world has been falling in recent decades or not.
On the one hand, the linguistic situation in the post-Soviet space, where before the collapse of the USSR, the Russian language served as the generally recognized language of interethnic communication, is very contradictory, and a variety of trends can be identified here. On the other hand, the Russian-speaking diaspora in the far abroad has grown many times over the past twenty years.
Of course, back in the seventies, Vysotsky wrote songs about “the spread of our people around the planet,” but in the nineties and two thousandth this spread became much more noticeable (see Appendix 1).
But to begin consideration of the situation with the Russian language as of the end of the 2000s, of course, one should start with the post-Soviet states.
In the post-Soviet space, in addition to Russia, there are at least three countries where the fate of the Russian language does not cause any concern. These are Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
In Belarus, the majority of the population speaks Russian in everyday life and in general in everyday communication, and in the cities, young people and many middle-aged people in Russian speech practically lack even the Belarusian accent that was characteristic in the past.
At the same time, Belarus is the only post-Soviet state where the state status of the Russian language was confirmed in a referendum by an overwhelming majority of votes.
Obviously, the services of translators from Russian into Belarusian will not be in demand for a long time, and possibly never - after all, almost all official and business correspondence in Belarus is conducted in Russian.
The language situation in Kazakhstan is more complex. In the 1990s, the share of Russians in the population of Kazakhstan decreased markedly, and Kazakhs became the national majority for the first time since the 1930s. According to the Constitution, the only state language in Kazakhstan is Kazakh. However, since the mid-nineties there has been a law equating the Russian language in all official areas with the state language. And in practice, in most state institutions of the city and regional level, as well as in the capital's government institutions, the Russian language is used more often than Kazakh.
The reason is simple and quite pragmatic. Representatives of different nationalities work in these institutions - Kazakhs, Russians, Germans, Koreans. At the same time, absolutely all educated Kazakhs are fluent in Russian, while representatives of other nationalities know Kazakh much worse.
A similar situation is observed in Kyrgyzstan, where there is also a law giving the Russian language official status, and in everyday communication, Russian speech in cities can be heard more often than Kyrgyz.
Azerbaijan adjoins these three countries, where the status of the Russian language is not officially regulated in any way, however, in the cities, the majority of residents of the indigenous nationality speak Russian very well, and many prefer to use it in communication. This is again facilitated by the multinational character of the population of Azerbaijan. For national minorities since Soviet Union Russian is the language of international communication.
Ukraine stands apart in this row. Here the language situation is peculiar, and the language policy sometimes takes on extremely strange forms.
The entire population of the east and south of Ukraine speaks Russian. Moreover, attempts at forced Ukrainization in a number of regions (in the Crimea, Odessa, Donbass) lead to the opposite result. The previously neutral attitude towards the Ukrainian language is changing into a negative one.
As a result, even the traditional mixed speech disappears in these territories - Surzhik in the east and Odessa dialect in Odessa and its environs. The new generation learns the language not on the example of parental speech, but on the example of the speech of Russian television announcers, and begins to speak correct Russian literary language(with slang features of the XXI century).
An illustrative example: in the Russian speech of Ukrainian youth, the guttural Ukrainian “soft” Г (h) is replaced by the “hard” Ґ (g) of the Moscow-Petersburg type.
And in western Ukraine, too, not everything is simple. After all, the population of Carpathian and Transcarpathian Ukraine speaks dialects that are considered a separate Rusyn language in neighboring countries (Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia).
And it turns out that the Ukrainian literary language and dialects close to the literary one in the Ukrainian state are spoken by a minority of the population. However, the Ukrainian authorities in recent years have been planting Ukrainian language by completely ridiculous methods - like the useless, but mandatory translation of all films shown in cinemas into Ukrainian.
However, the Baltic countries, especially Latvia and Estonia, remain unsurpassed in their desire to require the services of translation agencies to translate from Russian.
True, it should be noted that the language policy of the state and the attitude of the population are still two big differences (as they still say in Odessa). Rumors that a Russian tourist needs a translation from English in order to communicate with the local population are greatly exaggerated.
The demands of life are stronger than the efforts of the state, and in this case this is manifested as clearly as possible. Even young people who were born in Latvia and Estonia already in the period of independence speak Russian well enough to be able to understand each other. And cases when a Latvian or an Estonian refuses to speak Russian on principle are rare. So much so that each of these cases is the subject of heated discussion in the press.
According to the testimonies of the majority of Russians who have visited Latvia and Estonia in recent years, they did not have to deal with signs of language discrimination. Latvians and Estonians are very hospitable, and the Russian language continues to be the language of interethnic communication in these countries. In Lithuania, the language policy was initially softer.
In Georgia and Armenia, Russian has the status of a national minority language. In Armenia, the proportion of Russians in the total population is very small, but a significant proportion of Armenians can speak Russian well. In Georgia, the situation is approximately the same, and the Russian language is more common in communication in those places where the proportion of the foreign-speaking population is large. However, among young people, knowledge of the Russian language in Georgia is very weak.
In Moldova, the Russian language has no official status (with the exception of Transnistria and Gagauzia), but de facto it can be used in the official sphere.
In Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, the Russian language is less commonly used than in neighboring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. In Tajikistan, according to the Constitution, the Russian language is the language of interethnic communication, in Uzbekistan it has the status of a national minority language, in Turkmenistan the situation remains unclear.
One way or another, in all three states, Russian is spoken by most of urban population. On the other hand, the indigenous people speak to each other in mother tongue, and they switch to Russian only in conversation with Russians or with representatives of national minorities. The linguistic and socio-cultural situation in Uzbekistan is very clearly illustrated by modern Uzbek films. According to them, it is very interesting to observe in what situations the Uzbek citizens switch to Russian in a conversation with each other.
For example, in some new Uzbek films, reminiscent of Indian melodramas in plot, the characters switch to Russian to express feelings or clarify relationships that do not fit into patriarchal local customs. And there is a kind of language barrier. In a fairly Europeanized Uzbek society, any topic can be discussed - but not everyone can be discussed in the Uzbek language. For some, Russian is better.
One way or another, the Russian language is still the language of interethnic communication throughout the post-Soviet space. And leading role it is not the position of the state that plays here, but the attitude of the population.
But in the far abroad, the situation with the Russian language is the opposite. Russian, alas, is one of the languages that are lost in two generations.
Russian emigrants of the first generation prefer to speak Russian, and many of them do not fully acquire the language of the new country and speak with a strong accent. But already their children speak the local language with little or no accent. They speak Russian only with their parents, and in recent times also on the internet. And by the way, the Internet plays exclusively important role to preserve the Russian language in the diaspora.
But on the other hand, in the third or fourth generation, interest in the roots of the descendants of emigrants revives, and they begin to specifically learn the language of their ancestors. Including Russian.
In the 1970s and 1980s, with an almost complete break in ties with the USSR, the Russian language gave way to English or Hebrew much faster than now, when any emigrant can keep in touch with family friends and acquaintances on the Internet. In the seventies and eighties in Israel, emigrants from Russia learned Hebrew at an accelerated pace. And in the nineties, Israeli officials began to learn Russian at an accelerated pace, so as not to overload the translation agency with unnecessary work.
Today at Last year, relating to the "zero", the Russian language not only remains the main language of interethnic communication throughout the post-Soviet space. It is well spoken by the older generation and well explained by the younger generation in many countries of the former socialist bloc.
For example, in the former GDR, schoolchildren were taught Russian, frankly, much better than Soviet schoolchildren- German.