Structure of educational activity. Psychological components
general characteristics learning activities.
The learning process can be carried out in the form of incidental learning or in the form of purposeful learning. Incidental learning occurs in the course of activities that have a different purpose. So, a child, performing an action with an object, simultaneously gets acquainted with its properties - color, shape, size. Teaching as an activity takes place where a person's actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, and abilities.
The founder of the activity theory of learning is L.S. Vygotsky, who introduced fundamental changes in the theoretical ideas about this process. He considered the activity aimed at learning as a specific activity in which the formation of mental neoplasms takes place through the appropriation of cultural and historical experience. The sources of development, therefore, are not in the child himself, but in his activity of learning, aimed at mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge.
Purposeful learning is possible either in the form of learning activities or in the form of independent work. Actually psychological theory learning activity was formed in the general theory of learning. Among its developers include D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina, A. K. Markova. Learning activity is special form teaching aimed at mastering the generalized concepts of educational actions and self-development in the process of solving educational problems specially set by the teacher. Learning activity can be considered as a specific type of activity. It is aimed at improving, developing, shaping the personality of the student through the conscious, purposeful appropriation of social experience by him. Let us note the main characteristics of educational activity that distinguish it from other forms of learning:
1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems;
2) general methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it;
3) general methods of action precede the solution of problems (I. I. Ilyasov);
4) educational activity leads to changes in the subject itself (D. B. Elkonin, I. Lingart);
5) change in the mental properties and behavior of the student depending on the results of his own actions (I. Lingart).
Educational activity has a certain subject (psychological) content. It highlights the subject of educational activity, means, methods, product and result. The subject of educational activity is the assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, development of techniques and methods of action, their programs, "algorithms, in the process of which the development of the student himself takes place. Intellectual actions (sign, language, verbal means) the form of which knowledge is assimilated, as well as background knowledge, with the help of which the individual experience of the child is structured Ways of educational activity can be completely different.These include reproductive, problem-creative, research and cognitive actions. behavior of the student, his individual experience.The result of educational activity is the need to continue it or to withdraw from it.
D. B. Elkonin singles out the activity characteristics of this form of teaching. Educational activity is of a public nature: in terms of content, as it is aimed at mastering the social experience accumulated by mankind; in meaning, because it is socially significant and socially evaluated in form, because it corresponds to socially developed norms of communication and takes place in special public institutions. In addition, learning activity, like any other, is characterized by subjectivity, activity, objectivity, purposefulness, awareness. It has a certain external structure.
Structure of educational activity.
The external structure of learning activity includes five main components:
Motivation;
Learning tasks presented in the form of learning tasks;
Learning activities with the help of which learning tasks are solved; ,
Actions of control turning into self-control;
Assessment activities leading to self-assessment.
Let's analyze each of the components in more detail. Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activity of learning. When analyzing learning motivation, it is important to study the motives that encourage a child to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. Motives for learning activities can be external or internal. If educational activity is motivated by some external stimuli (encouragement, reward, punishment), then in this case it will only be a means to achieve other goals - personal success, satisfaction of ambition, avoidance of punishment. At the same time, educational activity is to some extent forced and acts as an obstacle that must be overcome on the way to the main goal. If the student treats learning activity as his main goal, they say that he has intrinsic motivation. In this case, learning activity can be guided by interest in the knowledge itself, the methods of obtaining it, curiosity, the desire to improve one’s educational level. Such learning situations do not contain internal conflict. Although they are also associated with overcoming difficulties and require strong-willed efforts, but these efforts are aimed at overcoming external obstacles, and not at fighting with oneself. Such learning situations are optimal from a pedagogical point of view. In the works of L. I. Bozhovich and her collaborators, who studied the educational activities of schoolchildren, it is noted that some students are more motivated by the very process of cognition in the entrance of educational activity, while others are motivated by relationships with people that develop within it. Accordingly, it is customary to distinguish two large groups motives of educational activity - cognitive and social.
Cognitive motives are associated with the content of educational activities and the process of its implementation. Among them there are:
Broad cognitive motives, consisting in the orientation of students to master new knowledge;
Educational and cognitive motives, reflecting the orientation towards the assimilation of methods of obtaining knowledge;
Motives of self-education, consisting in the direction of self-improvement of methods of obtaining knowledge.
Social motives also fall into several subgroups:
Broad social motives reflecting the desire to gain knowledge in order to be useful to society, understanding
the need to learn, a sense of responsibility, the desire to prepare well for a future profession;
Narrow social motives (positional), which are manifested in the desire to take a certain position in relations with others, to get their approval;
The motives of social cooperation are associated with orientation to other people. At the same time, the student not only wants to communicate and interact with others, but also seeks to realize, analyze the ways of his cooperation, and constantly improve them.
All types of motives are closely interconnected and are formed in direct dependence on each other. Analyzing educational activity, it is important to take into account the entire structure of the motivational sphere of the individual.
The most important component in the structure of learning activity is the learning task. It is offered to the student as a specific study task, whose formulation is essential for the solution and its result. According to A. N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions. The main difference between the educational task and other various tasks is that its goal and result are to change the very subject of educational activity, and not to change the objects with which he acts (D. B. Elkonin).
Almost all learning activities can be represented as a system of learning tasks (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. G. Ball). They are given in certain educational situations and involve the implementation of appropriate educational activities - subject, control and auxiliary. There must be two components in the structure of any learning task (A. G. Ball):
1) the subject of the task in the initial state;
2) a model of the required state of the learning task.
A procedure that provides a solution to a learning problem,
is called a method of solving it (A. G. Ball). If the learning problem is solved in only one way, then the student's goal is to find it. In other cases, when the problem can be solved in several ways, the student is faced with the choice of the most concise and economical. At the same time, a certain experience in the application of knowledge is accumulated, which contributes to the development of logical search techniques, the improvement of the child's mental abilities.
Mashbitz formulated the basic psychological requirements for learning tasks:
1. Not one learning task should be designed, but a set of them.
2. When designing a system of educational tasks, it is necessary that it ensures the achievement of not only immediate, but also distant educational goals.
3. Educational tasks should ensure the assimilation of the system of means necessary for the successful implementation of the educational
activities.
4. The learning task should be designed in such a way that the means of activity that need to be mastered act as a direct product of learning. In most educational tasks, according to E. I. Mashbits, the executive part acts as a direct product, and the indicative control part is a by-product. The implementation of this requirement also involves the use of tasks for students to understand their actions, that is, to develop their reflection.
“Initially, students still do not know how to independently set and solve educational problems, therefore, at the beginning of training, this function is performed by the teacher.
Acceptance of the learning task by the student occurs when the teacher explains why it is necessary to complete the learning task. At this time, the student always (consciously or unconsciously) compares the learning task with the meaning of the teaching for himself, with his capabilities, that is, he redefines or redefines it. This stage determines the degree of readiness of the student for learning activities.
The solution of a learning problem is possible only with the help of learning actions that make up the third component of learning activity. Learning actions are active transformations of an object by a child in order to reveal the properties of the object of assimilation (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. K. Markova). The assimilation of each fundamental concept in the study of any educational subject corresponds to a certain system of educational actions. The composition of educational activities is heterogeneous. The psychologist most often has to deal with insufficient or irrational use of those educational activities that are common to various educational subjects. Specific learning activities reflect the characteristics of the subject being studied and are therefore used within a given field of knowledge. Teaching such learning activities is carried out by the teacher. Sound analysis of a word, addition, and the ability to read a musical text can serve as examples of specific learning activities.
According to another classification - from the position of the subject of activity in the doctrine - the actions of goal-setting, programming, performing actions, actions of control (self-control), evaluation (self-assessment) are distinguished. Each of them is related to certain stage educational activities and implement it. So, awareness of the purpose of solving a problem as an answer to the question “why am I doing this?” refers to goal setting. Performing.actions are aimed at solving the problem. They include verbal practical (actions with objects or their images), mental (perceptual, mnemonic, mental).
The correlation of educational actions with the mental activity of students makes it possible to single out such varieties as perceptual, mnemonic, mental, and intellectual. Each of these actions is divided into a number of smaller ones. Perceptual actions include recognition, identification, analysis appearance objects; mnemic ones involve imprinting, filtering information, its structuring, preservation, updating. Mental actions contain comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, classification.
The set of learning actions forms a way to solve a learning problem. It is the well-formedness of the methods of educational work that is the main indicator of the maturity of educational activity.
The next component of educational activity is the actions of control (self-control). These actions play a special role, since mastering them characterizes learning activity as an arbitrary process controlled by the student himself (D. B. Elkonin). Control involves correlating the course and result of the completed educational action with the model. Therefore, in the action of control, three links can be distinguished:
Model of the desired result of the action;
The process of comparing this image and real action;
Making a decision to continue or correct an action.
Initially, the control over the implementation of educational activities is carried out by the teacher. He divides the result obtained into certain elements, compares them with a given model, points out possible discrepancies, correlates them with the nature of the educational activities. As you can see, comparing the result with the sample is the main point of the control action. Gradually, as students master control, self-control develops.
P.P. Blonekim considered four stages of the manifestation of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material. The first stage is characterized by the absence of any self-control. The student at this stage has not mastered the material and cannot control anything. The second stage - "complete self-control" - at which the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material. The third stage - selective self-control - when the student controls only the main thing in matters. The fourth stage is characterized by the absence of visible self-control. The student exercises control on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, will accept.
Thus, the formation of self-control occurs
as a step by step process. It is prepared by the questions of the teacher, fixing the main thing, the main one. The teacher, as it were, creates a general program of such control, which in the future will become the basis of self-control.
Similarly to the formation of self-control, the actions of assessment (self-assessment) develop in the structure of educational activity. Evaluation allows you to determine to what extent the method of solving the problem is mastered and how the result of educational actions corresponds to their goal. school practice the evaluation process--" acts either in the form of a detailed judgment in which the teacher justifies the mark, or in a folded form, as a direct mark. The teacher's assessment should serve as the basis for the formation of the student's self-esteem in educational activities. A. V. Zakharova notes that in the process of forming subject self-assessment in the structure of educational activity, self-assessment is transformed into quality, a characteristic of the subject of activity - his self-assessment, which indicates the special significance of this component of educational activity.
Assimilation by students of increasingly complex forms of self-control and self-esteem is the psychological basis for the formation of their independent work.
Describing the concept of "learning activity", most authors usually complain about its often overly broad interpretation. In everyday speech, and often in special psychological and pedagogical publications, educational activity is interpreted very broadly and is regarded as a synonym for learning, learning, and even learning. In addition, the term "educational activity" is used to designate the main normative activity in educational institutions. From the point of view of the activity approach, this is not true. Educational activity, from the standpoint of the activity approach, is considered as "a special form of personality activity aimed at the assimilation (assignment) of the social experience of knowing and transforming the world, which includes mastering the cultural methods of external, objective and mental actions" (V. V. Davydov).
It is usually emphasized that educational activity should not be identified with the processes of learning and assimilation included in different types of activity (game, communication, sports, labor, etc.). According to V. V. Davydov, learning activity involves the assimilation of theoretical knowledge through discussions carried out by students with the help of teachers. Educational activities, according to V. V. Davydov, are implemented in those educational institutions (schools, institutes, universities) that are able to give their graduates a fairly complete education and are aimed at developing their abilities to navigate in various areas of social consciousness " At the same time, the author notes that educational activities are still poorly represented in many Russian educational institutions.
D. B. Elkonin writes that "learning activity is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts." Such activity, in his opinion, should be prompted by adequate motives. They may be motives for acquiring generalized methods of action or, more simply, motives for one's own growth, one's own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives among students, says D. B. Elkonin, “then this will support, filling with new content, those general motives of activity that are associated with the position of the student, with the existence of a socially significant and socially valued activity.”
Learning activity, therefore, can be considered as a specific type of activity. It is focused on the student as a subject. As a result of educational activity, improvement, development, formation of him as a person takes place due to the conscious, purposeful appropriation of sociocultural experience in various types and forms of socially useful, cognitive, theoretical and practical activities (I. A. Zimnyaya).
The main characteristics of educational activities
I. I. Ilyasov singled out three characteristics that distinguish educational activity from other forms of learning:
- 1. It is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems.
- 2. General methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it (in comparison with worldly, assimilated before school).
- 3. General methods of action precede the solution of problems.
For comparison, the latter can be compared with teaching by the "trial and error" method, when there is no preliminary general method, there is no program of action, then teaching is not an activity.
To these three characteristics, I. A. Zimnyaya proposes to add two more:
- 1. Learning activity leads to changes in the subject itself.
- 2. Changing the mental properties and behavior of the student "depending on the results of their own actions" (I. Lingart).
Evaluating these five characteristics of learning activity, I. A. Zimnyaya quite rightly proposes to consider the fourth - the main one.
Describing educational activity, most authors emphasize its social nature. It is most significantly determined by cultural traditions and social and semantic orientations of society. A significant part of educational activity takes place in the mode of interaction with others, but D. B. Elkonin emphasized that often, being collective in form, educational activity is always individual in result.
Like any other type of activity, learning activity can be described from different points of view, such as: subjectivity, activity, objectivity, purposefulness, awareness, as well as from the point of view of its structure and content. Educational activity, according to the developers of this theory, has the following general structure: need - task - motives - actions - operations (V. V. Davydov, D. B. Elkonin, etc.).
The subject of educational activity, from the point of view of psychology, is what it is aimed at. In this regard, the following stand out: the assimilation of knowledge, the mastery of generalized methods of action, the development of techniques and methods of action, their algorithms and programs, in the process of which the development of the "subject of activity" - the student takes place. At the same time, D. B. Elkonin emphasized the fundamental position that learning activity should not be identified with assimilation. Despite the fact that it (assimilation) is its main content and is itself determined by the structure and level of its development. The main feature of the subject of educational activity is that it is aimed at changing the subject himself, these changes (in the intellectual and personal plans) are mediated by the nature of assimilation.
Inclusion in educational activity involves the use of its special means and methods. Experts in the field of the activity approach to learning distinguish three groups of them:
- 1. The means underlying the cognitive and research functions of educational activity, intellectual actions (analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, etc.).
- 2. Symbolic, linguistic, verbal means, in the form of which knowledge is acquired, individual experience is reflected and reproduced.
- 3. Background knowledge, through the inclusion of new knowledge in which the individual experience is structured, the student's thesaurus (I. A. Zimnyaya, S. L. Rubinshtein, etc.).
Ways of learning activity can be different and are usually classified according to a variety of reasons. For example: reproductive, problem-search, research and cognitive (V. V. Davydov, V. V. Rubtsov, etc.). This issue is especially intensively developed in pedagogy, where many classifications of methods, ways, and methods of teaching have been created.
The problem of the product of educational activity deserves special attention. The product of educational activity should be considered personal mental neoplasms formed and developed under the influence of educational activity. When concretizing this provision, the following components are noted:
- 1. Structured and updated knowledge underlying the ability to solve problems in various fields of science and practice.
- 2. Internal new formations of the psyche and activity in the motivational, value, semantic planes (I. A. Zimnyaya and others).
From the structure, consistency, degrees of strength and depth obtained in educational activities experience depends to a large extent life position person, the success of any of his activities, his socialization.
External structure of learning activity
Educational activity is traditionally regarded as predominantly intellectual activity. In an intellectual act, the following stages are traditionally distinguished: motive, plan (intention, program of action), execution and control (Y. Galanter, J. Miller, A. N. Leontiev, K. Pribram, etc.). The presented phasing can be considered as a structural scheme, however, it is impossible not to notice that learning activity is not identical to a simple intellectual act. Its external structure looks somewhat different.
Describing the composition of the external structure of educational activity, I. A. Zimnyaya identifies the following components:
- - motivation;
- - learning tasks in certain situations in various forms of tasks;
- - learning activities;
- - control turning into self-control;
- - Appraisal that turns into self-assessment.
During the period of active development of the activity approach in psychology, educational activity was considered mainly the lot of children and youth and was assessed as the main form of their inclusion in social life. AT contemporary ideas the temporary stage of the existence of educational activity in the life of an individual has expanded significantly, covering all ages. The civilizational functions of educational activity have now changed qualitatively. In order to survive in today's dynamic world, a person is forced to continuously learn, from a large number"good wishes" this position has passed into the category of basic, vital needs. Educational activity occupies an increasing place in a number of human activities, and this phenomenon should be considered as a stable trend.
Educational activity has an external structure, consisting of the following elements (according to B.A. Sosnovsky):
1) educational situations and tasks - as the presence of a motive, a problem, its acceptance by students;
2) learning activities aimed at solving relevant problems;
3) control - as the ratio of the action and its result with the given samples;
4) assessment - as a fixation of the quality (but not quantity) of the learning outcome, as a motivation for subsequent learning activities, work.
Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics. At the same time, being an intellectual activity by nature, educational activity is characterized by the same structure as any other intellectual act, namely: the presence of a motive, a plan (design, program), execution (implementation) and control
The learning task acts as a specific learning task that has a clear goal, but in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to take into account the conditions under which the action must be carried out. According to A.N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions. As the learning tasks are completed, the student himself changes. Learning activity can be represented as a system of learning tasks that are given in certain learning situations and involve certain learning activities.
The learning task acts as a complex system of information about some object, a process in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown, which needs to be found using existing knowledge and solution algorithms, combined with independent guesses and the search for optimal solutions.
AT overall structure In educational activities, a significant place is given to the actions of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-assessment). This is due to the fact that any other educational action becomes arbitrary, regulated only in the presence of monitoring and evaluation in the structure of activity.
Control involves three links: 1) a model, an image of the required, desired result of an action; 2) the process of comparing this image and the real action; and 3) making a decision to continue or correct the action. These three links represent the structure of the subject's internal control over its implementation.
P.P. Blonsky outlined four stages of the manifestation of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material. The first stage is characterized by the absence of any self-control. The student at this stage has not mastered the material and, accordingly, cannot control anything. The second stage is complete self-control. At this stage, the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material. The third stage is characterized as the stage of selective self-control, in which the student controls, checks only the main points on the questions. At the fourth stage, there is no visible self-control, it is carried out, as it were, on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, signs.
In learning activities there are many psychological components:
Motive (external or internal), corresponding desire, interest, positive attitude towards learning;
Meaningfulness of activity, attention, consciousness, emotionality, manifestation of volitional qualities;
Orientation and activity of activity, a variety of types and forms of activity: perception and observation as work with sensually presented material; thinking as an active processing of the material, its understanding and assimilation (various elements of the imagination are also present here); the work of memory as a systemic process, consisting of memorization, preservation and reproduction of material, as a process inseparable from thinking;
Practical use of the acquired knowledge and skills in subsequent activities, their clarification and adjustment.
Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activities of learning, learning activities. Like any other species learning motivation determined by a number of factors specific to this activity:
1) most educational system, educational institution where educational activities are carried out;
2) organization educational process;
3) the subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, abilities, level of claims, self-esteem, his interaction with other students, etc.);
4) the subjective characteristics of the teacher and, above all, the system of his relations to the student, to the case;
5) the specifics of the subject.
A necessary condition for creating students' interest in the content of education and in the learning activity itself is the opportunity to show mental independence and initiative in learning. The more active the teaching methods, the easier it is to interest students in them. The main means of fostering a sustainable interest in learning is the use of such questions and tasks, the solution of which requires active search activity from students.
An important role in the formation of interest in learning is played by the creation of a problem situation, the collision of students with a difficulty that they cannot resolve with the help of their stock of knowledge; faced with difficulty, they are convinced of the need to acquire new knowledge or apply old knowledge in a new situation.
All the constituent elements of the structure of educational activity and all its components require a special organization, special formation. All these tasks are complex, requiring for their solution appropriate knowledge and considerable experience and constant everyday creativity.
Questions on lecture materials
1. What is training?
2. What are the general learning objectives?
3. What tasks need to be solved in the learning process?
4. What is gnostic activity?
5. What is the difference between external and internal Gnostic activity?
6. What is the structure of learning activities?
7. What psychological components are included in learning activities?
The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous. With its broad interpretation, this term replaces the concepts of learning and teaching. According to the periodization of the age development of D. B. Elkonin, educational activity is leading in primary school age. However, it continues to be one of the main types of activity in subsequent age periods - adolescence, senior school and student. In this sense learning activities can be defined as the activity of the subject in mastering generalized methods of solving life problems and self-development, carried out by solving educational problems specially set by the teacher. Initially, educational activities are carried out on the basis of external control and assessments by the teacher, but gradually they turn into self-control and self-assessment of the student.
Educational activity, like any other, is motivated, purposeful, objective, has its own means of implementation, its own specific product and result. Among all other types of activity, educational activity is distinguished by the fact that its subject and subject coincide: it is aimed at the student himself - his improvement, development, formation as a person thanks to his conscious, purposeful development of social experience. The activity of the student is focused on the development of deep systemic knowledge, the development of generalized methods of action and the ability to adequately and creatively apply them in a variety of situations.
stand out three main characteristics of learning activities that distinguish it from other forms of human activity:
1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems;
2) generalized methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it (in contrast to everyday concepts, which are assimilated outside of activities specially aimed at this);
3) the development of the general method of action is ahead of the practical solution of problems in time.
In addition, learning activity differs from other types of human activity in that in it the subject consciously pursues the goal of achieving changes in himself, and the Czech theorist of learning I. Lingart singles out as its main distinguishing feature the dependence of changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student on the result of his own actions.
To actually performance characteristics learning activities include her subject, means and methods of implementation, product and result. The subject of learning activity, that is, what it is aimed at, is primarily the assimilation of knowledge, the mastery of generalized methods of action, the development of techniques and methods of action, their programs and algorithms, in the process of which the student himself develops. According to D. B. Elkonin, learning activity is not identical with assimilation. Assimilation is its main content and is determined by the structure and level of its development. At the same time, assimilation mediates changes in the intellectual and personal development subject.
Means of educational activity, with the help of which it is carried out, are represented by three types:
1) mental logical operations(comparison, classification, analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, induction, deduction), providing cognitive and research activity. Without them, no mental activity is possible at all;
2) sign systems, in the form of which knowledge is fixed and individual experience is reproduced. These include the language, alphabet, number system, symbols used in various areas of life and scientific disciplines;
3) the so-called background knowledge, that is, the knowledge already available to the student, through the inclusion of new knowledge in which the individual experience of the student is structured.
Ways of learning activities can be diverse, including reproductive, problem-creative, research and cognitive actions, but they all fall into two categories: mental actions and motor skills. Action includes orientation, executive, control and corrective part.
The most complete and detailed description of the method is presented by the theory of the phased formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina). According to this theory, the objective action and the thought that expresses it constitute the final, initially different, but genetically related links in a single process of gradual transformation of a material action into an ideal one, its internalization, that is, the transition from outside to inside. The action is functionally related to the object to which it is directed, includes the purpose of the transformation this subject and means of such transformation. All this together makes performing part generated action.
In addition to the performing part, the action includes orienting basis of action(OOD). A correct DTE provides the subject with a correct picture of the circumstances in which an action should be performed, drawing up an action plan adequate to these circumstances, using the necessary forms of action control and applying appropriate methods for correcting errors. Thus, the level and quality of the performance of the formed action depend on the OOD.
The orienting operations that are part of the OOD can be active when the action is at the stage of initial orientation in it and is being built in its entirety, and passive when it is the turn to perform an already established, formed action. OOD is a psychological mechanism for regulating performing and control operations that are included in the action in the process of its formation and with the help of which the correctness of the process of developing the action is assessed.
The formation of the OOD is determined by three criteria:
1) the degree of its completeness (complete - incomplete);
2) the measure of generalization (generalized - specific);
3) the method of obtaining by students (independently - in finished form).
Complete OOD assumes that the student has accurate and sufficient information about all the components of the action being formed. Generalization of OOD is characterized by the breadth of the class of objects to which this action is applicable in practice. Self-development of OOD gives the student the most accurate orientation in the performance of an action that quickly passes to the level of automatism. The combination of each of the three components determines the type of DTE.
Theoretically, there can be eight types of DTEs, but in reality, three types are most common. In accordance with them, three types of teaching are distinguished. The first type is present when performing an action by trial and error, when the task of teaching a certain action is not specifically set. At the same time, the assimilation of the action occurs with errors, insufficient understanding of the material, inability to highlight the most significant features and issues. The second type involves setting the task special education action and a reasonable study of its external aspects before the start of practical implementation.
Here the type of OOD is set by the teacher, while the student himself is not able to orient himself in the newly performed action. The assimilation of knowledge in this case occurs more confidently, with a complete understanding of the content of the material and a clear distinction between essential and non-essential features. The third type is characterized by the fact that the student, having encountered an action new to him, is able to compose and implement its orienting basis himself. With this type of teaching, a quick, effective and error-free assimilation of an action is ensured, which involves the formation of all its basic qualities.
According to the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, the process of mastering knowledge and forming actions goes through five stages:
1) motivation(attracting the attention of the student, awakening his interest and desire to acquire relevant knowledge) and clarification of the OOD;
2) performance of an action in a material (materialized) form;
3) performing an action in external speech;
4) performing an action in inner speech;
5) performing an action in the mind.
The orienting basis of a given mental action is explained to the student at the very beginning of its formation, then, relying on the OOD, the action itself is performed, and first external plan with real items. After reaching a certain level of mastery in the external performance of an action, the student begins to perform it by speaking aloud, then speaking to himself, and ultimately completely in his mind. This is mental action in the proper sense of the word.
Along with mental actions, students develop perception, voluntary attention and speech, as well as a system of concepts related to the action being performed. The action, as a result of its formation on the basis of this theory, can be transferred to the mental plane either entirely, or only in its indicative part (understanding of the action). If only the indicative part of the action is transferred to the mental plane, then the performing part of the action remains external, changes along with the internal OOD and turns into a motor skill that accompanies mental action.
Skill in psychology is defined in different ways, but the main essence of all its definitions is that it represents performance of an action strengthened and brought to perfection as a result of repeated purposeful exercises. The skill is characterized by the absence of directional control from the side of consciousness, optimal execution time, quality. It is a multi-level motor system: it always has a leading and background levels, leading auxiliary links, automatisms of different ranks. The process of skill formation is no less complicated.
1. Positive attitude of students. It is expressed in their attention, interest in the content of the lesson. Positive experiences in the classroom emotional condition contributes to the unloading of voluntary attention, which reduces the fatigue of students. If they do not have a positive attitude towards the content of the lesson, their emotional state will not facilitate the assimilation of the material and may even significantly complicate it.
2. The process of direct sensory familiarization with the material. In this component of assimilation important role plays visibility educational material and observation of students. Much also depends on how the teacher will present the material, how he will present it, emphasize the most important issues with his voice, indicate to students what needs to be written down, drawn, drawn. It is in the power of the teacher to make any educational material visual, taking care of the connection between subject, visual (including symbolic) and verbal visibility.
3. Thinking as a process of active processing of the received material. With the logical analysis of the studied material, there is a comprehension and understanding of all connections and relationships, new material is included in the student's already existing experience. Interdisciplinary connections are established, the student sees how to apply the studied material in practice.
4. The process of storing and storing received and processed information. Numerous studies in this area show that the effectiveness of these processes depends on the setting for the conditions of memorization (time, purpose, nature of use in practice) and the student's involvement in his own active activity. So, in terms of setting the importance, significance of educational material, focusing on the fact that it can be used in life, and at the same time, when comparing it with other previously learned information, it will be retained in memory longer and stronger than if memorization relied only on the understanding of the need to learn the given in order to answer the questions posed by the teacher.
All these psychological components of assimilation are interdependent and are themselves formed in the course of educational activity.
Stages, stages of assimilation are correlated with them. S. L. Rubinshtein identified the following stages of assimilation:
1) initial acquaintance with the material, or its perception in the broad sense of the word;
2) its comprehension;
3) special work to consolidate it;
4) mastery of the material in the sense of the ability to operate with it in various conditions, applying it in practice.
It should be especially noted that both among the components and among the stages of assimilation, the comprehension of the material comes before its memorization. This shows that the memorization of the material in itself does not mean its true assimilation. The main indicator of the student's assimilation of the material for the teacher is whether the student is able to state the essence of the issue being studied in his own words, without distorting the general meaning. This is possible only if the memorization of the material was preceded by its logical interpretation, including the understanding of the scientific terminology used in it. If the material was memorized mechanically, without proper comprehension, the student, when answering, reproduces the text of the textbook, but is not able to look at the issue under consideration from any other point of view.
The fundamental principle of the organization of assimilation is the position of S. L. Rubinshtein that not only repetition, but also free reproduction of educational material should be constantly carried out: “Clarifying, formulating his thought, a person forms it; at the same time, he firmly imprints it. Two conclusions follow from this: students' own presentation should be specially provided for in the organization of educational activities, and it is especially important to prepare the first independent reproduction by students of the material being studied.
The application of knowledge in practice as an indicator of assimilation is not only the result of learning, but also a way of mastering knowledge, consolidating it, and forming strong skills. At this stage of assimilation, mastering the material is no longer aimed at teaching, but at practical life goals.
The assimilation is characterized by several basic properties. The first and most important of them - strength, which is determined by the independence of the use of acquired knowledge and developed skills from the difference in situations and conditions for their application. In general, the strength of assimilation significantly depends on the consistency, semantic organization of the educational material, its personal significance and the emotional attitude that this material evokes in the student. If the educational material itself, its perception, memorization cause a feeling of joy, satisfaction, then this creates the psychological prerequisites for the strength of assimilation.
It is better to assimilate what is included in the activity and aimed at use in future practice. The second characteristic of assimilation is controllability. Assimilation management can be carried out along the path of the gradual formation of mental actions, implemented in the traditional way, through problem learning and its other forms. Assimilation is personally conditioned by those relationships that develop in the student in the process of learning to the educational material, the teacher, the teaching itself, and at the same time influences the formation of the student's personality. This mutual influence is realized due to the effect of the training itself on the mental development of the personality, the formation of its mental neoplasms: new motives, goals, strategies for assimilation, evaluation, character, worldview, etc.
The psychological characteristics of the nature of assimilation essentially depend on the age of the students. As they grow up and master the learning activities, students begin to use more and more means of learning, and they change the ratio of reproductive and productive actions in the process of assimilation. Younger schoolchildren still demonstrate their dependence on the structure of educational material, they always retain the structure of the original when they reproduce, they are not yet able to recombine information. The senior student already has all the opportunities for this, and if they are not realized, then the reasons for this are in the wrong organization of education, in attaching too much importance to reproductive actions to the detriment of productive ones.
Assimilation is also characterized by the ease of updating knowledge and their completeness and consistency. In general, all the characteristics of assimilation are evidenced by the actions taken on the basis of the assimilated information.
PLAN:
1. Main characteristics of educational activity.
2. Subject, means and methods of educational activity.
1. Main characteristics of educational activity
intensified in last years interest in learning activities in psychological and pedagogical science and practice is caused by the changes that occur in the child in the course of its formation. The nature of these changes may be different. So the active and successful implementation of educational activities leads to the restructuring of mental processes (, and others), the development of cognitive interests (, and others), the disclosure of the intellectual (, and others) and physical potentials of schoolchildren (, and others), to positive changes in the child's personality (-Slavskaya, and others).
At present, in its theoretical explanation, the concept of educational activity is based on the principle of the leading role of education in the development of the child (), the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity (A. N. Leontiev,), the general psychological theory of activity (,), which is in close connection with the theory of phased formation of mental actions and types of teaching (, and others).
Among other variants of the activity approach to learning, the concept of learning activity is considered as one of the ways to optimize the educational process. As of today, it is still far from complete. Some of its problems and contradictions require analysis, clarification and deepening.
According to the opinion, educational activity is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts. Subject operates scientific concepts, however, he does not introduce any changes in the system of scientific concepts.
notes that learning activity is an activity for the child's self-change, in the process of which he acquires new abilities and new ways of acting with scientific concepts, his motives and consciousness change.
In general, the phenomenon of learning activity can be considered as a form of learning.
Educational activity cannot be identified with those processes of learning and assimilation that are included in any other types of activity (game, labor, etc.). Assimilation is an essential characteristic of learning activity, but, nevertheless, these are different phenomena.
According to, “there are ... two types of activity, as a result of which a person acquires new knowledge and skills. One of them is specifically aimed at mastering this knowledge and skills as its direct goal. The other leads to the mastery of this knowledge and skills, realizing other goals. Teaching in the latter case is not an independent activity, but a process that is carried out as a component and result of the activity in which it is included. That is, assimilation is a process carried out in any activity. Learning activity is a special activity of the student, which is consciously aimed at the assimilation of knowledge.
It should be noted that in order to be successful, that is, to lead to learning at a minimum cost of effort and money on the part of the teacher and the student, learning activities, according to the opinion, must meet the following basic requirements:
To be a versatile process for both the teacher and the student, i.e. to encourage the teacher to teach as best as possible, and for the student to study as diligently as possible;
have a developed and flexible structure;
be carried out in various forms that allow the teacher to realize his creative pedagogical potential as early as possible, and the student to use his individual abilities to master the knowledge, skills and abilities transferred to him;
be carried out with the help of modern technical teaching aids, freeing both the teacher and students from the need to carry out many routine operations.
To form a full-fledged learning activity, students must systematically solve positively motivated learning tasks.
The core of learning activity is self-consciousness, that is, the student's awareness of the motives, goals, methods of learning, awareness of himself as a subject of learning activity, which organizes, directs and controls the learning process.
The content of educational activity is theoretical knowledge. Psychological basis learning activities - the need for theoretical knowledge. In the process of its implementation, students carry out mental actions that are adequate to those through which these products of spiritual culture were historically developed. In educational activity, the student reproduces the real process of creating concepts, images, values and norms by people.
Educational activity has its own structure. So, according to the opinion, the structure of educational activity includes: a learning task, learning actions, control action, evaluation action.
In addition, the structure of educational activity includes motives. Depending on what the motive of the activity is, it acquires a different meaning for the child. The child solves the problem. The goal is to find a solution. Motives can be different. The motive may be to learn how to solve problems, or not to upset the teacher, or to please the parents with a good mark. Objectively, in all these cases, the goal remains the same: to solve the problem, but the meaning of the activity changes along with the change in motive.
Motives influence the nature of educational activity, the child's attitude to learning. If, for example, a child studies in order to avoid a bad mark, punishment, then he studies with constant tension, his teaching is devoid of joy and satisfaction.
In the psychological and pedagogical literature there are various attempts to classify the motives of educational activity.
Thus, Leontiev distinguishes motives understood and motives are real. The student understands that he needs to learn, but this may not yet encourage him to engage in learning activities. Understandable motives in a number of cases become real motives.
As a rule, the educational activity of a child is motivated not by one motive, but by a whole system of various motives that intertwine, complement each other, and are in a certain relationship with each other. Not all motives have the same impact on learning activities. One of them - leading, other - secondary.
notes that for educational activity motives can be internal and external. Internal motives is curiosity, interest, the desire to understand the world, enthusiasm for the process of cognition. At the heart of internal motives are innate needs: in mental activity, obtaining information, novelty. These needs are initially present in the psyche of every child, although their intensity can vary greatly in individual children. Sometimes it is so low that internal motives alone cannot ensure the successful education of the child. Then adults use special pedagogical techniques, which in psychology are referred to as "external motives" namely: punishments and rewards, threats and demands, competition and group pressure, praise, arousal of ambition, explanation of benefits, etc. Common to all these methods is that knowledge ceases to be an end, but becomes a means - to avoid punishment, to receive an award, to satisfy ambition.
argues that there are two great mechanisms of motivation - "want" and "should".
However, it is not enough to simply divide motives into internal and external. External motives themselves can be positive (motives for success, achievement) and negative (motives for avoidance, protection).
According to motive of teaching- This is the focus of the student on various aspects of educational activity. For example, if a student's activity is aimed at working with the object being studied (linguistic, mathematical, biological, etc.), then most often in these cases one can speak of different types of cognitive motives. If the activity of the student is directed during the teaching to relations with other people, then we are talking, as a rule, about various social motives. In other words, some students are more motivated by the process of cognition in the course of learning, while others are motivated by relationships with other people in the course of learning.
In accordance with this statement, et al. distinguish two large groups of motives:
1. educational motives, related to the content of educational activities and the process of its implementation;
2. social motives, related to various social interactions student with other people.
At the end of the 50s. put forward a general hypothesis about the structure of educational activity, about its significance in mental development child. The peculiarity of educational activity is that its result is a change in the student himself, and the content of educational activity lies in the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts.
This theory was further developed as a result of many years experimental studies carried out under the guidance of These studies have shown that the potential junior schoolchildren in the assimilation of scientific and theoretical knowledge, they underestimated that such knowledge is quite accessible to them. Therefore, the main content of training should be scientific, not empirical knowledge; education should be aimed at developing in students theoretical thinking.
The systematic implementation of educational activity contributes to the intensive development of its subjects of theoretical consciousness and thinking, the main components of which are meaningful abstractions, generalizations, analysis, planning and reflection.
Educational activity performs a dual social function. Being a form of individual activity, it is a condition and a means of his mental development, providing him with the assimilation of theoretical knowledge and thereby the development of his specific abilities, which are crystallized in this knowledge. As a form of socially normalized cooperation between a child and an adult, educational activity is one of the main means of including the younger generations in the system of social relations.
2. Subject, means and methods of educational activity
The concept of "learning activity" and "teaching" can be used as synonyms. The central tasks of educational activity are the assimilation of knowledge, skills, mental abilities and culture of mental work.
Knowledge, skills and abilities (KAS) form the basis of learning.
These elements act from the side of the teacher as the original components of the content, and from the side of the students - as the products of assimilation.
Knowledge - this is a reflection by a person of objective reality in the form of facts, ideas, concepts and laws of science. They represent the collective experience of mankind, the result of the knowledge of reality.
Skills - willingness to consciously and independently perform practical and theoretical actions based on acquired knowledge, life experience and acquired skills.
Skills - components of practical activity, manifested in the performance of the necessary actions, brought to perfection through repeated exercises.
Communicating this or that knowledge to students, teachers always give them the necessary direction, forming, as it were, the most important worldview, social, ideological, moral and many other attitudes along the way. Therefore, education is educational. In the same way, any upbringing contains elements of learning.
In turn, the terms "learning activity" and "educational cognitive activity”, “cognitive activity” have a certain commonality, but also specific differences. Cognitive activity is a broader concept than the other two. For a student, cognitive activity proceeds, as a rule, in an educational and cognitive form.
The concept of "learning activity" is broader than "educational and cognitive activity", because in the course of the exercise not only cognitive, but also training actions are used, associated with the development of skills and abilities.
The implementation of learning tasks is possible when the subjects of the educational process use various methods of organizing and implementing educational activities.
Methods of educational activity can be subdivided according to their bases:
1. source of transmission and perception of information;
2. the degree of independence of thinking of students;
3. the nature of the educational work.
So, depending on the source of transmission and perception of information, groups of verbal (lecture, story, conversation, explanation, discussion), visual (illustrations, demonstrations), practical (exercises, experiments, educational and productive work) methods are distinguished.
Among the methods that affect the degree of independence of thinking of students are reproductive and productive (problem, search, heuristic, etc.) methods.
The nature of the educational work of the subjects of the educational process depends on the following methods of organizing educational activities: educational work under the guidance of a teacher and independent work students (work with a book, written work, laboratory work, work in training and production workshops).
Means of education It is a source of knowledge and skills development. These include visual aids, textbooks, didactic materials, technical means(TSO), equipment, machine tools, classrooms, laboratories, computers, TV and other mass media.
Real objects, production, constructions can act as teaching aids. Didactic tools, like methods, are part of pedagogical system and fulfill their purpose in it. The choice of teaching aids depends on the didactic concept, goals, content, methods and conditions of the educational process. The main functions of teaching aids are informational, didactic, control. There is no strict classification of didactic means in science.
You can use the classification of the Polish didact V. Okon, in which the means are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student:
simple means:
verbal: textbooks and other texts;
simple visual means: real objects, models, etc.
complex tools:
mechanical visual devices: diascope, microscope, etc.;
· audio means: player, tape recorder, radio;
audiovisual: sound film, TV, video;
· tools that automate the learning process: language classrooms, computers, information systems, telecommunications networks.
The formation and development of educational activity goes through several stages, each of which corresponds to certain levels of education. When moving from stage to stage, its main characteristics change (concrete content, forms of organization of interaction between its participants, features of their communication, the nature of psychological neoplasms).
At the first stage, corresponding to primary education, the main components of the structure of educational activity arise and are formed (preschoolers have only their prerequisites). At primary school age, educational activity is the main and leading among other activities. The systematic implementation of educational activities by younger schoolchildren contributes to the emergence and development of the main psychological neoplasms of this age.
Already in the 1st grade, it is necessary to introduce elementary theoretical knowledge into the content of educational activities - the concepts of numbers and words that were absent in the experience of children's preschool life, as well as the concept of composition, which is important for the subsequent mastery of the basics by children. visual arts. The assimilation of these and other concepts in the process of collectively solving educational problems contributes to the entry of children into the system of educational activities, allows them to master the methods and norms of participation in disputes and discussions, and to show initiative in inviting peers and teachers to an educational dialogue. Throughout primary education in the conditions of a full-fledged and extensive educational activity, it remains collectively distributed, but at the same time, the majority of younger students develop the ability to put various meaningful questions to their peers and teachers on their own initiative, the ability not only to participate in discussions, but also to be their initiators and even organizers. Children develop stable and generalized educational and cognitive motives (the main indicator of this is the orientation of children not to the result of solving the problem, but to the general way of obtaining it), which indicates the formation of the very need for educational activity. By the end of primary education, children have the ability to consciously control their learning activities and critically evaluate their results.
At the second stage of formation of educational activity. (grades 6-9) its content becomes more complicated - integral systems become the subject of assimilation theoretical concepts, stated in an abstract language using graphs, tables, models. The presence of a sufficiently high level of theoretical thinking, achieved by adolescents in the lower grades, contributes to the assimilation of complex material by them. Significant changes are taking place in the implementation of educational activities. In grades 5-7, students still collectively solve learning problems and at the same time master various sign models of fixing their conditions and orienting in them, in order to subsequently use these models independently, for individual problem solving. In grades 8-9, students gradually begin to independently set educational tasks and independently evaluate their solution. Each student becomes an individual subject of learning. His educational activity takes the form of an internal dialogue with the authors of the educational material, and the discussion of the results in the class becomes such a discussion when each of its participants can make adjustments to the proposed understanding of the educational task and to the ways to solve it.
In the process of interiorization of the educational process in adolescents, when they assimilate the theoretical material, all educational actions are practiced and polished (control and evaluation are of particular importance, turning into self-control and self-esteem) and all meaningful mental actions functioning in them develop, among which reflection acquires a special role. Thus, in adolescence, the process of development of theoretical thinking continues, the beginning of which was laid in the primary grades. At this age, educational activity loses its leading character; leading role in the mental development of adolescents, socially significant activity in all forms acquires (artistic, sports, labor and, together with them, educational activities). But in the field of mental development in adolescence, educational activity is of decisive importance.
At senior school age, educational activities again become leading, but with a professional bias that allows high school students to carry out vocational guidance and outline your life path. In student years, educational activity acquires a proper research character and can be called educational and cognitive activity.
With any method of learning, some students may spontaneously form a purposeful learning activity. However the highest level development it achieves with a systematic formation, built on the principles of the theory of educational activity.
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