The degree of formalization of the procedure method of observation. Methods of sociological research
Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of a social phenomenon, the features of which, properly classified and coded, are recorded by the researcher. Forms and methods of registration can be different: a form or an observation diary, a photo or movie camera, video equipment, etc.
Formalized, or standardized, observation provides for the detailed development of a program and methodological procedures:
- definition of goals and objectives of monitoring;
- definition of the problem, the object of observation;
- determination of the studied characteristics and their indicators available for external observation and registration;
- determination of the required number of observations from the set of possible ones (selective procedures);
- development of registration documents for fixing the observed characteristics (observation cards, protocol forms, etc.);
- instructions to observers on how to observe
- methods of data processing and analysis. Formalization of the observation procedure is possible in cases where the observer takes a side position when studying phenomena that are open to visual perception.
In industrial sociology, the method of observation is used to study the expenditure of working time, interactions between members of primary teams, production meetings, compliance with the labor regime, queues in canteens, communication between workers and representatives of the administration on reception days, etc.
The document for registering the observation is a detailed “Observation List”, which includes data on the place and time of observations: workshop No. .., site .., date .., number of workers .., number of observations .., shift .., purpose of observation .., bypass route... Next comes the table, the rows of which contain the names of the workers, and the columns include a list of observed characteristics.
Observation of a large audience is carried out by several persons who adhere to a single instruction. The preparation of an observation data recording protocol is preceded not only by the development of a general concept, but also by repeated non-standardized observations at different objects.
Record keeping in the field or simple unstructured and uninvolved observation can be done with code words or symbols that are entered in a notebook at the first opportunity, so that later the records can be deciphered. Sometimes when recording, a tape recorder is used, from which the text is decoded directly into a computer. Recordings can be made in the course of observation or at the end of the working day.
In structured observation, which involves strict recording techniques, protocol forms are used, spread out by observation points, with code designations for events and situations, supplementing indicator cards. The frequency and intensity of events in this case are recorded using ranking scales.
The reliability of the observation results is ensured by approbation of the developed tools (pilot), special education observers and control over the quality of their work.
Approbation of documents prepared for recording the results of observations consists in conducting trial observations and analyzing the records made, as well as the impressions of observers, registration difficulties, unclear terms, psychological obstacles, etc. In addition, a comparison is made of the results of observation by several observers of the same situation. An analysis of the reasons for the discrepancy between the results helps to identify miscalculations in the design of cards for registering observations, in the organization of observation.
Method of observation in sociological research
Observation in sociology, it is a method of purposeful, systematic, fixed perception of the object under study in a certain way.
It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and ordinary observation.
The most characteristic features of scientific observation as a method of collecting primary social information are purposefulness and planning. This means that scientific observation, firstly, is subordinated to certain practical or theoretical goals, and, secondly, it is carried out according to a predetermined plan, according to a predetermined program. The regularity of observation and its implementation according to a pre-prepared program presuppose that the results of observation are recorded in a certain way and can be controlled for validity and stability.
In addition, a number of specific features of observation are noted. According to the authors of The Sociologist's Working Book, there are three such features.Firsta feature is the specificity of the connection between the observer and the object of observation. This specificity lies in the fact that the knowledge of social reality is always associated with the personal positions of the scientist, with his value orientation.
Seconda feature of observation in sociology is expressed in the emotionality of the sociologist's perception of the object of observation.
Thirdfeature is the difficulty of repeated observation. This is due to the fact that any objects of sociological observation are always exposed to a large number of different factors.
In the process of applying the method of observation, the sociologist encounters a number of difficulties. First of all, these are difficulties of a subjective nature. The fact is that the observer can interpret the observed phenomena and processes through the prism of his views. Among the objective difficulties, it is necessary to single out, firstly, the fact that not all social facts are amenable to scientific observation, and, secondly, the limitation of all observable facts in time.
Practice sociological research shows that most often observation acts as an auxiliary method of collecting sociological information. This is due to the fact that observation is used when it is necessary to deepen knowledge about the research problem, when it is impossible to collect information sufficiently completely by other methods.
As noted above, the characteristic features of scientific observation are its purposefulness and regularity, which predetermines the need for an observation program. The monitoring program includes the following steps:
1. Determination of the purpose and tasks of observation. For example, the purpose of observation is to identify the degree of independent physical culture and sports activity of people middle age microdistrict. Tasks: a) determine the number of people involved in sports grounds microdistrict; b) determine the number of days of classes per week; find the average time for one session.
2. The choice of the type of observation that most fully meets the tasks of observation.
3. Choice of object and subject of observation. In our case, the object of observation is middle-aged people. The subject of observation is the level of physical culture and sports activity.
4. Choice of the way of registration of the observed object.
5. Processing and interpretation of the information received, writing a report.
Types of observation
Observations in sociology can be classified according to various signs: according to the degree of formalization of the procedure, according to the position of the observer, according to the conditions of the organization, according to the regularity of the conduct.
By degree of formalizationObservations are divided into structuralized and non-structuralized. The first is carried out according to a predetermined plan, when the sociologist is well acquainted with the subject of research. Non-structuralized observation is a type of observation in which only the object of observation is defined. Used to determine problem situation, obtaining more specific information about the object of study.
By observer positionObservations are divided into included and non-included. Participant observation is a type of observation in which the sociologist is, to one degree or another, directly “included” in the object under study, is in direct contact with the observed and participates with them in one area of activity, for example, is engaged in exercise in the observed physical culture and health group. Non-participant observation is a type of observation in which the sociologist observes an object from the side, for example, individual lessons from the stadium stands.
By venue and conditions of organizationobservations are divided into field and laboratory.
Field observation is carried out in a natural setting, in real life conditions. Laboratory is an observation in which the object of study is in artificially created conditions.
In the field physical education in the first case, an example could be classes at the place of residence in the yard. In another - classes in a specially equipped gym.
By regularity ofobservations are divided into systematic and random. The main characteristic of systematic observations is the regularity of fixing actions for a certain period of time (for the period of the training cycle, the effectiveness of the attacking actions of the team is determined, for example, in football). With random observations, previously unplanned actions, situations are subjected to study.
Observation is one of the most interesting methods of collecting primary sociological information. Its most important advantage is the direct observation of the object under study, which is often indispensable at the initial stages of the study. This helps the researcher to clarify the problem, more clearly define the object and subject of research, and allows formulating hypotheses.
According to the regularity
Systematic. It is characterized primarily by the regularity of fixing actions, situations, processes for a certain time; allows you to identify the dynamics of processes, and significantly increase the reliability of extrapolation of their development. The scope of systematic observation is quite wide - from exploratory to experimental research of the psychological and pedagogical process or object.
Random. Observation of a previously unplanned phenomenon, activity, psychological and pedagogical situation. Random observation should be distinguished from random detection and fixation of facts in the situation of observation, and planned specifically for this activity.
By place of observation
field. Conducted in a natural environment life situation, direct contact with the object under study. It can play the role of both the main method of collecting primary information and additional (preliminary acquaintance with the object, control of results, deepening of ideas about the object, collection of additional information).
Laboratory. The type of observation in which the conditions environment and the observed situation are determined by the teacher. Its main advantage is the maximum, in comparison with other types, the ability to identify all the factors of the situation and establish the relationship between them. The main disadvantage is the artificiality of the situation, which can cause a sharp change in the behavior of the participants. Such observation is most often used at the stage of testing psychological and pedagogical hypotheses and, as a rule, is reduced to fixing the changes that occur as a result of the influence of experimental factors. In laboratory observation, all kinds of technical aids (cinema, photo, video equipment, PC, etc.) are especially widely used.
According to the degree of formalization
Controlled (structured). A type of observation in which it is determined in advance which of the elements (on which attention is focused) of the process or situation being studied have highest value for a teacher-psychologist, a special plan for recording observations is also formed to start collecting information. Most often, the task of controlled observation is to verify the results obtained by other methods, to refine them. It can also be used as the main method of collecting information for an accurate description and testing of hypotheses in solving psychological and pedagogical problems of a small scale. Its application requires a good preliminary knowledge of the subject of research, since in the process of developing an observation procedure, it is necessary to build a classification system for the phenomena that make up the observed situation and standardize the categories of observation.
Uncontrolled (unstructured). In this case, the observer does not determine in advance which elements of the process (situation) under study he will observe. He does not have a strict plan, only the immediate object of observation is predetermined. The observer finds out the psychological and pedagogical atmosphere in which a phenomenon or event takes place, the boundaries of the object and its main elements, determines which of these elements are most significant for study, and receives initial information about the interaction of these elements. The disadvantage of uncontrolled observation is the danger of the subjective attitude of the observer to the object, which can lead to a distortion of the result. It is here that the problem of "observation - inference" can manifest itself most clearly.
By the degree of participation of the observer in the study of the situation
Included. The type of observation in which the observer is directly involved in the process being studied, is in contact with the observed people and takes part in their activities. The degree of the observer's involvement in the situation under study can vary over a fairly wide range: from "passive" observation, which is close to non-included and similar to observation through glass, transparent only for the observer, to "active" observation, when the observer "merges" to such an extent with the object under study, that the observed begin to consider it a member of their team and treat it accordingly.
Participatory observation in any of its forms allows you to collect information that is not available to other methods. The researcher here discovers processes and phenomena that are more significant for collective activity. Since, with prolonged observation, the members of the group under study have time to get used to the observer, they return to their usual actions and behavior, to their usual rules and norms, in a word, to what is characteristic of them in natural conditions.
Not included. In non-included (external) observation, the researcher or his assistant is outside the object under study. They observe the ongoing processes from the outside, without interfering in their course, without asking any questions - they simply register the course of events.
Non-included monitoring is used to monitor mass processes, when the observer, in order to see the entire course of the process, must be at a sufficient distance from the object of observation. It is used to describe the psychological and pedagogical environment in which an event of interest to the teacher takes place.
External observation can be carried out not only by the teacher himself, but also by specially trained observers. However, this is only possible if the procedure is sufficiently well developed and the reliability of the categories has been verified.
Observation allows you to obtain information that remains inaccessible during the survey and analysis of documents. It allows you to fix the direct manifestations of the object under study. The sociologist sees the behavioral manifestations of people, their direct reaction to life circumstances. Unlike a survey, observation allows you to see the object, bypassing the subjective assessments of the respondents. At the same time, one must take into account the fact that a certain connection arises between the observer and the observed. Sociologists themselves are part of society, and this leaves an imprint on their perception of the observed phenomena.
Observation is carried out for a certain group in a state of activity (professional, industrial, leisure, students). The collection of information is preceded by painstaking work on the research program, which allows you to determine the points of interest to the researcher. Observation cards are often developed in which the manifestations and reactions of the observed are recorded that are of interest to the sociologist.
Depending on the goals and objectives set, the characteristics of the group under study, different kinds observations. As a way of collecting information, observation is classified according to various criteria:
1) According to the degree of formalization of the procedure, the following are distinguished: a) unstructured, when there is no strict plan of observation accents. Only the object of study is defined. The sociologist determines the main elements of the object, finds out the social atmosphere, collects initial information. b) Structured, when the sociologist preliminarily determines which of the elements of the process under study deserves the greatest influence, draws up a plan. It requires a good knowledge of the subject and, most often, is preceded by other methods.
2) According to the position of the observer, the observation is distinguished: a) not included (external). For example, monitoring the activities of the service team or the life of students at the university. But as a person, an outsider sociologist may not understand the real meaning of the observed phenomena. b) included (participating), when the researcher is included in the process of activity of the observed group. There are different types of participation. First, the researcher can act as an equal member of the team, while his goals will remain unknown to the observables. The complexity of this option lies in the fact that the sociologist begins to get used to the group, he develops subjective emotional states and value judgments. Second, the sociologist can conduct observation in a neutral position. For example, as an intern. But here arises the moral problem of the admissibility of such observations. Thirdly, there may be a “participant-observer” position. Everyone knows about the presence of a researcher who does not hide his scientific goals. He even participates in the discussion of common problems. If such a position is honest, the sociologist runs the risk of not seeing the real picture of the life of the group.
polling method.
The bulk of empirical information is obtained in sociology by survey methods, the essence of which is to obtain information about the attitude of the respondents to certain vital phenomena and events. public life. The great significance of these methods is determined, firstly, by organizational advantages (it is always easier to organize a survey than to carry out any other method of sociological research); secondly, the relative cheapness, thirdly, the richness and versatility of the information obtained by the survey method (using the survey method, you can get any information on a variety of problems that cannot always be documented or recorded through observation); fourthly, the possibility of maximizing the use technical means for processing the data received as a result of the survey.
However, survey methods have their own negative sides. The quality of the information obtained by these methods is influenced by factors related, on the one hand, to the personality of the respondent (level of education, culture, memory properties, protective mechanisms of the psyche, attitude to the problem under study and to the organization or person conducting the survey), on the other hand, factors related to the activities of the researcher himself (starting with professionalism in compiling the questionnaire and ending with the skill of the questionnaire or interviewer with the respondent to obtain the required information). The results of the survey are negatively affected by the presence of unauthorized persons during the survey, an unsuccessfully chosen time and place of the survey, non-observance of the principles of anonymity, poor organization of the survey procedure itself. To neutralize these factors, it is necessary to strictly observe regulatory requirements on the use of the survey methodology.
The main types of survey methods are a questionnaire survey and a sociological interview, which, depending on a number of characteristics, are divided into: continuous and selective; individual and group; mass and expert; oral and written; full-time and correspondence; disposable and reusable; standardized and non-standardized.
The specificity of survey methods lies in the fact that, from a logical point of view, the “question-answer” system is implemented in them, followed by qualitative and quantitative processing of the received answers. With a number of common features, these methods have their own distinctive characteristics.
Conducting a questionnaire survey includes three stages: 1) preparatory stage (including the development of a survey program, drawing up a plan and a network schedule for a robot, designing tools, its pilot testing, reproduction of tools, compiling instructions for the questionnaire, respondent and other persons participating in the survey, selection and training of interviewers, questionnaires, solving organizational problems); 2) operational stage, which includes a number of specific stages; 3) the resulting stage is the processing of the received information. Based on the structure of the method, its characteristics are determined, which include a number of requirements for the original documents of the questionnaire survey, for the researcher, for the respondent, and for the tools themselves (for the questionnaire, questionnaire).
The main means of communication during the survey is a questionnaire. Both the compilation of the questionnaire and the methods of working with it have their own methodological techniques and characteristics, the observance of which is necessary condition successful implementation this method, aimed at obtaining reliable information. Each specific sociological study requires the creation of a special questionnaire, but all of them have overall structure. Any questionnaire includes three main parts:
Introduction
Final part
In the introduction it is indicated who conducts the study, its purpose and objectives, the method of filling out the questionnaire, emphasizes the anonymous nature of its filling, and also expresses gratitude for participating in the survey. The introductory part is accompanied by instructions for filling out the questionnaire.
Of particular importance is the compilation of the main part of the questionnaire, because. the success of the study depends to a large extent on this. The content of the questionnaire (the nature and types of questions asked, the order of their placement, the formalization of the expected answers) is determined by the desire to obtain the most reliable information about the object under study. To do this, it is necessary to be well versed in the system of questions on the basis of which the content of the questionnaire is formed. Formulation of questions is the most difficult stage in the preparation of the questionnaire.
According to the subject content and functions performed, various types of questions can be distinguished:
Fact questions. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information about social phenomena, the state of affairs in production, and the behavior of others. They may also concern the identity of the respondent himself when he fills out these "passports", as well as carry information about his actions, deeds or their consequences.
Questions about knowledge. Their purpose is to reveal what the respondent knows and can state. As a rule, these are examination-type questions aimed at revealing the respondent's level of awareness and knowledge in a certain area. Such questions may contain tasks, experimental and game situations, the solution of which requires the respondent to use certain skills, knowledge of specific facts, events, names.
Questions about opinion. These questions are aimed at fixing facts, wishes, expectations, plans for the future and may relate to any problems and the personality of the respondent. The answer in this case is value judgments based on individual ideas. Through opinions, a person's attitude to certain events is revealed.
Questions about motives. These questions are designed to reveal the subjective idea of a person about the motives of his activity. One question about motives cannot give a true picture of the motivation of activity, for this a whole complex of similar questions is needed.
According to their logical nature, questions are divided into:
Main questions. Based on the answers to these questions, conclusions are drawn about the phenomenon under study, they constitute most questionnaires.
Questions-filters. These questions are created to screen out incompetent persons when interviewed on the problem under study, or from the whole selection of a part of the respondents from the entire array on a certain basis.
Test questions. They serve to check the stability, truthfulness and consistency of the answers, to determine their sincerity and reliability.
Suggestive questions assist the respondent in correct understanding the main question, help to give a more correct answer.
According to their psychological function, which determines the attitude of the respondent to the very fact of the survey and to the questions that he has to answer, the questions are divided into:
Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent. Their goal is to create interest in the study, to encourage them to take part in it. As a rule, this is the first or one of the first questions of the questionnaire, which should be very simple in form and concern the respondent himself, as if setting him up for interested participation in the survey. As contact questions, questions of a purely eventual nature are often used. The main function of this type of questions is to facilitate interaction with the respondent during the survey, to encourage him to the most complete and sincere presentation of his opinion on the merits of the problem under study.
buffer questions. The purpose of this type of question is to switch attention when moving from one thematic block to another, and often this type of question represents not only the question itself, but also a narrative preamble to it, where the researcher explains the logic of thought, thereby creating a symmetry of communication: the respondent is specifically asked to switch from one problem is not another and it is explained why it needs to be done, he is invited to think, re-focus his attention, switch. Questions of this kind usually begin with a general formula: “What do you think?” - and then there is a description of the new problem.
direct questions aimed at expressing the attitude of the respondent to the analyzed problem, its assessment from their own positions.
indirect questions. When answering these questions, the respondent answers on behalf of the group, collective, in an impersonal form, which allows him, as it were, to hide his own position and increase the critical emphasis of his statements. In addition, indirect questions are also asked when direct questions are not quite convenient to ask or there is an assumption that they will not receive sincere answers, these are situations related to private, intimate aspects of human life or their relationship to power, to their immediate superior.
According to the nature of the answers, the questions are divided into the following types:
Open questions suggest an original narrative response in the form of a word, a sentence, or several sentences. Formally, these questions are distinguished by the fact that they are followed by several empty lines, which should be filled in. In this case, the answer received is of a natural nature, it gives maximum information on the research topic, which is very important for a sociologist. However, there are difficulties associated with the processing of the received answers, their encoding, which inevitably leads to a significant limitation in the use of a computer.
In closed questions, the respondent is offered a certain set of ready-made answers, from which he must choose one or more options that he prefers. Such questions are very easy to handle.
Semi-closed questions. Here, along with a set of specific answer options in a situation where it is impossible to choose the appropriate option from the proposed list, the respondent is given the opportunity to express his opinion on the problem under discussion in a free form.
Scale questions. The answer to these questions is given in the form of a scale in which it is necessary to mark one or another indicator.
Questions menu. Here the respondent is asked to choose any combination of possible answers.
Alternative questions suggest answers on the principle of "yes-no", are mutually exclusive. At the same time, the proposed list of alternatives must be completely exhaustive, and the alternatives themselves must be mixed without bias in any direction, i.e. balanced.
The very same sequence of questions can be formed either by the funnel method (arrangement of questions from the simplest to the most complex), or determined by the method of staged deployment of questions. It should be remembered that in any case the number of questions in the questionnaire is limited. Practice shows that a questionnaire that takes more than 45 minutes to fill out carries more random or insufficient information. Therefore, the optimal time for filling out the questionnaire is 35-45 minutes (which corresponds to 25-30 questions on the research topic).
Compilation of the questionnaire involves its verification, testing, clarification. A pilot study is being conducted to assess the quality of the questionnaire. In the course of it, the content of the questionnaire, the wording and sequence of questions, answer options, etc. are checked. Piloting is carried out on a microsample (up to 100 people) by an experienced sociologist in the form of an interview with fixing the answers of the respondent, his reactions to the content of the questions, their understanding and perception, as well as with the obligatory fixation of the time spent on the survey. All this makes it possible to identify the shortcomings of the toolkit, correct them and adapt the questionnaire to mass work.
According to the method of distribution, questionnaire surveys are divided into several types:
- distributing(questionnaire survey, in which the questionnaire personally hands over the questionnaire and either waits until it is filled out and immediately receives it - face-to-face handout, or receives the completed questionnaire a few days later - remote handout);
- postal ( the questionnaire, subject to prior consent, is sent and received by mail);
- press(the questionnaire is offered to the reader through the printed organ).
- teletype(with this method, the distribution and collection of tools and accompanying documents is carried out using the teletype-telegraph network).
According to the type of research tasks, surveys are:
Deep (aimed at obtaining search information);
Focused (data are collected on a specific situation);
Standardized (aimed at obtaining statistical information);
Sociometric (explores relationships in small groups).
According to the level of competence of respondents, there are:
Mass survey (opinion of a non-specialist on a particular topic);
Mass survey in cooperation with the researcher (involves informational assistance to the respondent by the questionnaire in understanding the analyzed situation);
Symptomatic survey (sufficient knowledge of the respondent general information without a deep understanding of the objectives and goals of the study);
Expert survey (survey of specialists on the topic being analyzed).
In the final part of the questionnaire, the respondent is thanked for participating in the study, hopes for further cooperation are expressed, the time and source are indicated, when and where it will be possible to get acquainted with the results of the study.
An important method of a specific sociological research is an oral survey - interviewing. Sociological interview has a wide range of applications, it is used at the preparatory stage of the study; when conducting a pilot study in order to correct, develop sociological tools; as an independent research method (today one of the main ones) and as a way to control the reliability of information obtained by other methods of sociological research.
Interviewing has its own specifics compared to questionnaires. The main difference is in the way of communication between the sociologist and the respondent. When conducting a survey, it is completely mediated by the questionnaire: the questionnaire is passive, the content and meaning of the questions are interpreted by the respondent himself in accordance with the ideas and beliefs that he has developed on the merits of the problem under discussion. The respondent independently formulates his answer and fixes it in the questionnaire. When conducting a sociological interview, the contact between the sociologist-interviewer and the respondent is carried out directly, the interviewer organizes the interview, asks questions, leads the conversation, directs it, and records the answers received. The interviewer can clarify the wording of the questions being asked if the respondent does not understand them, as well as clarify the respondent's point of view, ask him for additional information in order to adequately, accurately present it in questionnaire(Which is not possible with a survey). At the same time, it is obvious that in order to obtain the same amount of information in the case of using the interview method, much more time will be spent than when using a questionnaire.
In the work of a sociologist, various types of interviews are used:
- non-standardized interview. It implies the absence of strict detailing of the behavior of the sociologist and the respondent during the interview. The sociologist develops a questionnaire for the interview and its plan, which provides for a certain sequence and wording of questions in an open form. The interviewer asks questions strictly in accordance with the base sheet, and the respondent gives a free-form answer, which is exactly recorded by the interviewer. This type of interview is difficult for both the respondent and the interviewer. The subsequent processing and coding of materials is also complicated. This causes the infrequent use of this type of interview in practice.
- standardized interview. It provides for a conversation on a rigidly fixed questionnaire, where the answers to the question posed are also clearly presented. Closed-ended questions usually predominate in a standardized interview. In this case, the interviewer asks questions to the respondent from memory in a strictly defined sequence, and identifies the responses received from the respondent with one of the proposed answers to the question in the questionnaire. The difficulty lies in the inability to ask the respondent a large number of questions.
- semi-standardized interview involves a combination of features of the two specified types.
Conducting an interview requires organizational preparation, which involves choosing the place and time of the interview. The location of the interview is determined by the specifics of the subject of research. In any case, the environment in which the interview is conducted should be calm and confidential, i. without the presence of unauthorized persons at a time convenient for the respondent.
The work of the interviewer involves the following tasks:
Establishing contact with respondents;
Correct questioning;
Correct fixation of answers.
Thus, a questionnaire survey and a sociological interview provide the main array of sociological information. For all its importance, one cannot fail to notice a certain amount of subjectivity of this information, because one way or another it contains the opinion of people, which by its very nature cannot but be subjective. The task of the researcher is to reduce this share, to fix the manifestation of objective phenomena and trends in social life on the basis of subjective opinions. For this, they are used special methods processing questionnaires and interview forms in order to obtain objective information, as well as the ability to supplement this information with other methods.
Conclusion
The main methods of applied sociology are document analysis, observation, and surveys. The bulk of empirical information is obtained in sociology by survey methods (questionnaires and interviews), the essence of which is to obtain information about the attitude of the respondents to certain vital phenomena and events in public life.
Literature
1. Babosov E.M. Applied sociology. – Minsk, 2000.
2. How to conduct a sociological study / Ed. Gorshkova M., Sheregi I. et al. - M., 2005.
3. Kanygin G.V. Unobservable social phenomena// Sociological research. - 2010. - No. 5
4. Myagkov A.Yu.; Zhuravleva S.L. On the Reliability of Respondents' Answers in a Telephone Interview // Sociological Research. - 2010. - No. 10
5. Ogryzko-Vevyurovsky G. Versions of the question in the study public opinion// Sociological research. - 2003. - No. 6.
1. Select a research question, formulate goals, objectives, hypotheses to be verified. Next, search for completed studies that have data adequate to new tasks that were not subjected to appropriate analysis in the primary study.
2. Expansion and deepening of the information field based on the use of primary sociological information. Organizing data, editing data, presenting viewed data material in the form of tables.
3. Justification of the secondary analysis study sample.
4. Comparability of the results of the secondary analysis with the results obtained earlier in the study ( verification). Not only conclusions are subject to verification, but also methods for obtaining results, since they are responsible for the accuracy of the study.
5. Data coding - transformation of initial data and their additional statistical processing in accordance with the requirements of cognitive, target and methodological settings other than those of the original study by methods of mathematical operations; classification (ranking, grouping), typology, statistical analysis(dispersive, factorial, cluster, determinant).
7. Analysis and generalization of data is carried out by methods of manual, computer processing. For processing, both descriptive and analytical methods are used.
3.4. Observation method
In sociological research observation- this is a directed, systematic, direct, visual perception and registration of social phenomena (processes) that are significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study and are subject to control and verification. The observation method can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
Scientific sociological observation, in contrast to ordinary observation, must have the following traits: a) orientation to achieve a specific goal; scientific observation is subject to a clear research goal and clearly formulated tasks; b) planning - planned according to a predetermined procedure; c) systematic- all observation data are recorded in protocols, diaries, cards; d) the presence of control elements- information obtained through observation should be controllable for validity and stability.
Peculiarities sociological observation: the simultaneity of an event and its observation; connection of the observer with the object of observation. A sociologist, observing a society (social processes), is at the same time a part of this society. This leaves an imprint on his perception of social reality and interpretation. The perception of the observer is influenced by many factors: the worldview of the researcher, his professionalism, objectivity, personal qualities; emotional perception of a social phenomenon by an observer can influence the results of the study, and distort the data.
Advantages: contributes to obtaining valuable information about the immediate event and the behavior of people; allows you to record changes in a social object or the appearance of a new event; the observer has the opportunity to delve into the meaning and logic of the event, situation, and hence into the behavior of people; the flexibility of the method.
Restrictions: the locality of the observed phenomena, the complexity, and sometimes the impossibility of re-observation; subjectivity, distortion, errors of the observer in assessing the situation due to the influence of the emotional state, the attitude of the observer to the observed object, socio-cultural distance; the subjectivity of the researcher, the complexity of the procedure; the possibility of obtaining data on the goals, motives of people's behavior is limited.
Areas of use: at the preparatory stage of any research, where the goal is to get acquainted with the problem and the range of tasks; in a monographic, qualitative study, when the requirement of representativeness is not presented; in the study of the described plan, to verify the assumptions about the object.
When using the methodology of a quantitative approach, observation as a method of collecting primary data either leads to hypotheses and serves as the basis for a mass survey, or is used at the final stage of mass surveys to clarify and interpret the main findings.
In a qualitative study, the method of observation is the main tool for recording and interpreting data. In this strategy, the observer is actively included in the course of the events being studied, interacts with the observed. Observation is the research methodology here.
Types of observation. Observation can be classified in various ways.
According to the degree of formalization observations are structured and unstructured. Structured Observation- such a form in which the researcher has sufficient information about the object of study and determines in advance the significant elements of the situation under study, draws up a detailed form for recording the results of the observation, instructions for filling it out . Unstructured Observation- a type of information gathering in which the elements of the process to be studied are not predetermined. It is used in the absence of clear hypotheses and a detailed plan of the observer's action.
By order distinguish between random and systematic. Random observation - observation of an unplanned phenomenon, event . Systematic observation- a type of observation that is carried out regularly over a certain period.
According to the terms of the organization: field and laboratory. Field observation- a type of information collection carried out in natural for observable conditions, in a real life situation. Laboratory observation- a type of collection of sociological information, carried out in conditions artificially created for the observed group and controlled by the researcher.
Depending on the position of the observer: enabled and disabled. Included (Participating) Observation- observation, in which the observer is directly involved in the process being studied to one degree or another, is in contact with the individuals and groups being studied and participates with them in a certain field of activity.
There are the following types of inclusion of the observer: 1) full member(the goals and status of the researcher remain a mystery to everyone else, so this situation is often called a covert surveillance situation); 2) participant as observer(characterized by the inclusion of the observer in the group, but it is understood that all participants are clear about his role as a researcher.); 3) observer as participant(means that the observer is, first of all, a researcher and, interacting with participants in the social process, does not pretend to be a real participant in it; 4) complete observer(the researcher performs only the function of an observer, not interacting with the participants in the situation, remaining out of their field of vision. Here, a situation with the use of a hidden camera or a socio-psychological experiment with a hidden observer is possible.
One of the modifications of the included observation is the so-called stimulating or " supervising participation" during which the researcher creates some experimental environment in order to better identify the state of the object, in the usual situation "unobservable".
Advantages included observation: it allows you to consider the phenomenon under study as if from the inside, gives the most vivid, direct impressions of the environment, helps to better understand people's actions. But there is also a fundamental limitation of the method. The logic of circumstances often prompts the observer to look at what is happening through the eyes of his eyewitnesses, as a result of which there is a danger that the observer will lose an active, objective approach to the process being studied. Prolonged immersion in the life of the object under study forms attachments, likes and dislikes, which leads to the subjectivity of the observer, unconscious filtering of events, etc. Some ethical issues also arise.
Non-included surveillance- such a view, when the observer is outside the society under study and from the outside studies the ongoing processes, without interfering in their course, without asking any questions - just the registration of ongoing events.
Before proceeding to direct observation, the researcher must first study the object and situation, formulate a general concept of the observation process.
Object of observation: separate individuals, various communities, group, collective, ways of their activity. Subject of observation: signs, properties, factors of activity of the observed object, individual situations in which the studied individuals and social communities find themselves.
Observed situations: a set of external conditions under which the object is subject to observation. An important quality of the observed situation is that it empirically represents the research problem situation.
Units of observation: accessible, simple or complex, acts of actions of the object of observation (the stage of changes occurring with the object).
Observation Categories: empirical features of the object recorded during the observation. In standardized observations, they are expressed by certain indicators. Categories of observation can be descriptive and evaluative. Signs of observation reflect especially significant aspects of the object. Each sign characterizes the features of the problem situation, expresses the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object. Isolation of observed situations, units, categories of observation constitutes the content of the procedure for operationalizing concepts in this method.
Stages of observation: establishing the object and subject of observation; definition of its goals and objectives; obtaining relevant decisions, establishing contacts; choice of method and type of observation, determination of basic procedures; preparation of technical means and documents; collection of information (direct observation), accumulation of information; fixing the results; control of observation by other sociological data; observation report.
Clear and correct registration of observed phenomena and processes is essential. The main requirement for data recording is that the record be kept at the place of observation and at the time of the occurrence of the observed event.
Method instrumentation are:
· observation diary- a methodological document, where a) the course of observation is recorded in a coded or understandable form; b) the results of the observation; c) actions of the observer; d) assessment of tools and procedures; e) the reaction of the observed, etc.;
· observer card, a methodological document intended for registration of units of observation in a strictly formalized and coded form;
· observation protocol- a methodological document summarizing the data of all cards and containing methodological information about the observation procedure;
audiovisual technical means fixing units of observation.
Verification of observation data is carried out by monitoring the results obtained by other observers (if possible, observation is carried out simultaneously by several observers); control by other methods of collecting information (survey, analysis of documents, etc.); requests for follow-up.
The application of the observation method places high demands on the personality of the observer. Great importance has the level of his professional competence, the ability to get in touch with the observed individuals and groups, attentiveness, the ability to control their actions, etc. It is obligatory to train the persons who will carry out the observation: conduct a detailed briefing: what criteria will be used to select events, what and how to record conduct special trainings.
3.5. social experiment
social experiment- this is a method of collecting information about changes in the performance of a social object as a result of the impact on it of given and controlled factors (variables).
Initially, the experiment was used in natural science. For the first time, P. Laplace (1749-1827) expressed the idea of the possibility of using experiment in the study of society. O. Comte (1798-1857) considered it one of the main methods for studying society. Only in the 20s. 20th century the social experiment was widespread.
Main purpose experiment in sociological research: revealing information about cause-and-effect relationships between the studied phenomena, their properties, in achieving new, more accurate knowledge about patterns, trends social processes; on its basis, they give an explanation of connections, relationships, processes; involves the use of a number of other methods (observation, survey, document analysis). A social experiment is used for research purposes (testing a scientific hypothesis) and in achieving an effect in practical transformational activities.
The main features of a social experiment are: the active intervention of the researcher in the system of phenomena under study; systematic introduction of a relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors; systematic control over all essential determining factors; the effects of changing dependent variables must be measured and unequivocally reduced to the influence of independent variables (experimental factor).
Requirements to the experiment: compliance of the tasks to be solved with the criteria of social progress, legal and moral standards; limiting the degree of risk; a clear focus on research hypotheses; preservation of the normal functioning and development of the object; not all aspects of people's lives in certain social situations can be subjected to experimental actions.
Experiment features: a) dependence on the action of the experimental factor; b) dependence on the experimenter's settings; c) the experimental situation is under control; d) dependence not only on the experimental, but also on other factors, including the reactions of the participants.
Advantages: a) it is possible to install causality between individual facts and give not only a description, but also an explanation; b) the information received is specific; c) the ability to reproduce the experiment; d) the results can be transferred into practice; e) participants in the experiment can assist in organizing the procedures of the experiment, in identifying the changes that have occurred.
Restrictions: a) the experimental factor can disrupt the natural connections both inside and outside the object, as well as bring it out of its normal state; b) subjectivism of perception, incorrect methodological attitudes can lead to a distortion of the essence of what is happening; c) insignificant factors can be interpreted as causes; d) the artificial nature of the experimental situation reduces the possibility of generalizing conclusions; e) the effect of "exclusivity" of participants may be a decisive factor in the results of the experiment.
Types of social experiment. There is a wide variety of social experiments.
Depending on the object and subject of research: economic, pedagogical, sociological, psychological, legal, etc.
According to the nature of the experimental situation: field, laboratory, controlled, uncontrolled.
By the nature of the situation: real (natural) - involves the intervention of the experimenter in the natural course of events; mental - this is the manipulation of information about real objects without interfering with the actual course of events (ex-post factum experiments on the mathematical model).
By the nature of the logical structure of the proof of hypotheses: distinguish parallel and consistent experiments. In a parallel experiment, two groups are distinguished: the experimental group, which is exposed to certain conditions (factors) and the control group, which is not subject to this effect.
According to the specifics of the factors used(independent variables): univariate and multivariate.
By the nature of the tasks experiments are divided into research, aimed at achieving new knowledge, in which a hypothesis is tested that contains new information of a scientific nature that has not found sufficient evidence; scientific and practical - aimed at introducing new social technologies, at achieving and testing innovations (innovations).
Structure social experiment can be represented as follows:
§ an experimenter is usually a researcher or a group of researchers who design and conduct an experiment;
§ experimental factor (independent variable);
§ the experimental situation is created in accordance with the research program for the experiment;
§ experimental object.
object experiments are social group, collective (experiment participants). Often there are two types of objects: experimental and control groups.
Experimental group- the one that is affected by the experimental factor (independent variable). In addition to the general requirement for the choice of an object (representativeness in the class of objects under study), the requirements for the relative stability of the composition for the period of the experiment and the ability to conduct systematic controlled observation are imposed on the experimental group. In some cases, the consent of the group to participate in the experiment is required.
Control group is identical to the experimental one in terms of the given parameters, but is not affected by the experimental factor (independent variable). In the presence of a control group, the purity of the social experiment increases due to the fact that the impact of side parameters is equally likely in both the experimental and control groups. There are various methods for selecting the experimental and control groups: random selection, pairwise selection, etc.
Variables in the experiment- these are controllable and uncontrollable factors that have a direct or indirect impact on the state of the object under study. The main are the independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable is a factor that will influence the experimental group. This variable is often called experimental factor. It must be determined in full accordance with the research program (hypotheses that are submitted for verification), be relatively independent, stable, significant, influencing the state of the object, manageable, controlled, and amenable to sociological measurements.
Dependent variable is the factor that changes under the influence of the independent variable. Establishing a relationship between these variables is the subject of any experiment.
Control involves monitoring the object, accurate registration of variables and their states, regulation of processes in order to maintain the specified parameters of the state of the object. This is one of the leading procedures at all stages of the experiment.
Steps and procedures social experiment:
1. Preparatory stage: formulation of the problem, setting goals and objectives. Justification of the need for the experiment: selection and description of the object, modeling of its actions in the system of variables; selection of independent, dependent, other variables; choice of the type of experiment, determination of the general conditions of the experimental situation; selection of experimental and control groups; designing tools for collecting and registering information.
2. Operational (experimental) stage: instructing the participants in the experiment (if their awareness is provided for by the program); measurement of variables (pre-test); introduction of an experimental factor (independent variable) and subsequent control of its action in accordance with the program; observation and control, registration of variables in the protocol, cards, questionnaires, tests for the experimental and control groups; measurement of dependent variables (post-test).
3. Resulting stage: collection of accounting documents, their verification; translation into machine media or manual processing; statistical processing; confirmation or refutation of hypotheses; highlighting the main and side results of the experiment, conclusions; evaluation of the effectiveness of the method, identification of errors, innovations, comparison with data obtained by other methods; development of recommendations; compilation of a report.
Toolkit experimental method is a protocol, a diary, an observer's card. The main resulting document is the protocol of the experiment, which should contain the following information: 1) the name of the topic of the experiment; 2) the time and place of its holding; 3) formulation of the tested hypothesis; 4) the content of the experimental factor; 5) characteristics of dependent variables and their indicators; 6) essential description of the experimental group; 7) characteristics of the control group and the principles of its selection; 8) description of the experimental situation; 9) characteristics of the experimental conditions; 10) the course of the experiment, i.e. its situation: a) before the introduction of the experimental factor; b) in the process of its input; c) after its introduction; d) after the end of the experiment; 11) assessment of the purity of the experiment and the tools used; 12) conclusion about the reliability of the hypothesis; 13) other conclusions; 14) data on the drafters of the protocol and the degree of their consent; 15) date of signing the protocol.
Section 4. Research potential of some less
common methods
4.1. diary method
diary method is a qualitative research method that focuses on observing the individual and his daily life.
A diary- in a certain way a schematized form of entering information about everyday practices by the informant himself.
Application area: used in the study of time budgets; lifestyle; social networks, in the study of mass media, the study of consumption, etc.
As K. Plumer notes, at present, diaries as a source of information can be used in the following way:
a) at the request of the researcher, individuals keep a diary of everyday events for a short time, such as a week or a month. At the same time, a short instruction is offered for filling out such a diary, which also provides for personal comments filling out the diary;
b) a similar technique is used in classical studies of time budgets to describe a typical day of life;
c) the third type of diary entries can be called the diary method of interviewing. It is usually used to study communities that are difficult to observe. Therefore, they are invited to fill in a daily diary of their activity, while revealing the nature of such activity according to the scheme proposed by the researchers.
Depending on the objectives of the study, a diary form is developed (the number of blocks can be varied) and detailed instructions for filling it out. Informants are selected by qualitative sampling methods, they are given detailed instructions on how to fill in the diary. Diaries should be filled in during the day, at least in the evening from memory, depending on the type of diary for a certain time.
Appendix 6 provides an example of a diary form and instructions for filling it out to collect data from a real audience of the Vesti-Kuzbass. Culture.
Advantages: diaries describe events day by day, not after the fact. This means that the time effect does not affect the perception and description of events; allows you to overcome the fragmentation of the method of document analysis (does not lose sight of everyday routine practices); can partially replace participatory observation in those groups that are difficult to “penetrate”, events and processes that are difficult to observe Everyday life; allows us to analyze not only the informant's discursive models, but also his practical actions, which may differ from their discursive interpretation.
Restrictions: many shy away from keeping a diary; do not accurately and timely record information in the diary; filling in the diary is limited in time, due to which significant information may not fall into the diary; the informant's subjectivity may manifest itself; rarely self-sufficient (requires use in combination with other research methods).
4.2. Social Mapping Method
social mapping is a method of converting social data into a cartographic form and its use in scientific and practical activities. A transformation is such an operation, as a result of which one cartographic image (original map or diagram) is transformed into another (derived map or diagram), in accordance with the goals of a particular social research. The method makes it possible to transform social data into a visual cartographic form, i.e., to create maps of social phenomena and processes occurring in any socio-territorial community.
The method of social mapping was first used by the English entrepreneur Charles Booth (in the 80s of the 19th century), who studied living conditions in London. According to the results of a social survey, it was found that London has a concentric structure. C. Booth introduced the mapping technique into the methodology of social surveys: he painted London quarters in different colors depending on the income of their inhabitants.
Another no less interesting was the study of the city of Chicago, conducted by E. Burgess (20s of the XX century). Social maps of Chicago were drawn up. First, these were maps of the distribution of juvenile delinquency, then - cinemas, dance floors, etc. From the totality of the collected social maps, it became clear that there is a structure of the city and different types of social problems correlate with each other.
Currently, the method of social mapping is used to study such problems as employment and social well-being of the population, identification of critical areas of the labor market, crime, population migration, compliance social infrastructure requests of the population, etc. The widespread use of this method is currently associated with the development of information technology.
Social maps can include maps that characterize: a) the living conditions of the population; b) intra-urban settlement of various groups of the population; c) the actual behavior of the population; d) scorecards; e) maps of migration flows, etc.
The mapping method is used in sociological research at all its stages. At the initial stages of research, social maps serve as one of the sources for hypotheses and theoretical innovations. Social mapping can be used on final stage as a visual representation of the results of the study. Maps compiled for the same territory at certain intervals of time can serve as a tool for monitoring social processes.
Most often, social mapping is supplemented by other methods of collecting information (initial data): document analysis, survey. It is used in sociological research, in which one of the main tasks is to identify the spatial differentiation of certain indicators. Maps clearly show not only features territorial organization this or that phenomenon, but also the location of various objects and networks in space. The map makes it possible to show what the usual statistical methods of information processing do not take into account: territorial proximity, proximity and remoteness, consistency or mismatch of various territorial patterns.
As a basis for compiling new cartographic works, maps and cartographic schemes are used. Map- a reduced, generalized image of the Earth's surface on a plane, built in one or another cartographic projection and scale according to a mathematical law. map- a map of reduced accuracy, usually devoid of a cartographic grid (Appendix 8). Schematic image usually allows you to get in a visual form general idea about the phenomenon (event) shown on the map and emphasize its essential features. The content of maps is strictly limited to elements that are important for understanding its plot.
To keep maps from being overloaded, an important modeling principle is cartographic generalization- this is the selection of the main, essential and its purposeful generalization in order to depict on the maps the main, typical features and characteristics phenomena in accordance with the purpose, subject and scale of the map. Generalization is carried out in several directions. First of all, the legend of the map is generalized, qualifications and selection standards are established, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are generalized and enlarged, geometric outlines are simplified, schematized, sometimes it is necessary to exaggerate individual objects, shift their images, etc. Map legend- a set of conventional signs and explanations for the map, revealing its content.
Stages social mapping.
1. Preparatory stage:
Ü preparation of a mapping program;
Ü statement of the cartographic task;
Ü determination of the range of sources of initial information. Ensuring its completeness, accuracy, adequacy, convenience;
Ü selection of a cartographic basis (source map);
Ü selection of the mapping procedure, cartographic images and work order.
2. Operational stage:
Ü collection of social information and its statistical processing (generalization, compilation of tables, matrices, etc.);
Ü cartographic generalization;
Ü choice of symbols and methods of representation;
Ü development of the map legend;
Ü "pencil" sketch of the map with legend and title.
3. Resulting stage:
Ü finalization of derivative cards;
Ü interpretation of research results;
Initial information can be documentary sources, a sample survey on certain problems, and statistical data. Mapping is carried out in accordance with the goals and purpose of maps. The nature of the transformation is influenced by the scientific and methodological principles of cartography, the choice of classifications, the logic of cartographic legends, the scale of the map, the system of symbols and methods of the cartographic image, and generalization of the image. All this is necessary for an adequate display of social processes and phenomena on maps.
There are many ways to represent social information on a source map or diagram. The type of map largely depends on the nature of the information available to the researcher. The difference in data localization is especially pronounced: whether they refer to areas of territories (areas) or to objects that are taken as points on the map scale. This largely depends on the method of mapping. Either the point nature of the phenomenon, or its "spreading" over the area is emphasized. Thematic maps according to the method of mapping can be divided into two main types:
1) symbol cards, on which basic information for both points and areas is transmitted using conventional signs (graphic symbols used on maps to designate various objects and their characteristics);
2) line and contour maps, showing the relationship of places or areas.
Let's briefly consider the main methods of mapping.
Symbol cards. Graphic tools used in cartography provide great opportunities for designing and building symbols and their various systems. To do this, resort to the differentiation of signs in shape, color, light intensity and internal structure(drawing, shading). The main mapping methods for symbol maps are the localized icons method, the qualitative and quantitative background method, and the point method.
To display information related to points on a map, use way of localized icons, not expressed in map scale. In their form, icons can be abstract, literal and visual. Among the abstract icons, the most common are geometric shapes: circles, squares, triangles, etc. They are easy to perform, well identified by the legend, take up relatively little space, accurately indicate the location of the object, and are easily comparable in size. The number of elementary figures is small, but the number of designations can be increased by using for icons different colors and modifying their internal pattern.
Letter icons- this is one or two initial letters of the name of the depicted phenomenon or object. Their use is comparatively limited, because they dot the map, do not indicate the exact location of objects, and are poorly comparable in size. Comparison of letter icons in terms of size and their localization is facilitated if the letters are inscribed in any geometric figure, such as a square or a circle. In this case, the advantages of both types of icons are combined.
Also apply visual icons, resembling the depicted objects in the drawing. Among them, there are symbolic ones, the form of which evokes any associations with the depicted object (Appendix 9), and naturalistic ones. Such icons are less convenient for comparison and localization of objects.
Icons of various sizes are used to convey quantitative ratios. ("scale" icons"). The commensurability of icons, exactly proportional to the size of objects, is called absolute. For example, the linear size of an icon is proportional to square root from a number characterizing the size of the object. The map is then illustrative, but inconvenient, since the extreme values of the mapped objects differ greatly from each other. Therefore, conditional commensurability is often used, reflecting only a general trend in the change in values. Both with absolute and conditional commensurability of signs, their scale can be continuous or stepped, that is, divided into intervals. With a continuous scale, the size of the signs changes following the change in the size of the object. With a stepped (interval) scale, the size of the icons is constant within each interval, increasing abruptly when moving to the next step. Stepped scales are preferable for depicting and grouping objects by ranks (classes) of magnitude. Experience shows that for visual differentiation of signs on the map, it is necessary to consistently increase their linear dimensions on a scale by at least 1.5 times, it is desirable to delimit the steps with round numbers (the number of these differences is 5-7, maximum 10-12).
The inscriptions on the cards also often play the role of a card.