7 Years' War 1756 1763. Seven Years' War
Kingdom of Naples
Sardinian kingdom
F. W. Seidlitz
George II
George III
Robert Clave
Ferdinand of Brunswick
Count Lassie
Prince of Lorraine
Ernst Gideon Loudon
Louis XV
Louis Joseph de Montcalm
empress elizabeth
P. S. Saltykov
Charles III
August III
- 1756 - 250 000 soldiers: Prussia 200,000, Hanover 50,000
- 1759 - 220 000 Prussian soldiers
- 1760 - 120 000 Prussian soldiers
- 1756 - 419 000 soldier: Russian Empire 100,000 soldiers
- 1759 - 391 000 soldiers: France 125,000, Holy Roman Empire 45,000, Austria 155,000, Sweden 16,000, Russian Empire 50,000
- 1760 - 220 000 soldier
The main standoff in Europe was between Austria and Prussia over Silesia, lost by Austria in the previous Silesian Wars. Therefore, the Seven Years' War is also called Third Silesian War. The first (-) and second (-) Silesian wars are integral part Wars of the Austrian Succession. In Swedish historiography the war is known as Pomeranian War(Swede. Pommerska kriget), in Canada - as "War of Conquest"(English) The War of the Conquest) and in India as "Third Karnatic War"(English) The Third Carnatic War). The North American theater of war is called French and Indian War.
The designation "seven-year" war received in the eighties of the eighteenth century, before that it was spoken of as a "recent war".
Causes of the war
Opposing Coalitions in Europe 1756
The first shots of the Seven Years' War were heard long before its official announcement, and not in Europe, but across the ocean. In - gg. Anglo-French colonial rivalry in North America led to border skirmishes between English and French colonists. By the summer of 1755, the clashes turned into open armed conflict, in which both allied Indians and regular military units began to participate (see French and Indian War). In 1756 Great Britain officially declared war on France.
"Flipping Alliances"
This conflict disrupted the system of military-political alliances that had developed in Europe and caused a reorientation of the foreign policy of a number of European powers, known as the “reversal of alliances”. The traditional rivalry between Austria and France for continental hegemony was weakened by the emergence of a third power: Prussia, after Frederick II came to power in 1740, began to claim a leading role in European politics. Having won the Silesian wars, Frederick took Silesia, one of the richest Austrian provinces, from Austria, as a result of which the territory of Prussia was increased from 118.9 thousand to 194.8 thousand square kilometers, and the population - from 2,240,000 to 5,430,000 people. It is clear that Austria could not so easily come to terms with the loss of Silesia.
Having started a war with France, in January 1756, Great Britain concluded an alliance treaty with Prussia, thereby wishing to secure Hanover, the hereditary possession of the English king on the continent, from the threat of a French attack. Frederick, considering the war with Austria inevitable and aware of the limitations of his resources, relied on "English gold", as well as on the traditional influence of England on Russia, hoping to keep Russia from participating in the upcoming war and thereby avoid a war on two fronts. . Having overestimated the influence of England on Russia, he, at the same time, clearly underestimated the indignation caused by his treaty with the British in France. As a result, Frederick will have to fight with a coalition of the three strongest continental powers and their allies, which he dubbed the “Union of Three Women” (Maria Theresa, Elizabeth and Madame Pompadour). However, behind the jokes of the Prussian king regarding his opponents, there is a lack of self-confidence: the forces in the war on the continent are too unequal, England, which does not have a strong land army, except for subsidies, can do little to help him.
The conclusion of the Anglo-Prussian alliance pushed Austria, yearning for revenge, to move closer to its old enemy - France, for which Prussia has now also become an enemy (France, which supported Frederick in the first Silesian wars and saw in Prussia just an obedient tool for crushing Austrian power, was able to make sure that Friedrich does not even think to reckon with the role assigned to him). The famous Austrian diplomat of that time, Count Kaunitz, became the author of the new foreign policy. A defensive alliance was signed between France and Austria at Versailles, to which Russia joined at the end of 1756.
In Russia, the strengthening of Prussia was perceived as a real threat to its western borders and interests in the Baltic and northern Europe. Close ties with Austria, with which an alliance treaty was signed as early as 1746, also influenced the determination of Russia's position in the emerging European conflict. Traditionally close ties also existed with England. It is curious that, having broken off diplomatic relations with Prussia long before the start of the war, Russia, nevertheless, did not break off diplomatic relations with England throughout the war.
None of the countries participating in the coalition was interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, hoping to use it in the future in their own interests, however, all were interested in weakening Prussia, in returning it to the borders that existed before the Silesian wars. That. The coalition members waged a war for the restoration of the old system of political relations on the continent, violated by the results of the War of the Austrian Succession. Having united against a common enemy, the members of the anti-Prussian coalition did not even think about forgetting their traditional differences. Disagreement in the camp of the enemy, caused by conflicting interests and having a detrimental effect on the conduct of the war, was, in the end, one of the main reasons that allowed Prussia to resist the confrontation.
Until the end of 1757, when the successes of the newly-minted David in the fight against the “Goliath” of the anti-Prussian coalition created a club of admirers for the king in Germany and beyond, it never occurred to anyone in Europe to seriously consider Frederick the “Great”: at that time, most Europeans saw in him a sassy upstart who should have been put in his place long ago. To achieve this goal, the Allies sent a huge army of 419,000 soldiers against Prussia. Frederick II had only 200,000 soldiers at his disposal, plus 50,000 defenders of Hanover, hired for English money.
Russian autocrat Elizaveta Petrovna |
Austrian Empress Maria Theresa |
Prussian King Frederick II |
Louis XV, King of France |
George II, King of England |
European theater of war
Eastern European theater of operations Seven Years' War |
---|
Lobositz - Reichenberg - Prague - Kolin - Hastenbeck - Gross-Jägersdorf - Berlin (1757) - Moiss - Rossbach - Breslau - Leuten - Olmütz - Krefeld - Domstadl - Küstrin - Zorndorf - Tarmov - Lutherberg (1758) -Verbellin - Hochkirch - Bergen - Palzig - Minden - Kunersdorf - Hoyerswerda - Maxsen - Meissen - Landesshut - Emsdorf - Warburg - Liegnitz - Klosterkampen - Berlin (1760) - Torgau - Fehlinghausen - Kolberg - Wilhelmsthal - Burkersdorf - Lutherberg (1762) - Reichenbach - Freiberg |
1756 attack on Saxony
Military operations in Europe in 1756
Without waiting for the opponents of Prussia to deploy their forces, Frederick II on August 28, 1756 was the first to begin hostilities, suddenly invading Saxony, allied with Austria, and occupying it. On September 1, 1756, Elizaveta Petrovna declared war on Prussia. On September 9, the Prussians surrounded the Saxon army encamped near Pirna. October 1, going to the rescue of the Saxons, the 33.5 thousandth army of the Austrian Field Marshal Brown was defeated at Lobozitz. Caught in a hopeless situation, the eighteen thousandth army of Saxony capitulated on October 16. Captured, the Saxon soldiers were driven by force into the Prussian army. Later, they would “thank” Friedrich by running across to the enemy in whole battalions.
Semi summer war in Europe
Saxony, which had armed forces medium size army corps and, moreover, bound by eternal troubles in Poland (the Saxon Elector was, concurrently, the Polish king), did not, of course, pose any military threat to Prussia. Aggression against Saxony was caused by Frederick's intentions:
- use Saxony as a convenient base of operations for the invasion of Austrian Bohemia and Moravia, the supply of Prussian troops here could be organized according to waterways, along the Elbe and Oder, while the Austrians would have to use uncomfortable mountain roads;
- transfer the war to the territory of the enemy, thus forcing him to pay for it, and, finally,
- to use the human and material resources of prosperous Saxony for their own strengthening. Subsequently, he carried out his plan to rob this country so successfully that some Saxons still dislike the inhabitants of Berlin and Brandenburg.
Despite this, in German (not Austrian!) historiography, it is still customary to consider the war, on the part of Prussia, as a defensive war. The argument is that the war would still have been started by Austria and its allies, regardless of whether Frederick had attacked Saxony or not. Opponents of this point of view object: the war began, not least because of the Prussian conquests, and its first act was aggression against a defenseless neighbor.
1757: Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen, Russia begins hostilities
Bohemia, Silesia
Operations in Saxony and in Silesia in 1757
Strengthening himself by absorbing Saxony, Frederick, at the same time, achieved the opposite effect, spurring his opponents to active offensive operations. Now he had no choice but, to use the German expression, "running forward" (German. Flucht nach vorne). Counting on the fact that France and Russia will not be able to enter the war before the summer, Frederick intends to defeat Austria before that time. At the beginning of 1757, the Prussian army, moving in four columns, entered Austrian territory in Bohemia. The Austrian army under the Prince of Lorraine consisted of 60,000 soldiers. On May 6, the Prussians defeated the Austrians and blockaded them in Prague. Having taken Prague, Frederick is going to go to Vienna without delay. However, the blitzkrieg plans were dealt a blow: the 54,000th Austrian army under the command of Field Marshal L. Daun came to the aid of the besieged. On June 18, 1757, in the vicinity of the city of Kolin, the 34,000-strong Prussian army entered into battle with the Austrians. Frederick II lost this battle, losing 14,000 men and 45 guns. The heavy defeat not only destroyed the myth of the invincibility of the Prussian commander, but, more importantly, forced Frederick II to lift the blockade of Prague and hastily retreat to Saxony. Soon, a threat that arose in Thuringia, from the French and the Imperial army ("Caesars"), forced him to leave there with the main forces. From this moment on, having a significant numerical superiority, the Austrians win a series of victories over the generals of Friedrich (at Moise on September 7, at Breslau on November 22), the key Silesian fortresses of Schweidnitz (now Swidnica, Poland) and Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) are in their hands. In October 1757, the Austrian General Hadik succeeded in a sudden raid by a flying detachment on a short time capture the capital of Prussia, the city of Berlin. Having averted the threat from the French and the "Caesars", Frederick II transferred an army of forty thousand to Silesia and on December 5 won a decisive victory over the Austrian army at Leuthen. As a result of this victory, the situation that existed at the beginning of the year was restored. Thus, the result of the campaign was a "combat draw".
Middle Germany
1758: The battles of Zorndorf and Hochkirch do not bring decisive success to either side
The new commander-in-chief of the Russians was general-in-chief Willim Fermor, who became famous for taking Memel in the previous campaign. At the beginning of 1758, he occupied, without meeting resistance, the entire East Prussia, including its capital, the city of Koenigsberg, then heading towards Brandenburg. In August he laid siege to Küstrin, a key fortress on the way to Berlin. Friedrich immediately moved towards him. The battle took place on August 14 near the village of Zorndorf and was distinguished by tremendous bloodshed. The Russians had 42,000 soldiers in the army with 240 guns, while Frederick had 33,000 soldiers with 116 guns. The battle revealed several big problems in the Russian army - insufficient cooperation separate parts, the weak moral preparation of the observational corps (the so-called "Shuvalovites"), finally, called into question the competence of the commander in chief himself. At the critical moment of the battle, Fermor left the army, did not direct the course of the battle for some time, and appeared only towards the end. Clausewitz later called the battle of Zorndorf the strangest battle of the Seven Years' War, referring to its chaotic, unpredictable course. Having started "according to the rules", it eventually resulted in a great massacre, breaking up into many separate battles, in which the Russian soldiers showed unsurpassed tenacity, according to Friedrich, it was not enough to kill them, they also had to be knocked down. Both sides fought to the point of exhaustion and suffered huge losses. The Russian army lost 16,000 people, the Prussians 11,000. The opponents spent the night on the battlefield, the next day Fermor was the first to withdraw his troops, thus giving Frederick a reason to attribute the victory to himself. However, he did not dare to pursue the Russians. Russian troops withdrew to the Vistula. General Palmbach, sent by Fermor to besiege Kolberg, stood for a long time under the walls of the fortress, without doing anything.
On October 14, the Austrians operating in South Saxony managed to defeat Frederick at Hochkirch, however, without much consequences. Having won the battle, the Austrian commander Daun led his troops back to Bohemia.
The war with the French was more successful for the Prussians, they beat them three times in a year: at Rheinberg, at Krefeld and at Mer. In general, although the 1758 campaign of the year ended more or less successfully for the Prussians, it additionally weakened the Prussian troops, who suffered significant, irreplaceable losses for Frederick during the three years of the war: from 1756 to 1758, he lost, not counting those who were captured, 43 general killed or died from wounds received in battles, among them, their best military leaders, such as Keith, Winterfeld, Schwerin, Moritz von Dessau and others.
1759: Defeat of the Prussians at Kunersdorf, "the miracle of the House of Brandenburg"
On May 8 (19), 1759, General-in-Chief P. S. Saltykov was unexpectedly appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army, concentrated at that time in Poznan, instead of V. V. Fermor. (The reasons for Fermor's resignation are not entirely clear, however, it is known that the St. the outcome of the battle of Zorndorf and the unsuccessful sieges of Küstrin and Kolberg). On July 7, 1759, the forty-thousandth Russian army marched west to the Oder River, in the direction of the city of Krosen, intending to join the Austrian troops there. The debut of the new commander-in-chief was successful: on July 23, in the battle of Palzig (Kai), he utterly defeated the twenty-eight thousandth corps of the Prussian General Wedel. On August 3, 1759, the allies met in the city of Frankfurt an der Oder, three days before that occupied by Russian troops.
At this time, the Prussian king with an army of 48,000 people, with 200 guns, was moving towards the enemy from the south. On August 10, he crossed to the right bank of the Oder River and took up a position east of the village of Kunersdorf. On August 12, 1759, the famous battle of the Seven Years' War took place - the Battle of Kunersdorf. Frederick was utterly defeated, out of the 48,000th army, he, by his own admission, did not even have 3,000 soldiers left. “In truth,” he wrote to his minister after the battle, “I believe that all is lost. I will not survive the death of my Fatherland. Goodbye forever". After the victory at Kunersdorf, the allies had only to strike the last blow, take Berlin, the road to which was free, and thereby force Prussia to surrender, however, disagreements in their camp did not allow them to use the victory and end the war. Instead of advancing on Berlin, they pulled their troops away, accusing each other of violating allied obligations. Friedrich himself called his unexpected salvation "the miracle of the House of Brandenburg." Friedrich escaped, but failures continued to haunt him until the end of the year: on November 20, the Austrians, together with imperial troops, managed to surround and force the shameful, without a fight, surrender of the 15,000th corps of the Prussian general Fink under Maxen.
The heavy defeats of 1759 prompted Frederick to turn to England with the initiative to convene a peace congress. The British supported it all the more willingly because they, for their part, considered the main goals in this war achieved. On November 25, 1759, 5 days after Maxen, an invitation to a peace congress was handed over to representatives of Russia, Austria and France in Rysvik. France signaled its participation, however, the matter ended in nothing because of the intransigent position taken by Russia and Austria, who hoped to use the victories of 1759 to deliver the final blow to Prussia in the next year's campaign.
Nicholas Pocock. "The Battle of Quiberon Bay" (1812)
Meanwhile, England at sea defeated the French fleet at Quiberon Bay.
1760: Frederick's Pyrrhic victory at Torgau
The war thus continued. In 1760, Frederick with difficulty brought the size of his army to 120,000 soldiers. Franco-Austrian- Russian troops by this time there were up to 220,000 soldiers. However, as in previous years, the numerical superiority of the Allies was nullified by the lack of a unified plan and inconsistency in actions. The Prussian king, trying to prevent the actions of the Austrians in Silesia, on August 1, 1760, sent his thirty thousandth army across the Elbe and, with the passive pursuit of the Austrians, arrived in the Liegnitz region by August 7. Misleading a stronger enemy (Field Marshal Down had about 90,000 soldiers by this time), Frederick II actively maneuvered at first, and then decided to break through to Breslau. While Friedrich and Down mutually exhausted the troops with their marches and countermarches, the Austrian corps of General Laudon on August 15 in the Liegnitz region suddenly collided with the Prussian troops. Frederick II unexpectedly attacked and defeated Laudon's corps. The Austrians lost up to 10,000 killed and 6,000 captured. Friedrich, who lost about 2,000 men killed and wounded in this battle, managed to break out of the encirclement.
Barely escaping encirclement, the Prussian king almost lost his own capital. On October 3 (September 22), 1760, the detachment of Major General Totleben stormed Berlin. The assault was repulsed and Totleben had to retreat to Köpenick, where he waited for the corps of Lieutenant General Z. G. Chernyshev (reinforced by Panin's 8,000th corps) and the Austrian corps of General Lassi assigned to reinforce the corps. On the evening of October 8, at a military council in Berlin, due to the overwhelming numerical superiority of the enemy, a decision was made to retreat, and on the same night the Prussian troops defending the city leave for Spandau, leaving the garrison in the city as an "object" of surrender. The garrison brings surrender to Totleben, as the general who first laid siege to Berlin. The pursuit of the enemy is taken over by Panin's corps and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, they manage to defeat the Prussian rearguard and capture more than a thousand prisoners. On the morning of October 9, 1760, the Russian detachment of Totleben and the Austrians (the latter in violation of the terms of surrender) enter Berlin. Guns and guns were seized in the city, gunpowder and armory depots were blown up. An indemnity was imposed on the population. With the news of the approach of Frederick with the main forces of the Prussians, the allies, by order of the command, leave the capital of Prussia.
Having received news on the way that the Russians had abandoned Berlin, Friedrich turns to Saxony. While he was conducting military operations in Silesia, the Imperial Army ("Caesars") managed to oust the weak Prussian forces left in Saxony for screening, Saxony was lost to Frederick. He cannot allow this in any way: the human and material resources of Saxony are desperately needed for him to continue the war. November 3, 1760 at Torgau will be the last major battle of the Seven Years' War. He is distinguished by incredible bitterness, victory tends to one side or the other several times during the day. The Austrian commander Daun manages to send a messenger to Vienna with the news of the defeat of the Prussians, and only by 9 pm it becomes clear that he was in a hurry. Frederick comes out victorious, however, this is a Pyrrhic victory: in one day he loses 40% of his army. He is no longer able to make up for such losses; in the last period of the war, he is forced to abandon offensive actions and give the initiative to his opponents in the hope that they, due to their indecision and slowness, will not be able to use it properly.
In the secondary theaters of the war, Frederick's opponents are accompanied by some successes: the Swedes manage to establish themselves in Pomerania, the French in Hesse.
1761-1763: The second "miracle of the House of Brandenburg"
In 1761, there were no significant clashes: the war was waged mainly by maneuvering. The Austrians manage to capture Schweidnitz again, Russian troops under the command of General Rumyantsev take Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg). The capture of Kolberg would be the only major event of the 1761 campaign in Europe.
No one in Europe, not excluding Frederick himself, at this time believes that Prussia will be able to avoid defeat: the resources of a small country are incommensurable with the power of its opponents, and the longer the war continues, the more important this factor becomes. And then, when Frederick was already actively probing through intermediaries the possibility of starting peace negotiations, his implacable opponent, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, who once declared her determination to continue the war to a victorious end, dies, even if she had to sell half of her dresses for this. On January 5, 1762, Peter III ascended the Russian throne, who saved Prussia from defeat by concluding the Petersburg Peace with Frederick, his old idol. As a result, Russia voluntarily abandoned all its acquisitions in this war (East Prussia with Koenigsberg, whose inhabitants, including Immanuel Kant, had already sworn allegiance to the Russian crown) and provided Friedrich with a corps under the command of Count Z. G. Chernyshev for the war against Austrians, their recent allies. It is understandable why Friedrich fawned over his Russian admirer like never before before anyone else in his life. The latter, however, needed little: the rank of Prussian colonel, granted to them by Frederick, the eccentric Peter was more proud than the Russian imperial crown.
Asian theater of war
Indian campaign
Main article: Indian Campaign of the Seven Years' War
English landing in the Philippines
Main article: Philippine campaign
Central American Theater of War
Main articles: Guadalupe campaign , Dominican campaign , Martinique campaign , Cuban campaign
South American theater of war
European Politics and the Seven Years' War. Chronological table
Year, date | Event |
---|---|
June 2, 1746 | |
October 18, 1748 | Aachen world. End of the War of the Austrian Succession |
January 16, 1756 | Westminster Convention between Prussia and England |
May 1, 1756 | Defensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles |
May 17, 1756 | England declares war on France |
January 11, 1757 | Russia joins the Treaty of Versailles |
January 22, 1757 | Union treaty between Russia and Austria |
January 29, 1757 | Holy Roman Empire declares war on Prussia |
May 1, 1757 | Offensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles |
January 22, 1758 | Estates of East Prussia swear allegiance to the Russian crown |
April 11, 1758 | Treaty of subsidies between Prussia and England |
April 13, 1758 | Subsidy agreement between Sweden and France |
May 4, 1758 | Treaty of Alliance between France and Denmark |
January 7, 1758 | Extension of the agreement on subsidies between Prussia and England |
January 30-31, 1758 | Subsidy agreement between France and Austria |
November 25, 1759 | Declaration of Prussia and England on the Convocation of a Peace Congress |
April 1, 1760 | Extension of the union treaty between Russia and Austria |
January 12, 1760 | Last extension of the subsidy treaty between Prussia and England |
April 2, 1761 | Treaty of Friendship and Trade between Prussia and Turkey |
June-July 1761 | Separate peace negotiations between France and England |
August 8, 1761 | Convention between France and Spain concerning the war with England |
January 4, 1762 | England declares war on Spain |
January 5, 1762 | Death of Elizabeth Petrovna |
February 4, 1762 | Alliance pact between France and Spain |
May 5, 1762 |
After Thirty Years' War the nature of confrontations between countries in the world began to change. Local conflicts gave way to wars that had an international character. For example, such was the Seven Years' War, which began in Europe in 1756. It was an attempt by the Prussian king Frederick II to extend his influence over most of the continent. The aspirations of Prussia were supported by England, and a coalition of four states opposed such a powerful "tandem". These were Austria, Saxony, Sweden, France, which were supported by Russia.
The war lasted until 1763, ending with the signing of a series of peace treaties that affected political development countries.
Reason and causes of the war
The official reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of many countries with the results of the redistribution of the "Austrian heritage". This process lasted eight years - from 1740 to 1748, leaving the states of Europe dissatisfied with new territorial acquisitions. The political and economic situation of that time had a significant impact on the formation of contradictions between England and France, Austria and Prussia. So by the end of the 1750s. Two groups of reasons were formed that provoked the start of the Seven Years' War:
- England and France could not divide the colonial possessions among themselves. The countries constantly competed with each other in this matter and not only at the political level. There were also armed clashes that claimed the lives of the population in the colonies and the soldiers of both armies.
- Austria and Prussia were arguing over Silesia, which was the most developed industrial region of Austria, taken from it as a result of the conflict of 1740-1748.
Participants of the confrontation
Prussia, which kindled the fire of war, concluded a coalition agreement with England. This group was opposed by Austria, France, Saxony, Sweden and Russia, which provided significant support to the coalition. Neutrality was occupied by Holland, which participated in the war for the "Austrian Succession".
Main fronts of the war
Historians distinguish three directions in which the hostilities of the opponents took place. First, this is the Asian front, where events unfolded in India. Secondly, this is the North American front, where the interests of France and England clashed. Thirdly, the European front, on which many military battles took place.
Start of hostilities
Frederick II had been preparing for war for several years. First of all, he increased the number of his own troops and carried out its complete reorganization. As a result, the king received a modern and efficient army for that time, whose soldiers made a number of successful conquests. In particular, Silesia was taken from Austria, which provoked a conflict between the members of the two coalitions. The ruler of Austria, Maria Theresa, wanted to return the region, and therefore turned to France, Sweden and Russia for help. The Prussian army could not stand against such a united army, which became the reason for the search for allies. Only England was able to resist both Russia and France at the same time. For their "services" the British government wanted to secure possessions on the mainland.
Prussia was the first to start hostilities by attacking Saxony, which was strategically important for Frederick II:
- Bridgehead for further advance to Austria.
- Providing a permanent supply of food and water for the Prussian army.
- Use for the benefit of Prussia of the material and economic potential of Saxony.
Austria tried to repel the attack of the Prussian army, but everything was unsuccessful. No one could stand against Frederick's soldiers. The army of Maria Theresa was unable to hold back the attacks of Prussia, so all the time losing in local skirmishes.
Within a short time, Frederick II managed to capture Moravia, Bohemia, entering Prague for a short while. The Austrian army began to fight back only in the summer of 1757, when the Austrian commander Daun, using the entire military reserve, ordered a constant shelling of the Prussian army. The consequence of such actions was the capitulation of the troops of Frederick II and his gradual retreat to the city of Nimburg. In order to save the remnants of his army, the king ordered to remove the oblogue of Prague, and return to the border of his own state.
European front 1758-1763: main events and battles
An allied army of almost 300 thousand people came out against the army of the Prussian king. Therefore, Frederick II decided to split the coalition that fought against her. First, the French were defeated, who were in the principalities neighboring Austria. This allowed Prussia to invade Silesia again.
Strategically, Frederick II was several steps ahead of his enemies. He managed to deceive attacks to bring chaos into the ranks of the army of the French, Lorraine and Austrians. Thanks to a well-planned operation, Silesia ended up under the rule of Prussia in the second.
In the summer of 1757, Russian troops actively began to take part in the war, which tried to capture the eastern regions of the Prussian state through Lithuania. By August of the same year, it became clear that Frederick would lose the Second Battle of Koenigsberg and East Prussia. But the Russian General Apraksin refused to continue military operations, arguing that the army was in a disadvantageous position. As a result of a successful company, Russian army left behind only the port of Memel, where the base of the fleet was located Russian Empire for the entire duration of the war.
During 1758-1763. There were many battles, the main of which were:
- 1758 - East Prussia and Koenigsberg were conquered from the Russians, the decisive battle took place near the village of Zorndorf.
- The battle near the village of Kunersdorf, where a major battle took place between the Prussian army and the combined Russian-Astrian. After the battle, only three thousand soldiers remained from the 48 thousand army of Frederick II, with whom the king was forced to retreat across the Oder River. Another part of the Prussian troops were scattered in neighboring settlements. It took several days for the king and his generals to get them back in line. The allies did not pursue the army of Frederick the Second, since the human losses went to tens of thousands, a lot of soldiers were injured and went missing. After the Battle of Kunersdorf, Russian troops redeployed to Silesia, which helped the Austrians drive out the Prussian army.
- In 1760-1761. military operations were practically not conducted, the nature of the war can be characterized as inactive. Even the fact that Russian troops occupied Berlin for a while in 1760, but then surrendered it without a fight, did not cause an intensification of hostilities. The city was returned back to Prussia because it was of strategic importance.
- In 1762, Peter the Third ascended the Russian throne, who replaced Elizaveta Petrovna. This had a radical effect on the further course of the war. The Russian emperor worshiped the military genius of Frederick II, so he went to sign a peace treaty with him. At this time, England destroyed the fleet of France, bringing her out of the war. Peter the Third was killed in July 1762 on the orders of his wife, after which Russia returned to the war again, but did not continue it. Catherine II did not want to allow Austria to strengthen in Central Europe.
- February 1763 was signed by the Austro-Prussian peace treaty.
North American and Asian fronts
IN North America confrontations took place between England and France, who could not divide the spheres of influence in Canada. The French did not want to lose their possessions in this part of the North American continent, so they aggravated relations with the British in every possible way. Numerous Indian tribes were also drawn into the confrontation, who were trying to survive in an undeclared war.
The battle that finally put everything in its place took place in 1759 near Quebec. After that, the French finally lost their colonies in North America.
A clash of interests between the two countries also occurred in Asia, where Bengal rebelled against the British. It happened in 1757, at the very beginning of the Seven Years' War. France, to which Bengal was subject, declared neutrality. But this did not stop the British, they began to attack the French outposts more and more often.
Waging war on multiple fronts and being absent from Asia strong army, led to the fact that the government of this country could not adequately organize the defense of its Asian possessions. The British hurried to take advantage of this by landing their troops on the island of Martinique. It was the center of French trade in the West Indies, and as a result of the Seven Years' War, Martinique was ceded to Britain.
The results of the confrontation between England and France were enshrined in a peace treaty, which was signed in early February 1762 in Paris.
The results of the war
In fact, the war ended in 1760, but local confrontations continued for almost three more years. Peace Treaties between the countries were signed in 1762 and 1763, on their basis, and then created a system of relations in Europe after the Seven Years' War. The outcome of this conflict changed, in Once again, changed the political map of Europe, slightly adjusting the borders and reformatting the balance of power in the second half of the 18th century. in international relations.
The main consequences of the war include:
- The redistribution of colonial possessions in Europe, which caused the redistribution of spheres of influence between England and France.
- England became the largest colonial empire in Europe, thanks to the displacement of France from Northern Europe and Europe.
- France in Europe lost a lot of territory, which caused a weakening of the position of the state in Europe.
- In France, during the Seven Years' War, the preconditions for the beginning of the revolution, which began in 1848, gradually took shape.
- Prussia formalized its claims to Austria in the form of a peace treaty, under the terms of which Silesia, as well as neighboring territories, came under the rule of Frederick II.
- Aggravated territorial contradictions in Central Europe.
- Russia has gained invaluable experience in conducting military operations in Europe against the leading states of the continent.
- In Europe, a galaxy of outstanding commanders was formed, who then began to bring victories to their states.
- Russia did not receive any territorial acquisitions, but its positions in Europe were strengthened and strengthened.
- A large number of people died. According to average estimates, about two million servicemen could have died in the Seven Years' War.
- In the British colonies in North America, taxes increased several times to pay for military expenses. This aroused the resistance of the colonists, who in Canada and the North American states tried to develop industry, build roads, and invest in the economy of the colonies. As a result, the prerequisites began to take shape for the struggle against British rule on the continent.
- The Asian colonies of France became the property of the British Monarchy.
The victory of Prussia in the Seven Years' War could not have been predicted by the talented commanders of that time. Yes, Frederick II was a brilliant strategist and tactician, but his army was on the verge of complete loss many times. Historians believe that a number of factors prevented the final defeat of the Prussian army:
- The allied coalition formed against Prussia was not effective. Each country defended its own interests, which prevented at the right time to unite and act as a single force against the enemy.
- A strong Prussia was a profitable ally for Russia, England, and France, so the states agreed to seize Silesia and Austria.
Thanks to this, the consequences of the Seven Years' War had a serious impact on the situation in Europe. In the central part of the continent, a strong Prussian state arose, with centralized power. So Frederick II managed to overcome the separatism of individual principalities, get rid of the fragmentation within the country, focusing on the unity of the German lands. Prussia, in consequence, became the central core of the formation of such a state as Germany.
Course of the Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) is a war of two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India.
general political situation. Causes
One coalition included England and Prussia, the other - France, Austria and Russia. Between England and France there was a struggle for colonies in North America. Clashes there began as early as 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. 1756, January - Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, decided to make peace with its old enemy France.
The Austrians wanted to regain Silesia, while the Prussians hoped to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to win Stettin and other territories from Prussia that were lost during the Great Northern War. By the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to transfer it to Poland later in exchange for Courland and Semigallia. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.
The course of hostilities
1756 - invasion of Saxony
The King of Prussia had a well-trained army of 150,000, at that time the best in Europe. 1756, August - he invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people and inflicted a number of defeats on the Austrian army, which came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian army. After that, the 50,000th Austrian army left Saxony.
Attack on Bohemia, Silesia
1757, spring - the Prussian king invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun the invasion of East Prussia, and France was going to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, near Prague, 64,000 Prussians defeated 61,000 Austrians. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian troops also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50,000 Austrians were blocked in the capital of the Czech Republic by a 60,000-strong Prussian army. To unblock Prague, the Austrians gathered at Kolin the 54,000th army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved to Prague. Friedrich fielded 33 thousand people with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.
Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen
1757, June 17 - Prussian troops began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Daun was able to notice this maneuver in time and deployed his forces with a front to the north. When the next day the Prussians went on the attack, inflicting the main blow against the enemy's right flank, they were met with heavy fire. The Prussian infantry of General Gulsen was able to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in the hands of the Austrians.
Down moved his reserve here. Finally, the main forces of the Prussians, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flank went on the attack. Down's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of the Prussian army retreated to Nimburg.
Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half superiority of the Austrians in people and a twofold advantage in artillery. Frederick's army lost 14 thousand killed, wounded and captured and almost all artillery, and the Austrians - 8 thousand people. The Prussian king was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the border of Prussia.
Clockwise from top left: Battle of Plasse (June 23, 1757); Battle of Carillon (July 6-8, 1758); Battle of Zorndorf (August 25, 1758); Battle of Kunersdorf (August 12, 1759)
The strategic position of Prussia seemed critical. Allied forces numbering up to 300 thousand people were deployed against the Prussian army. Frederick 2 decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then again invade Silesia.
The 45,000-strong allied army took up a position near Müheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, was able to lure the enemy out of the fortifications with a false retreat to the village of Rossbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussian army from crossings over the Saale River and defeat it.
November 5, 1757, in the morning - the allies marched in three columns around the enemy left flank. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which started a skirmish with the Prussian vanguard. Friedrich was able to unravel the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon he ordered to withdraw from the camp and simulate a withdrawal to Merseburg. The Allies attempted to intercept the escape route by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. But she was unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seidlitz.
At this time, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. The allied infantry had to line up in battle formation under enemy nuclei. Soon she was under the threat of a flank attack by the Seidlitz squadrons, faltered and ran. The French and their allies lost 7,000 killed, wounded and captured, and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussian army were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. Here, both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, and the mistakes of the allied command, affected. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver, as a result most of the army was in marching columns and did not have the opportunity to take part in the battle. Friedrich got the opportunity to beat the enemy in parts.
Meanwhile p Russian army defeated in Silesia. Frederick rushed to their aid with 21,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 167 guns. The Austrians settled down near the village of Leiten on the banks of the Weistritsa River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. 1757, December 5, morning - the Prussian cavalry threw back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack of the main forces of the Prussian army was a complete surprise for the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.
The Prussian king, as always, delivered the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the avant-garde he drew the attention of the enemy to the opposite wing. When Karl realized the true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrians' order of battle was broken. Frederick took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry routed the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put them to flight. Then Seydlitz also attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back behind Leithen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete annihilation. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all artillery and convoy. The losses of the Prussian army did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.
Frederick II the Great
East Prussia
Meanwhile, active fighting Russian troops started. Back in the summer of 1757, the 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin moved to Lithuania, intending to capture East Prussia. In August, the Russian army approached Koenigsberg.
On August 19, the 22,000th detachment of the Prussian General Lewald attacked the Russian army near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, having no idea either about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times superior to him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Levald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of the Prussian forces during the battle only exacerbated the situation. The right flank of Lewald turned out to be overturned, which could not be compensated for by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to develop success. The losses of the Prussians amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, the losses of the Russians reached 5.5 thousand people. The Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Egersdorf had no decisive significance.
Unexpectedly, Apraksin gave the order to retreat, citing the lack of supplies and the separation of the army from their bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet for the duration of the war.
1758 - the new commander-in-chief, General-in-Chief Count V.V. Fermor, with a 70,000th army with 245 guns, was able to easily occupy East Prussia, captured Koenigsberg and continued the offensive to the west.
Battle of Zorndorf
In August, a general battle took place between the Russian and Prussian troops near the village of Zorndorf. On the 14th, the Prussian king, who had 32,000 soldiers and 116 guns, attacked Fermor's army here, in which there were 42,000 people and 240 guns. The Prussians managed to press the Russian army, which had retreated to Kalisz. Fermor lost 7,000 killed, 10,000 wounded, 2,000 prisoners, and 60 guns. Friedrich's losses reached 4 thousand killed, more than 6 thousand wounded, 1.5 thousand prisoners. Frederick did not pursue the defeated army of Fermor, but headed for Saxony.
Map of the Seven Years' War
1759 - Battle of Kunersdorf
1759 - Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal Count P.S. Saltykov. By this time, the Allies had put up 440 thousand people against Prussia, whom the Prussian king could only oppose with 220 thousand. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. On July 23, at Frankfurt an der Oder, she joined the Austrian army. On July 31, the king of Prussia with the 48th thousandth army took up a position near the village of Kunersdorf, hoping to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, in to a large extent outnumbered by his troops.
Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, the Prussians attacked the left flank of the allied forces. The Prussian troops succeeded in capturing an important height here and placing a battery there, which brought down fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussians pressed the center and the right flank of the Russians. But Saltykov was able to create a new front and go on a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated behind the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3,000 soldiers at hand, as the rest scattered around the surrounding villages, and they had to be gathered under the banners for several days.
Frederick's army lost 18 thousand people killed and wounded, the Russians - 13 thousand, and the Austrians - 2 thousand. Due to the heavy losses and fatigue of the soldiers, the Allies could not organize the pursuit, which saved the Prussians from final defeat. After Kunersdorf, the Russian army, at the request of the Austrian emperor, was transferred to Silesia, where the Prussian army also suffered a number of defeats.
1760-1761
The campaign of 1760 proceeded sluggishly. Only at the end of September was a raid on Berlin undertaken. The first assault on the city, undertaken on the 22-23rd of the 5th thousand. detachment of General Totleben, ended in failure. Only with the approach of the 12,000th corps of General Chernyshev and the detachment of the Austrian General Lassi, the Prussian capital was besieged by the 38,000th allied army (of which 24,000 were Russians), 2.5 times greater than the number of the Prussian army concentrated near Berlin. The Prussians chose to leave the city without a fight. On September 28, the 4,000-strong garrison that covered the retreat capitulated. In the city, 57 guns were captured and gunpowder factories and an arsenal were blown up. Because Friedrich hurried to Berlin with the main forces of the army, Field Marshal Saltykov ordered Chernyshev's corps and other detachments to retreat. Berlin itself was not of strategic importance.
The campaign of 1761 proceeded as sluggishly as the previous one. In December, Rumyantsev's corps was taken by Kolberg.
The final stage. Results
The position of the Prussian king seemed hopeless, but the emperor, who replaced the Russian throne in early 1762, bowed to the military genius of Frederick II, stopped the war and even concluded an alliance with Prussia on May 5. At the same time, after the destruction of its fleet by the British, France withdrew from the war, having suffered a number of defeats from the British in North America and India. True, in July 1762, Peter was deposed on the orders of his wife. She terminated the Russo-Prussian alliance, but did not continue the war. An excessive weakening of Prussia was not in the interests of Russia, as it could lead to Austrian hegemony in Central Europe.
Austria was forced to make peace with Prussia on February 15, 1763. The King of Prussia was forced to renounce his claims to Saxony, but retained Silesia. Five days earlier, peace had been concluded in Paris between England and France. The French lost their possessions in Canada and India, retaining only 5 Indian cities in their hands. The left bank of the Mississippi also passed from France to England, and the French were forced to cede the right bank of this river to the Spaniards, and they also had to pay compensation to the latter for Florida ceded to the British.
In the 50s. Prussia becomes the main enemy of Russia. The reason for this is the aggressive policy of its king, aimed at the east of Europe.
In 1756 the Seven Years' War began . The conference at the highest court, which played the role of the Secret, or Military, Council under Empress Elizabeth, set the task - "by weakening the king of Prussia, to make him fearless and carefree for the local side (for Russia)."
Frederick II in August 1756, without declaring war, attacked Saxony. His army, defeating the Austrians, captured Dresden, Leipzig. An anti-Prussian coalition is finally formed - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden.
In the summer of 1757 the Russian army entered East Prussia. On the way to Koenigsberg, near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, the army of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin on August 19 (30), 1757 met with the army of Field Marshal X. Lewald.
The battle was started by the Prussians. They successively attacked the left flank and center, then the right flank of the Russians. They broke through the center, and a critical situation arose here. The regiments of the division of General Lopukhin, who was killed during the battle, suffered heavy losses and began to retreat. The enemy could break into the rear of the Russian army. But the situation was saved by four reserve regiments of P. A. Rumyantsev, a young general whose star began to rise in those years. Their swift and sudden attack on the flank of the Prussian infantry led to its stampede. The same thing happened in the disposition of the Russian avant-garde and the right flank. The fire from guns and rifles mowed down the ranks of the Prussians. They fled along the entire front, losing more than 3,000 killed and 5,000 wounded; Russians - 1.4 thousand killed and more than 5 thousand wounded.
Apraksin won with the help of only part of his army. As a result, the road to Koenigsberg turned out to be free. But the commander took the army to Tilsit, then to Courland and Livonia for winter quarters. The reason for the departure was not only a lack of provisions and mass illnesses among the soldiers, about which he wrote to St. Petersburg, but also something else, which he kept silent about - the empress fell ill and the accession of Prince Peter Fedorovich, her nephew and supporter of the Prussian king, was expected.
Elizabeth soon recovered, and Apraksin was put on trial. General V.V. Farmer, an Englishman by birth, is appointed commander. He distinguished himself in the wars of the 1930s and 1940s. with Turkey and Sweden. During the Seven Years' War, his corps was taken by Memel, Tilsit. The general showed himself well with his division in the Gross-Egersdorf battle. Becoming at the head of the Russian army, in January he occupied Koenigsberg, then all of East Prussia. Its inhabitants took an oath to the Russian Empress.
In early June, Fermor went to the southwest - to Kustrin, which is eastern Berlin, at the confluence of the Warta River with the Oder. Here, near the village of Zorndorf, on August 14 (25), a battle took place. The Russian army numbered 42.5 thousand people, the army of Frederick II - 32.7 thousand. The battle lasted all day and was fierce. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Both the Prussian king and Fermor spoke of their victory, and both withdrew their armies from Zorndorf. The outcome of the battle was uncertain. The indecisiveness of the Russian commander, his distrust of the soldiers did not allow him to finish the job, to win. But the Russian army showed its strength, and Frederick withdrew, not daring to fight again with those whom, as he himself admitted, "he could not crush." Moreover, he feared disaster, as his army had lost its best soldiers.
Fermor was retired on May 8, 1758, but served in the army until the end of the war, showed himself well, commanding corps. He left a memory of himself as an executive, but little initiative, indecisive commander in chief. Being a commander of a lower rank, showing courage and diligence, he distinguished himself in a number of battles.
In his place, unexpectedly for many, including himself, General Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov was appointed. A representative of an old family of Moscow boyars, a relative of the Empress (her mother is from the Saltykov family), he began serving as a soldier of the Peter's Guard in 1714. He lived in France for two decades, studied maritime affairs. But, having returned to Russia in the early 30s, he served in the guards and at the court. Then he participates in Polish campaign(1733) and Russian-Swedish war; later, during the Seven Years' War, in the capture of Koenigsberg, the Battle of Zorndorf. He became commander-in-chief when he was 61 years old - for that time he was already an old man.
Saltykov was distinguished by an eccentric, peculiar character. He was somewhat reminiscent of the one who started military career during these years, he loved the army and the soldier, as they did him, he was a simple and modest, honest and comical person. He could not stand solemn ceremonies and receptions, splendor and pomp. This “gray-haired, small, unpretentious old man”, as A. T. Bolotov, a famous memoirist, participant in the Seven Years War, certifies him, “seemed ... like a real chicken”. Politicians in the capital laughed at him and recommended that he consult with the Farmer and the Austrians in everything. But he, an experienced and decisive general, despite his “simple” kind, made decisions himself, delved into everything. He did not bend his back before the Conference, which constantly interfered in the affairs of the army, believing that it could be controlled from Petersburg, thousands of miles from the theater of operations. His independence and firmness, energy and common sense, caution and hatred of routine, quick wits and remarkable composure bribed the soldiers who sincerely loved him.
Having taken command of the army, Saltykov leads it to Frankfurt an der Oder. On July 12 (23), 1759, he crushes the army of General Wedel at Palzig. Then captures Frankfurt. Here, near the village of Kunersdorf, on the right bank of the Oder, opposite Frankfurt, on August 1 (12), 1759, a general battle took place. In Saltykov's army there were about 41 thousand Russian soldiers with 200 guns and 18.5 thousand Austrians with 48 guns; in the army of Frederick - 48 thousand, 114 heavy guns, regimental artillery. In the course of a fierce battle, success accompanied one side, then the other. Saltykov skillfully maneuvered the regiments, moved them to the right places and at the right time. Artillery, Russian infantry, Austrian and Russian cavalry performed excellently. At the beginning of the battle, the Prussians pressed the Russians on the left flank. However, the attack of the Prussian infantry in the center was repulsed. Here Friedrich twice threw into battle his main force - the cavalry of General Seydlitz. But it was destroyed by Russian soldiers. Then, on the left flank, the Russians launched a counterattack and drove the enemy back. The transition of the entire Allied army to the offensive ended in the complete defeat of Frederick. He himself and the remnants of his army fled in a terrible panic from the battlefield. The king was almost captured by the Cossacks. He lost more than 18.5 thousand people, the Russians - more than 13 thousand, the Austrians - about 2 thousand. Berlin was preparing for surrender, the archives, the king's family were taken out of it, and he himself, according to rumors, was thinking about suicide.
Saltykov, after brilliant victories, received the rank of field marshal. In the future, the intrigues of the Austrians, the distrust of the Conference unsettle him. He fell ill and is replaced by the same Fermor.
In the campaign of 1760, the detachment of General 3. G. Chernyshev occupied Berlin on September 28 (October 9). But the inconsistency in the actions of the Austrian and Russian armies again and strongly interferes with the matter. Berlin had to be left, but the fact of its capture made a strong impression on Europe. At the end of the following year, a 16,000-strong corps under the skillful command of Rumyantsev, supported by a landing force of sailors led by G. A. Spiridov, captured the Kolberg fortress on the Baltic coast. The way to Stettin and Berlin was opened. Prussia was on the brink of ruin.
Salvation for Friedrich came from St. Petersburg - she died on December 25, 1761, and her nephew who replaced her on the throne (son of the Duke of Goshtinsky and Anna, daughter) Peter III On March 5 (16), 1762, Fedorovich concluded a truce with the Prussian monarch he adored. A month and a half later, he concludes a peace treaty with him - Prussia gets back all its lands. Russia's sacrifices in the seven-year war were in vain.
Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763 - received in historical science a variety of definitions. So Winston Churchill called it the forerunner of the First World War, for Austria it was the Third Silesian, the Swedes called it Pomeranian, in Canada - the Third Carnatic. It was a global conflict that engulfed the most diverse corners of the planet; in fact, many European states fought in it. How Russia was drawn into this war, and what role it played, read in this article.
Causes
In short, the causes of this war are colonial in nature. Colonial tensions existed between France and England mainly in North America, and because of the possessions of the English king on the continent. Prussia and Austria also competed for disputed territories. So during the first two wars for Silesia, Prussia was able to chop off these lands for itself, which almost doubled its population.
Prussia, led by King Frederick II, after several centuries of fragmentation, began to claim hegemony in Europe. Many people didn't like it. Nevertheless, in the forerunner of the Seven Years' War, we can observe such a historical phenomenon as a coalition coup. This is when a seemingly understandable coalition breaks up and a new one is formed.
King of Prussia Frederick II the Great. Years of government 1740 - 1786
Everything happened like this. For Russia, Austria and England were old allies. And Russia opposed the strengthening of Prussia. Prussia, on the other hand, was blocking with France and England against Austria. King Frederick II asked England to influence Russia, of course, so as not to fight on two fronts. For this purpose, Prussia promised that she would protect the English possessions on the Continent in exchange for money.
The turning point, which no one expected, was the conclusion between England and Prussia of a non-aggression pact. This caused a strong reaction in France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, these coalitions were formed: Austria, France, Russia and Saxony on the one hand, and Prussia and England on the other.
Thus, Russia was drawn into the Seven Years' War because of its own desire to stop the growth of Prussian influence in Europe. Schematically, this can be represented as follows:
The course of battles
You should know that in the entire 18th century the Russian army never suffered a single defeat! In the Seven Years' War, she was not lucky except with the commanders-in-chief. These were the main events and battles.
Field Marshal Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin
One of the key battles took place between Prussia and Russia in July 1757. The commander of the Russian troops was S.F. Apraksin, who did not particularly hide the fact that the Prussian king is his idol! As a result, despite the fact that the campaign began in May, the troops crossed the Prussian border only in July. The Prussians attacked and overtook the Russian army right on the march! Usually an attack on the march means victory for the attacker. But it was not there. Despite the complete lack of command from Apraksin, the Russian army overturned the Prussians. The battle ended with a decisive victory! Saltykov was tried and removed from command.
Count, general-in-chief Willim Vilimovich Fermor
The next major battle took place in 1958. The place of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army was taken by V.V. Fermor. The battle between the Russian troops and the Prussians took place near the village of Zorndorf. Despite the fact that the commander generally fled from the battlefield, the Russian army utterly defeated the Prussians!
Field Marshal Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov
The last serious battle between the Russian army and the Prussian took place on August 12, 1759. The place of the commander was taken by General P.S. Saltykov. The armies went head to head. Frederick decided to use the so-called oblique attack, when one of the attacking flanks is strongly strengthened and, as it were, sweeps the opposite flank of the enemy obliquely, crashing into the main forces. The calculation is that the overturned flank will disorientate the rest of the troops and the initiative will be intercepted. But the Russian officers did not care what kind of attack Friedrich uses there. They still broke it!
Map of Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War
Miracle of the Brandenburg House - results
When the fortress of Kolberg then fell, Frederick II was in real shock. He didn't know what to do. Several times the king tried to abdicate the throne, even tried to commit suicide. But towards the end of 1761, the unthinkable happened. Elizaveta Petrovna died, ascended the throne.
New Russian emperor signed with Friedrich the allied Petersburg Treaty, in which he completely renounced all the conquests of Russia in Prussia, including Königsberg. Moreover, Prussia was provided with a Russian corps for the war with Austria, yesterday's ally of Russia!
And so it would be quite possible to count on the fact that Königsberg would become part of Russia already in the 18th century, and not in 1945.
In fairness, it is worth saying how this war ended for the rest of the warring parties, what were its results.
The Peace of Paris was concluded between England and France, according to which France ceded Canada and other lands in North America to England.
Prussia made peace with Austria and Silesia, which was called Hubertusburg. Prussia received the disputed Silesia and the County of Glatz.
Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov