Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov: biography. Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Photo from the personal archive of D.A. Arapova
120 years ago, on November 7, 1897, D.A. Arapov, lieutenant general of the medical service, Hero of Socialist Labor, doctor of medical sciences. In 1941 he was a surgeon, since 1942 he was the flagship surgeon of the Northern Fleet. During the Great Patriotic War, he worked in the hospital in the city of Polyarny.
Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov was born on November 7, 1897 in Moscow. In 1916, at the age of nineteen, Dmitry Arapov began his independent career as a junior medical officer in one of the Moscow hospitals. Since 1925, after successfully graduating from the medical faculty of the 2nd Moscow State University, he worked as an intern in the surgical department of the hospital at the Krasny Bogatyr plant. It was here that he mastered the basics of surgical science.
Perseverance and purposefulness, courage combined with caution, high surgical technique and enormous capacity for work led the young surgeon in 1929 to the Institute. N.V. Sklifosovsky. Here the life path brought D.A. Arapova with the great Russian surgeon S.S. Yudin, under whose leadership Dmitry Alekseevich became one of the largest surgeons in our country. During the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940. was the leading surgeon of the field mobile hospital of the first line.
From the first years of medical activity, D.A. Arapova shows interest in scientific work. In 1936, for a set of works on the study of anaerobic infections, endocrine disorders, thyroid pathology, he was awarded the degree of candidate of medical sciences. In 1940, his monograph "Gas Gangrene" was published - a major work that brought D.A. Arapov is widely known, and has not lost its relevance to this day. This book in 1972 she was awarded the N.I. Pirogov. In 1944, Dmitry Alekseevich defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic "Anaerobic infection".
During the Great Patriotic War, Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov was the chief surgeon of the Northern Fleet in the city of Polyarny.
The arrival of the famous surgeon was greatly awaited in Polyarny. It was the first week of the war. The flow of wounded delivered to the local hospital increased. Emergency operations were carried out in parallel on several tables, the entire medical staff was involved. Therefore, appeared in the room stranger, you can say did not notice. YES. Arapov immediately assessed the situation: he did not like the slow pace of work of some surgeons. He briefly introduced himself to one of them, who acted especially uncertainly, demanded a mask, tools ... Arapov's name had an immediate effect, the young doctor immediately agreed to take the place of an assistant ... Dmitry Alekseevich himself, quickly but thoroughly washing his hands, set to work. The assistant barely had time to follow these amazing hands, which acted with the utmost clarity. So, to the accompaniment of anti-aircraft guns defending the sky of Polyarny from enemy raids, D.A. Arapov immediately took up his duties in his new position as Chief Surgeon of the Northern Fleet. He took off his surgical gloves only by the morning of the next day and immediately began his rounds. This is how the Chief Surgeon met the staff of the Marine Hospital.
At the same time, Dmitry Alekseevich was introduced to the commander of the Northern Fleet, A.G. Golovko. From the first minutes, Arapov felt free, relaxed and began to talk about himself, that he devoted himself to the study of gas gangrene, that during the Finnish war sixty percent of the wounded died precisely from gas gangrene and are still looking for effective means of combating this scourge.
The main tasks of the chief surgeon in the initial period of the war were the training of surgical personnel from among the mobilized doctors, and raising the theoretical and practical level of full-time surgeons. Great importance this was organized by D.A. Arapov general naval medical conferences, where the most pressing issues of organizing surgical care and tactics of treating the wounded were studied and discussed. YES. Arapov for the first time introduced registers of defects in the provision of medical care both at the prehospital and hospital levels, which significantly increased the personal responsibility of the doctor.
Under the leadership of Arapov, the main provisions for organizing the reception, sorting, rendering assistance and evacuation of the wounded at various stages were developed. These provisions were issued in the form of instructions, which were strictly observed by all doctors of the fleet. Special attention to D.A. Arapov devoted himself to sorting the wounded during mass admission, on his instructions, the most experienced and trained doctors were allocated for this. Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov was the first to develop temporary instructions for the medical support of ships during combat operations in the Arctic.
On the initiative of D.A. Arapov organized a three-month secondment of doctors to the Murmansk and Polyarninsky VMG, thanks to which 112 doctors received surgical training during the war.
Under his leadership, a unified tactic for the treatment of gunshot wounds was introduced in the Northern Fleet, which consisted in extended surgical treatment.
Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov was constantly at work. He went on torpedo boats to Rybachy, where he operated on the wounded for several days in a row, days and nights. Often for twenty hours he did not leave the operating table. In a blizzard, in snowstorms, in the darkness of the polar nights, Arapov went with landing forces marines behind enemy lines and landed on a rocky, deserted shore.
During the years of the war, the miraculous scalpel of the surgeon Arapov brought hundreds of Severomorsk residents back to life from an almost hopeless state due to severe wounds. On his account there were many truly unique operations. Heroes were patients of Dmitry Alekseevich Soviet Union Marine V.P. Kislyakov, commander of the aviation regiment G.P. Gubanov, fighter pilots S.G. Kurzenkov, Z.A. Sorokin, B.F. Safonov.
An amazing story happened to the North Sea ace Sergei Georgievich Kurzenkov. On one of the winter days of the third year of the war, his plane was set on fire by an anti-aircraft shell, and he himself was wounded in the leg. Kurzenkov pulled the blazing car as far as he could. When the gas tanks exploded, he jumped out with a parachute. But the parachute lines, apparently burned and immediately burst. The pilot was literally saved by a miracle: he fell into a deep snowdrift and slid in it along the slope of the hill.
In addition to extracting a fragment from the pilot's leg, several more life-threatening situations arose during the operation, which Arapov overcame brilliantly.
In the postwar years, the activities of D.A. Arapova was inextricably linked with medicine. Head of the medical department, surgeon-consultant of the Central Moscow Naval Hospital, 50th Naval Hospital of the Central Administration of the Navy. From 1950 to 1953 chief surgeon of the Navy, from 1953 to 1955 Deputy Chief Surgeon of the Navy, from 1955 to 1968 chief surgeon of the Navy.
In this position, his activities in the development of naval surgery were particularly fruitful. During this period, the Navy of our country entered the ocean, created a nuclear submarine fleet and missile aircraft.
YES. Arapov scientifically substantiated and prepared the defining provisions and regulations to solve the problems of medical support for long-term navigation of both individual surface ships and submarines, and their formations. These provisions have not lost their relevance and present stage Navy.
One of the main aspects of the activity of Dmitry Alekseevich as the chief surgeon of the Navy, as before, was the training of qualified surgical personnel. Institute of emergency care. N.V. Sklifosovsky during this period, in fact, became a kind of training center for naval surgeons. Many of his students became prominent scientists and practitioners of naval medicine.
In 1953, Dmitry Alekseevich was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and in 1959 he was awarded the honorary title of Honored Scientist of the RSFSR.
Since October 1968, Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov retired due to illness.
Laureate of the Stalin Prize for the introduction of therapeutic serum into clinical practice N.G. Belenky. Honorary Member of the International Society of Surgeons. Awarded with orders Lenin, Red Banner, Patriotic War 1st degree, 2 Orders of the Red Banner of Labor, Orders of the Red Star, "Badge of Honor".
YES. Arapov entered the history of naval surgery as a prominent scientist, a talented surgeon and a skilled organizer of surgical care in the Navy. The name of Dmitry Alekseevich Arapov deserves to be included in the gallery of outstanding domestic surgeons.
In 2005, Arapov's memory was immortalized with a commemorative plaque on the building of the naval hospital in the city of Polyarny.
Material prepared
librarian MBUK GICM
M.S. Nizhegorodova
D.Yu. Arapov. Islam in Russian Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Section I. Legislation Concerning Islam and Muslims (according to the "Complete
laws of the Russian Empire")
No. 1. Cathedral Code of 1649 (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
No. 2. Decree Nominal November 3, 1713 - On baptism in Kazan and Azov
provinces of Mohammedans, which have peasants in their estates and estates
Orthodox faith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
No. 3. Instruction to the Governors and Voivodes and their comrades, according to which they must
do, September 12, 1728 (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
No. 4. Decree of the Senate November 19, 1742 - On the prevention of the Kazan province
build mosques and on reconnaissance to Governors and Governors about converts
into the Mohammedan law of newly baptized people (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . .43
No. 5. Order given to the Commission on the composition of the New Code on July 30, 1767
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
No. 6. Decree of the Synod on the tolerance of all religions and on the prohibition of Bishops
to enter into various matters relating to confessions of other faiths and to the construction
according to their law of houses of worship, leaving all this to secular authorities,
June 17, 1773. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
No. 7. Decree Named, given to Lieutenant-General Kamensky on January 28, 1783 -
About allowing subjects of the Mohammedan law to elect akhuns themselves. . 46
No. 8. Manifesto April 8, 1783 - On the acceptance of the Crimean peninsula, the island
Taman and the entire Kuban side under the Russian State (extracts). . . . . 47
No. 9. Nominal Decree given to the Governing Senate on February 22, 1784 -
On allowing the Princes and Murzas of Tatar to enjoy all the benefits
Russian nobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
No. 10. Nominal Decree given to Lieutenant-General Baron Igelstrom on April 21
1787 - On the delivery of the Kirghiz-Kaisaks in the strife that occurs between them and
complaints of speedy and fair satisfaction, and about supplying them with the necessary
the number of mullahs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
No. 11
and Ufimsky, Lieutenant-General Baron Igelstrom September 22, 1788 -
On the definition of the Mullahs and other ranks of the Mohammedan law and on the establishment
spiritual assembly in Ufa to manage all the spiritual ranks of that law,
staying in Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fifty
No. 12. Decree Nominal, given to the Senate on September 22, 1788 - On the appointment of the Mufti
over all the people living in Russia of the Mohammedan law. . . . . . . . . .51
No. 13. The Highest Confirmed Report of the Senate April 20, 1789 -
On the appointment of the Mohammedan Law to the Spiritual Assembly established in Ufa
Secretary, Office and other servants, with the production of their salary. .52
No. 14. Decree of the Senate of August 13, 1790 - On allowing Muftis to buy land
among the Bashkirs (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
No. 15. Nominal Decree given to the Yekaterinoslav Governor Kakhovsky
April 27, 1792 - On granting the Turks who wish to settle in Nikolaev,
ten-year benefits, and on the rules for such a settlement (extraction). . . . . 54
No. 16. Decree Nominal, given to the Ufa Governor Peutling on June 15, 1792 -
On the abandonment of Friday, for the spiritual in Ufa, the Mohammedan Assembly,
free from presence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
No. 17. Decree Nominal, given to the Senate on January 26, 1793 - On permission
Mohammedan Law to Mufti Mukhamet-Jan Huseynov and his offspring to buy
open lands among the Bashkirs, and to cover them with infidels, so that the purchase and
the sale of such people extended only to non-Christian non-Christian
confessions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
No. 18. Decree of the Senate of August 17, 1793 - On the choice of Mulls established in Ufa
Spiritual Rule of Mohammedan law in three years. . . . . . . . . . . 56
No. 19. Decree Nominal, given to the Yekaterinoslav and Tauride General
Governor Count Zubov January 23, 1794 - About life in the Tauride region
Mohammedan Spiritual Board, under the chairmanship of the Mufti. . . . . . .58
No. 20. Decree Nominal given to the Livonian, Estonian and Lithuanian Generals
Governor Prince Repnin October 30, 1794 - On the division of the Grand Duchy
Lithuanian into three parts and the image of its administration (extract). . . . . . . . 59
No. 21. Decree Named, announced by the Prosecutor General on December 21, 1797 -
On the distribution of Alkoran printed in Arabic for sale in those provinces
where the peoples of the Mohammedan confession are inhabited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
No. 22
1798 - Order given to the Bashkir and Meshcheryak Canton Chiefs
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
No. 23. Decree Nominal, given to the Senate on December 9, 1802 - On the issuance of money
Mohammedan owners for departing from them, upon the adoption of the Christian
law, serfs, according to the Code of 20 chapter 71 paragraph. . . . . . . . . . .61
No. 24. Nominal Decree given to the Orenburg Military Governor Bakhmetev
March 23, 1803 - About the passage of the Bukharians, who are in Russia, to Mecca for
worship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
No. 25. Nominal Decree given to the Chief Governor of Georgia, Prince Tsitsianov
June 30, 1805 - On the rules for the Mohammedan Clergy of Elisavetpol
constituencies (extract) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
No. 26. Staff of the Mohammedan Clergy of the Elisavetpol district (approved
June 30, 1805). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
No. 27. Decree of the Senate November 30, 1806 - On admission to the civil service of the Tatars
clergy, who are not in the salary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
No. 29. Manifesto of July 25, 1810 - On the division of State affairs into special
control with the meaning of objects belonging to each control
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
(excerpts) 29. The highest approved division of State affairs according to
To the Ministries, August 17, 1810 (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
No. 30. Decree Named, announced to the Senate by the Minister of Justice on October 18, 1811 -
On the judgment of the Muftis in the Governing Senate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
No. 31. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, April 17, 1819
- On the addition to the Tauride Noble Assembly of Nobles to bring
to the fame of the local noble Mohammedan and Greek families. . . . . . 68
No. 32. Manifesto of the Supreme October 24, 1817 - Establishment of the Ministry
Spiritual Affairs and Public Enlightenment (extraction). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
No. 33. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, June 2, 1826 -
On the admission of the division of estates left after the Mohammedans, according to their law. . . . .71
No. 34. Decree of the Senate of August 31, 1826 - On the prohibition of Mohammedan
The clergy to engage in commercial activities without a note at the established
ranks and on the suspension of a note in these ranks of the Tauride Mohammedan
The clergy, upon his exit from this rank, until the taxation of the Tatars with taxes 72
No. 35. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers on November 13, 1826 -
On the allotment of a plot of land for the Mohammedan cemetery 3 versts from
St. Petersburg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
No. 36. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers on November 23, 1826 -
On the procedure for determining Kadiev in the Crimea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
No. 37. Senate Decree, with the Prescription of the Highest Approved Opinion
State Council, November 22, 1827 - On non-acceptance of a pledge on state
contracts of serfs of the Mohammedan confession, settled
in the Great Russian provinces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
No. 38
July 31, 1829 - On the appointment of batmen from
Mohammedan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
No. 39. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of March 27
1830, written in the decree of the Senate May 20. - On granting consideration
and solving cases between Mohammedans, about the disobedience of children to their parents,
Mohammedan spiritual authority, according to the rites and laws of this clergy. . . . .79
No. 40. Decree of the Senate, according to the Highest approved regulation of the Committee of Ministers,
May 13, 1830 - On non-departure from the general rules for the burial of Mohammedans. . 82
No. 41. Decree of the Senate November 28, 1831 - On the oath for Mohammedans, with
admitting them to witness in dealings with Christians, or Christians alone. . . .85
No. 42. Senate Decree July 14, 1832 - On the procedure for production and consideration
cases on the punishment of Mohammedans for adultery and on the power of the Mufti's personal decisions. . 88
No. 43. Personal Decree, announced to the Commissariat Department of the Military
Ministry General on duty January 5, 1833 - On the production of regimental
Mullam of the Bashkir salary regiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
No. 44. The Highest Approved Regulations of the Committee of Ministers, May 16, 1833 -
About an increase in salary and about the appointment of an Assistant to the Tiflis Akhund. . . . . . .99
No. 45. The highest approved Regulations of the Committee of Ministers October 3, 1833 -
P reckoning to the Clergy those only Mohammedans of the taxable state, which
perform spiritual positions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
No. 46. Decree of the Senate November 27, 1833 - On the prohibition of Zemsky Courts to enter
into contact with the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board and the Orenburg
Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly, in such cases in which the existing
laws are not enough to solve cases, and on granting
in such cases to the authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
No. 47. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, December 22
1833 - On the division of estates between the heirs of the Tauride Mohammedans, and on
institution of guardianship of minors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
No. 48. Decree of the Senate, by the Highest command of January 29, 1834 - On the drive
to the oath of the finally accepted recruits in the churches of the confession to which
which one belongs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
No. 49. Decree Nominal, announced to the Senate by the Minister of Internal Affairs on February 2
1834 - On the procedure for classifying the Tauride Tatars to the local Mohammedan
Clergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
No. 50. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, August 21, 1834
- On the establishment of a collection from Mohammedans entering into marriage, for building in Ufa
premises for the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. . . . . . . .108
No. 51. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, October 30
1834 - On the order of production in the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual
Management of cases of disobedience of children to parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
No. 52. Decree Nominal, announced to His Imperial Highness, Chief
Head of the Pages and all Ground Cadet Corps, Minister of War
December 19, 1834 - About sending to Cadet Corps children of honorary Muslims
Caucasian region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
No. 53. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, March 12, 1835 -
On granting Asians coming to Semipalatinsk the right to apply for
their spiritual affairs permission from the civil authorities. . . . . . . . . . .111
No. 54. Decree of the Senate by the Highest Command, March 22, 1835 -
On the extension to those who profess the Mohammedan faith of the decree,
forbidding to marry if the bride or groom has not reached the legal
years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
No. 55. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of December 9
1835, published January 23, 1836 - On the determination of Mulls under
mosques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
No. 56. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, January 8
1836, published 8 February. - About allowing the wives of the exiled Mohammedans
marry other men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
No. 57. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, January 15
1836 - About the Mohammedan states: the Orenburg Spiritual Assembly and
Tauride Spiritual Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
No. 58. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, February 18, 1836
- On the prohibition to accept Dervishes as subjects of Russia. . . . . . . . . . . 119
No. 59. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of May 11
1836, published 18 June. - On the law of the Orenburg Mohammedan
clergy decide cases on the division of private property between heirs. 121
No. 60. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of June 8
1836, published 17 July. - On the procedure for solving cases about the Mohammedans,
convicted of adultery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
No. 61. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of October 21
1837, published 14 December. - On the procedure for electing Mullahs and others
spiritual ranks to Mohammedan parishes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
No. 62. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of March 28
1838, published 10 May. - On the type of cases in which the Tauride
The Mohammedan Spiritual Board can enter with representations directly
to the Ministry of the Interior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
No. 63. Decree Nominal, announced by the Ministry of Internal Affairs on September 15
1838 - On the inclusion of 400 rubles in the regular position of the Astrakhan quarantine,
assigned to be kept under this quarantine of Mullah. . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
No. 64. Personal Decree, announced to the Minister of the Interior by the Minister of War
October 18, 1838 - On the production of salaries and the philistine apartment of Mullet,
performing spiritual duties in Simbirsk between the lower ranks of the Mohammedan
law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
No. 65. Decree Nominal, announced to the Kazan Military Governor on October 21
1838 - About the salary of the mullah, who fulfills the spiritual requirements of the Mohammedans of the military
departments in Kazan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
No. 66. The highest approved opinion of the State Council March 27, 1840,
published May 3rd. - On the rights of Greeks and Mohammedans living in Russia
to nobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
No. 67
Mohammedan law, settled long ago in the Western Provinces, to own
immovable inhabited estates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
No. 68. The highest approved regulation of the Committee of Ministers, announced
Minister of the Interior February 3, 1842 - On granting the Mohammedan
the clergy of the cities of Bakhchisaray, Karasubazar and Stary Krym to participate
in the election of Mufti and Qadi-esker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
No. 69. Nominal Decree, announced to the Commander of the Separate Caucasian Corps
Governor of the War Department August 19, 1842 - About production
salary to Mulla, who was invited to the fortress of Anapa to perform worship
in Mohammedan mosque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
No. 70. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of March 8
1843, published 20 April. - On the rights of the Mohammedan families to
honorary citizenship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
No. 71. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, August 31, 1843
- On the application to the State Treasury of the costs of sending
to the first Kazan Gymnasium and the local University of pupils from
Mohammedan children of the Orenburg province. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
No. 72. Personal Decree, announced to the Minister of the Interior by the Minister of War
January 14, 1844 - On the fulfillment of spiritual requirements for the military ranks of the Mohammedan
confession, lodging in the city of Ufa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
No. 73
Department of the Naval Ministry July 28, 1845 - About the estate of the Imams
in military ports for the correction of spiritual requirements according to the rite of the Mohammedan faith.136
No. 74. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of January 3
1846, published 12 February. - About dispute resolution
on property arising between Mohammedans in the dissolution of marriages. . . . .137
No. 75. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of May 20
1846, published 27 June. - On the rights granted to employees under
Guards Corps to the clergy of the Mohammedan law, as well as their children 138
No. 76. Decree Named, Announced by the Minister of War on April 21, 1847 -
On the Approval of Persons of the Mohammedan Law Teaching Oriental Languages
in the Transcaucasian schools, in the rank of XII class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
No. 77. Decree of the Senate, by the Highest Command, May 8, 1847 -
On granting Turkish and Persian subjects the right to take with them
to the fatherland of their wives of Mohammedan law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
No. 78. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of May 24
1848, published 24 June. - About the Mohammedan clergy
in the Tauride province. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
No. 79. Decree of the Senate, by the Highest Command, March 5, 1849 -
On the release of the prisoners of Mohammedan held in the convict companies
and Jewish Confessions from Works to Prayer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
No. 80. Personal Decree, announced to the Commander-in-Chief of the Military
Minister March 7, 1849 - On the examination of the lower ranks of the Gentiles
confessions in the rules of religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
No. 81. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of May 21
1849, published 27 June. On the degree of power of the Orenburg
Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly in determining penalties from Mull. . . . . . 144
No. 82. The highest approved Charter on the production of the ninth national census
January 11, 1850 (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
No. 83. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of February 20
1850, published 14 March. - On the granting of certain rights
Mohammedan clergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
No. 84. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, announced
Governor of the Ministry of Justice April 25, 1850 - On the new form of the oath
on court cases for Mohammedans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
No. 85. The highest approved position of the Committee of Ministers, May 23, 1850 -
On the appointment of traveling money to the St. Petersburg Civil Imam. . . . . .150
No. 86. Decree Nominal, announced to the Commander-in-Chief
corps by the Minister of War on December 16, 1850. - Highly approved
Regulations on the Dagestan Irregular Cavalry Regiment (excerpts). . . . . . . 150
No. 87. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of January 8
1851, published 30 January. - On the election of Mullahs in Mohammedan
societies of the Western provinces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
No. 88. Decree of the Senate of February 8, 1852 - On the release of running money to deputies
Mohammedan clergy, sent on business in secular
presence places. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
No. 89. Decree of the Senate, by the Highest Command, June 3, 1854 - On the order
production and resolution of cases on the division of estates between residents of the Transcaucasian
edge of the Mohammedan confession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
No. 90. Decree Named, announced to the Inspector of the Reserve Cavalry
Minister July 6, 1854 - On the procedure for sending Mulls for execution
spiritual requirements between the lower ranks of the Mohammedan law, serving
in the reserve cavalry and in the districts of the military settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . 155
No. 91. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of January 17
1855, published 9 February. - On the elevation of class positions
Translators, Desk Chiefs and Journalists of the Orenburg Mohammedan
Spiritual Assembly and Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board. . . . 156
No. 92. The highest approved opinion of the State Council of February 14
1855, published 15 March. - On determining the age for applicants
in spiritual positions Mohammedans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
No. 9. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, announced
To the Senate by the Minister of the Interior July 4, 1855 - On the release
from the housing obligation of the houses of the clergy of the Mohammedan confession in the city of
Nikolaev, Kherson province. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
No. 94. The highest approved position of the Military Council, December 5, 1855 -
On the appointment of the maintenance of the Imam of the Life Guards of the Crimean Tatar squadron. . .159
No. 95. The highest approved position of the Military Council, December 5, 1855 -
On the production of running and portion money Mullams and Rabbis, seconded
to the troops for the correction of spiritual requirements, as well as for swearing in
lower ranks from Mohammedans and Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
No. 96
November 27, 1857 - On the order of departure of the Mohammedan Imams, elected
from among the lower ranks, to the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly, for
preliminary test in knowledge of religious duties. . . . . . . . 160
No. 97. Nominal Decree, announced to the Commander of the Separate Orenburg Corps
Minister of War December 3, 1858 - On the appointment of a full-time Mulla under
Orenburg linear number 11 battalion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
No. 98. Decree Named, announced to the Senate by the Minister of Justice on April 24, 1859 -
On the procedure for the sale of the orphan estates of Mohammedans, which are in charge
Mohammedan Shariat beyond the Caucasus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
No. 99. Personal Decree, announced to the Commander of the Forces in Finland
located, Minister of War February 22, 1860 - On the appointment of a full-time
Mullahs for the lower ranks of Mohammedans serving in the army
located in Finland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
No. 100. The highest approved position of the Military Council, announced
in the order of the Minister of War on July 7, 1860 - On the production of salaries
Mohammedan priests, for the execution in military hospitals of the requirements for
sick officials of the Mohammedan confession. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
No. 101. Personal Decree, announced to the Commander of the Separate Guards Corps
Minister of War December 24, 1861 - On the salaries of the salary consisting of
Guards Corps: Imam - assistant to the Senior Akhun and two muezzins. . . 163
No. 102. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, announced
in the order of the Minister of War on June 13, 1865 - On the establishment of a full-time position
military Mullah in Warsaw (extract). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
No. 103. The highest approved regulations on the management of the Transcaucasian
Muslim clergy: I - Shia and II Sunni teachings
April 5, 1872 (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
No. 104. The highest approved on April 5, 1872, the schedule of posts for
Office of the Transcaucasian Muslim Clergy of the Sunni Teachings. . . 166
No. 105. The highest approved on April 5, 1872, the schedule of posts for
Office of the Transcaucasian Muslim Clergy of the Shiite doctrine. . . . 168
No. 106. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, December 15
1886 - On the number of parishioners of the Mohammedan confession, with cash
which permits the establishment of a mosque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
No. 107. The highest approved position of the Admiralty Council, March 28
1894 - On the abolition of the position of the Mohammedan imam at Nikolaevsky
port. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
No. 108. The highest approved opinion of the State Council, May 24, 1904
- On the approval of the staff of the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board. . . 172
No. 109. Staff of the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board, the Highest
approved May 24, 1904. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
No. 110. Nominal Supreme Decree to the Governing Senate December 12, 1904
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
No. 111. Law on Religious Toleration April 17, 1905 - Extracts from the special
magazine of the Committee of Ministers on January 25, February 1, 8 and 15, 1905. .175
Section II. Legislation on Islam and Muslims (according to the Code of Laws
Russian Empire")
No. 112. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume two. Part one. - Vault
provincial institutions. 1. General institution provincial. 1892 edition
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
No. 113. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume two. Part one. - Vault
provincial institutions. 7. Regulations on the administration of the regions of Akmola,
Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Ural and Turgai. 1892 edition
(extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
No. 114. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume four. - Charter on the military
duties. 1897 edition (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
No. 115. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume nine. - Laws of states.
1899 edition (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
No. 116. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume ten. Part one. - Vault
civil laws. 1900 edition. Book one. About rights and obligations
family. Section one. On the marriage union (extract). . . . . . . . . 186
No. 117. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume eleven. Part one. -
Code of Institutions and Charters of the Department of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions
Christian and non-Christian. 1896 edition (extracts)
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Book six. On the Department of Spiritual Affairs Mohammedans. . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
- Section one. About the management of the clergy belonging to the district
Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
- Section two. About the management of the clergy belonging to the district
Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
- Section three. About the management of the Transcaucasian Muslim clergy
Shiite and Sunni teachings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
No. 118. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume eleven. Part one. -
Charter of foreign confessions. Continuation of 1912 (extracts). . . . . .254
No. 119. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume eleven. Part one. -
Charter of foreign confessions. Continuation of 1914 (extracts). . . . . .258
No. 120. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume twelve. Part one. -
Construction regulations. 1900 edition (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
No. 121. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Volume fourteen. - Charter
about passports. 1903 edition (extracts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Section III. Muslims in the military legislation of the Russian Empire
No. 122. Rules for the training of highlanders prepared for service in Own
His Imperial Majesty's escort in the Noble Regiment, compiled
Manager of the Main Imperial Apartment Adjutant General
OH. Benckendorff in 1829. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
No. 123. The oath of Muslims entering the military service(according to the Code of Military
ordinances of 1869") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
No. 124. Religious duties of military ranks (according to the "Charter of the internal service
1910") (extracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Section IV. Description of the organization of Muslims in Russia
No. 125. S.G. Rybakov. The structure and needs of managing the spiritual affairs of Muslims
in Russia. Petrograd, 1917
Part I. Mohammedan district spiritual administrations. . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Part II. The procedure for managing the spiritual affairs of Muslims in the area,
outside the jurisdiction of the Mohammedan spiritual administrations. . . . . . . . . . . .276
Part III. Review of government assumptions about the control device
spiritual affairs of Muslims in areas where there are no Mohammedan spiritual
departments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Part IV. Petitions and suppositions of Muslim societies, assemblies and
institutions on the transformation of the existing order of governance of Muslims. .302
Appendix I. To the history of one document about Muslims. . . . . . . . . . . 316
Annex II. The financial situation of Muslim officials and officers,
clerics and employees of Muslim spiritual administrations (XIX - beginning
XX centuries). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Appendix III. Statistics of Muslims in the Russian Empire. . . . . . . . . .324
Annex IV. Sergei Gavrilovich Rybakov (Biography and list of major works) 332
Appendix V. Ismail Bey Gasprinsky about the Muslims of Russia. . . . . . . . . .335
Appendix VI. Islam and Muslims in the history of Russia until 1917 (characteristic
sources of the problem). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Dictionary of Muslim terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Name index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Index of geographical names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
BUT Rapov Dmitry Alekseevich - Soviet surgeon, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, lieutenant general of the medical service.
Born on November 7 (21), 1897 in Moscow in the family of an employee. In 1916, after graduating from high school and medical courses, he entered the medical faculty of Moscow University and at the same time began working as a brother of mercy in a military hospital in Moscow. In 1919-1920 he was mobilized to fight the typhus epidemic - he worked as a paramedic at the hospital at the Rabenek plant in the village of Bolshevo, Moscow Region.
In 1920 he was drafted into the Red Army and served in the 22nd field hospital of the 4th Army. In 1921 he was seconded to continue his education in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). In 1921-1922 he was a student of the medical faculty of the Leningrad State University (LGU). After the medical faculty of Leningrad State University was closed in 1922, he moved to Moscow and in 1922-1925 studied at medical faculty 2nd Moscow State University (MSU). Since 1923, being a 3rd year student, he worked as a paramedic, and after graduating from the university from 1925 to 1929 as an intern in the surgical department of the hospital at the Krasny Bogatyr plant. At the same time, from 1925 to 1930, he worked at the Department of Operative Surgery of the 2nd Moscow State University.
In December 1929, he was transferred to the N.V. Sklifosovsky Scientific Research Institute of Emergency Medicine, where he first worked as an emergency doctor and at the same time as an external surgeon at S.S. Yudin, and since 1930 - as an intern in the surgical department and head newly created operating corps. In 1931-1941 he was also a consultant surgeon at the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology. Since 1935, he worked part-time as an assistant at the Department of Surgery of the Central Institute for the Improvement of Doctors under the leadership of S.S. Yudin. In 1936, he was awarded the degree of candidate of medical sciences without defending a dissertation.
Participated in the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940 as a senior surgeon of a mobile field hospital, as well as in the liberation Soviet Army Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (1940). Based on the experience of a front-line surgeon, D.A. Arapov wrote the book “Gas Gangrene” (1942), which was published in mass circulation and became a reference book for every military field surgeon during the war years (the monograph “Anaerobic gas infection”, which completed this topic, was published in 1972, was awarded in 1975 the N.I. Pirogov Prize of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences).
In 1943 he defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences (he received the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences in 1949). From June 1941, he led the surgical service of the Red Banner Northern Fleet. Thanks to the skillful hands of the surgeon, many seriously wounded returned to duty. During this period, he paid much attention to improving the method of treating gas gangrene.
In August 1945, he was appointed consultant surgeon at the Central Naval Hospital in Moscow, and in March 1946, he was appointed to the same position at the 50th Naval Hospital of the USSR Navy. From July 1950 he was the chief surgeon of the USSR Navy, from May 1953 he was the deputy chief surgeon of the USSR Navy, from May 1955 he was again the chief surgeon of the USSR Navy and remained so until October 1968. Major General of the Medical Service (01/27/1951).
In 1953 he was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences.
Most of the scientific works (more than 250) of D.A. Arapov are devoted to the issues of emergency surgery of the abdominal organs, burn injury, anesthesiology, reconstructive surgery, neurosurgery. Questions of military field surgery occupied a large place in his scientific and practical work. The original was the monograph "Inhalation anesthesia" (1949), in which, in order to prevent shock, D.A. Arapov suggested using nitrous oxide (gas anesthesia) on ambulances. The monographs “Tracheostomy as a therapeutic method in emergency conditions” (1964, in collaboration with Yu.V. Isakov) and “Tracheostomy in the clinic” should be noted. For the introduction into clinical practice of a new protein blood substitute (N.G. Belenky's serum) in 1949, D.A. Arapov was awarded the Stalin Prize of the 2nd degree.
D.A.Arapov trained a large number of military marine doctors at the Institute of Emergency Medicine, which made it possible to provide surface and submarine fleets with highly qualified surgeons. D.A.Arapov is a member of the International Society of Surgeons, an honorary member of several domestic surgical societies.
At Kazom of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of December 5, 1977 Arapov Dmitry Alekseevich He was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor with the Order of Lenin and the Hammer and Sickle gold medal.
Lived and worked in the hero city of Moscow. Died June 14, 1984. He was buried in Moscow at the Kuntsevo cemetery (plot (9-3).
Lieutenant General of the Medical Service (04/27/1962), Doctor of Medical Sciences (1949), Professor (1951), Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1959).
Awarded 2 Orders of Lenin (10/17/1973; 12/5/1977), Orders of the Red Banner (11/5/1944), Patriotic War of the 1st degree (07/24/1943), 2 Orders of the Red Banner of Labor (07/30/1952; 02/22/1968), orders of the Red Star (04/25/1942), "Badge of Honor" (02/11/1961), medals, nominal weapons of the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy (1957, 1967), Certificate of Honor of the Moscow Council (1972).
Laureate of the Stalin Prize, 2nd degree (1949).
Introductory article to the book:
Islam in the Russian Empire (legislative acts, descriptions, statistics) / Compiled and authored by D.Yu. Arapov. Moscow: Institute for African Studies, Akademkniga, 2001.
(With. 16 )
D.Yu. ARAPOV
ISLAM IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
Islam is one of the traditional religions in Russia. Contacts and connections of the peoples of our country with the Islamic world began in the early Middle Ages. Then in Eastern Europe there were two synchronous processes: the emergence of statehood among the peoples living here and the adoption of well-known world religions by them. In Khazaria, located in the Lower Volga region and on the Don, a significant part of the population converted to Islam in the 8th century; Volga Bulgaria arose in the Middle Volga region, Islam was the state religion here from 922.
Ancient Russia made a different historical choice. End of the 10th century - the time of the baptism of Russia by the Kyiv prince Vladimir. From this event until 1917. Orthodoxy was the official state religion of the country, only an Orthodox sovereign could ascend the Russian throne. However, even before the baptism of Russia, according to the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years," Vladimir admitted the possibility of the adoption of Islam by Russia. Modern studies note that behind this seemingly legendary story of the chronicle, there were real events related to the sending of a special Russian embassy to the court of the Baghdad caliphs - the Abbasids. one
Russia became a Christian country. She retained her faith in the era of the Mongol invasion. The struggle of Russia with the dominion of the Golden Horde, which turned in 1312. under Khan Uzbek to Islam, however, was not of a religious nature and was determined primarily by political interests. 2
The continuous expansion of the territory of Russia in the 16th-19th centuries, the inclusion of the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, Crimea, Lithuania, the Caucasus, Turkestan made numerous peoples whose historical faith was Islam into Russian subjects. The creation of a huge unified whole, which was the Russian state, was long, the organization of the religious life of the peoples living in the state was rather complicated.
In the XVI - the first half of the XVIII centuries. in relationship Russian state with his Muslim subjects, not everything was smooth and simple. In general, Islam and its religious institutions in medieval Russia were never officially banned, but still the conversion to Orthodoxy was welcomed in every possible way. Starting from the XIV century. dozens of representatives of the Tatar-Mongol nobility actively acted (p. 17 ) to the Russian service, receiving after the adoption of Orthodoxy all the rights and privileges that the Russian nobility had. The composition of the Russian nobility traces several hundred surnames of Turkic origin - the Yusupovs, Tenishevs, Urusovs and many others who played an outstanding role in the political, military and cultural history of Russia. 3 A representative of one of these families - Boris Godunov - was in 1598-1605. Russian tsar.
A number of noble Turkic-speaking families served Russia, preserving Islam: they were left and were given lands, salaries were paid, but they were not allowed to own Christian peasants. From the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. south of Moscow there was a Muslim khanate vassal from Russia - the so-called Kasimov kingdom - where service Tatars lived and only a Muslim Genghisid could be the ruler. four
In numerous wars that the Muscovite state waged with its opponents, detachments of Muslim Tatars actively participated on the side of Moscow. They played a significant role in the defeat of the troops of recalcitrant Novgorod the Great on the Shelon River in 1471; in 1552, Moscow's faithful vassals, the Muslim detachments of the Kasimov Tatars, went on a campaign against Kazan in 1552 together with Russian Orthodox soldiers. In the difficult events of Russian history that followed the annexation of the Volga region, the internal contradictions that took place were most often built not on the principle of “Russians, Orthodox versus non-Russians, Muslims”, but consisted in the confrontation between supporters of the existence of a single multinational state and enemies of Russian statehood. Moreover, the national and religious affiliation of both of them did not always determine the choice of their positions. So, for example, when in 1612 a split occurred in the combined Russian-Tatar detachment that came to Yaroslavl from Kazan to participate in the Zemsky militia, some of the Orthodox and Muslims remained to serve the cause of liberating Russia from the foreign yoke, while others from Kazan (Russians and Tatars) preferred to continue the rebellion, turmoil and "many dirty tricks to the earth" ("The New Chronicler"). 5 In the charter approved by the Zemsky Sobor in 1613 on the election of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov to the Russian throne, there were signatures of seven Tatar murzas, who, on behalf of the Muslims of Russia, spoke out for the revival of a unified Russian state.
In the beginning in the XVIII century. During the “Petersburg” period of Russian history, the policy of the state towards Islam and Muslims remained rather contradictory. By the will of Peter the Great, the Russian scientist Peter Postnikov made in 1716 a Russian (p. 18 )sky translation of the Koran, the first Russian orientalist, Prince Dmitry Kantemir, in 1722 published the first study in Russia about Islam - “The Book of System, or the State of the Muhammadan Religion”. 6 In general, however, the legislation of the first Russian emperors and empresses was aimed at restricting Islam. The construction of new mosques was hampered, the conversion of Muslims to Orthodoxy and the missionary activity of the Orthodox clergy were encouraged in every possible way. Attempts to return from Orthodoxy to Islam were severely suppressed. So, in 1738, by decree of Empress Anna Ioannovna, the “determination” of the Yekaterinburg ruler V.N. Tatishchev was burned "toygilda Zhulyakov, who had perverted into the Mohammedan law." In this case, as an administrator, Tatishchev followed the letter of the law. One of the first Russian historians, Tatishchev was personally a supporter of the course of tolerance towards Islam and the author of the first scientific program for the study of Muslims in Russia. 7
The policy of the daughter of Peter the Great, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, an extremely pious woman who greatly favored the Buddhists, was unfavorable towards Islam. But the state interests and then, as a rule, prevailed. It was under Elizabeth Petrovna in 1755 that an associate of Peter the Great, a major diplomat, an outstanding but tough administrator, Kutl-Mukhammed Tevkelev, became the first Russian Muslim general. 8 But still, the insufficiently tolerant behavior of the imperial authorities irritated the leaders of the Muslim community in Russia. It was reflected in the orders of Muslim deputies to the Legislative Commission of 1767, which emphasized the need to remove restrictions on the performance of Islamic religious rites.
The expectations of Russian Muslims were met by the policy of religious tolerance, which began to be carried out in Russia during the reign of the most prominent ruler in the history of the country - Empress Catherine II. In her famous Instruction to the Legislative Commission of 1767, the queen noted that “a vice, prohibition or non-permission of their various faiths, would be very harmful to the peace and security of its citizens.” 9 This position fit into the framework of the ideology of enlightened absolutism.
The implementation of the principle of religious tolerance was stimulated by external events of that time - the first partition of Poland and the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. The need to protect the Orthodox population on the territory of the Catholic Commonwealth, the desire to ensure the peace of the inhabitants of the Crimea, occupied during the war with the Turks, contributed to the fact that the course towards politics (p. 19 ) religious tolerance, and within the country, primarily in relation to Islam and Muslims, was taken in 1773. It is interesting that this undertaking took place almost simultaneously in two centers of political power that competed in Russia at that time. On June 17, 1773, religious tolerance was proclaimed in the decree of Catherine II, which allowed the construction of mosques for Muslims of Russia, in the fall of that year, the principle of religious freedom for adherents of Islam began to be practically implemented in the Urals and the Volga region by "Emperor Peter Fedorovich" - E.I. Pugachev. It can be stated that both mortal enemies in the struggle for power over Russia caught the urgent nationwide need for a more flexible religious policy towards the non-Orthodox inhabitants of the empire, primarily Muslims.
In 1774, according to the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty, Russia recognized the spiritual authority of the Turkish sultan "as the Supreme Caliph of the Mohammedan law." 10 True, in 1783 Russia unilaterally annulled this article of this peace treaty, but all subsequent rulers of the country before V.I. Lenin, inclusive, actually considered the Ottoman caliphate as the most important ideological and political factor. eleven
Including the Crimea and Kuban in the Russian state, Catherine II in her Manifesto on April 8, 1783 proclaimed a promise to the Muslims of Taurida "to protect and protect their faces, temples and natural faith, which free practice with all legal rites will remain inviolable." 12 A similar policy towards Muslims was carried out in other parts of the empire. Thus, the "Manifesto on the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Russia" in 1795 extended the guarantee of free confession of faith not only to the Catholic Christian majority of the population of the region, but also to the Lithuanian Muslim Tatars.
The data and other similar decrees of Catherine’s time quite convincingly show that it was then that the Russian authorities came to understand the need to observe the most important principle of the stability of any empire in relations with subjects of different faiths and languages: “We own you, you obey us, pay taxes, for live and believe as you wish." At the same time, under Catherine II, and under all her successors, the main obligatory condition for all the inhabitants of the country, including Muslims, remained the demand for absolute loyalty and devotion to the existing system and the ruling house of the Romanovs.
Having recognized the rights of the Muslim community of Russia to its religious identity, the Russian authorities became more active than before (c. 20 ) embed it in the system of state structure of the empire. The process of incorporating Muslims into various estates and estate groups and their governing bodies has accelerated, with the extension of appropriate rights and obligations to them.
Particular attention was paid to the organization state regulation"from above" the religious life of Russian Islam. As you know, Islam has neither a church-hierarchical organization nor the institution of monasticism. An analysis of the actions of the authorities in this matter suggests that they made attempts to arrange something like the "Russian Islamic Church" like Orthodoxy. To a certain extent, this was true, but, firstly, here, in our opinion, there was no special, predetermined anti-Islamic orientation, and secondly, the secular authorities pursued not so much "religious" as "government" goals. .
The main principle of the confessional policy of the Russian Empire was the desire for complete state control over all religious institutions without exception in the country. As you know, the first victim of this policy was the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church itself, which, after the liquidation of the patriarchate and the creation of the Holy Synod in 1721, turned into a specific, special, but still purely state institution. It is from this point of view, for greater convenience of state supervision over the life of Russian Muslims with late XVIII in. the authorities of the empire began to create the necessary, in their opinion, religious institutions and forms of organization of their ministers.
A number of legislative acts of Catherine's time began the formation of governing bodies for Muslims in Russia. In 1788, the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly was created, whose jurisdiction was initially extended to the whole of Russia. Subsequent decrees and orders determined its structure and staff, allocated the necessary state funds for its activities. After the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the Russian government took over the maintenance of the muftiate that existed under the Gireys. In 1794, the creation of the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board was announced, the actual formation of which took place later, in 1831. 13
The intensification of revolutionary ferment in Europe led the successor of Catherine II, Emperor Paul I, to the idea of uniting all religions (primarily Christian) under the auspices of the Russian Tsar in order to combat the anti-monarchist spirit of "unbelief" and "atheistic will (p. 21 ) no-thinking. From this point of view, the union of the Romanov monarchy with the caliph - the sultan of Turkey in 1798-1800 is not accidental. to destroy the French Republic.
Although Emperor Alexander I did not continue the course of his father's policy, the idea of centralizing control over the confessions of the empire, outlined in the Pauline era, was realized in the first quarter of the 19th century. According to the idea of the outstanding Russian reformer M.M. Speransky, one of the central departments of Russia was to become a "special department of spiritual affairs", created to "protect the rites" of all religions of the state. fourteen This project, like many other undertakings of those years, was largely based on the experience of Napoleonic France. There, in 1801, a central department of spiritual affairs was created, which in 1804 was transformed into the Ministry of Confessions; An outstanding lawyer, one of the authors of the "Civil Code" Portalis, was appointed head of this department. fifteen
In 1810, next to the Holy Synod, the Main Directorate of Spiritual Affairs of Different (Foreign) Confessions was created as a special ministry, under whose control were put "all subjects related to the clergy of various foreign religions and confessions, excluding their court cases." 16 In 1817, under the leadership of one of the most trusted persons of Alexander I, Prince A.N. Golitsyn, a united Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was formed, where within the framework of one department there was control over all religions and the system of educational institutions of the empire. The new institution was supposed to help intensify the fight against ideological free-thinking, the promotion of religious, primarily Christian values. However, thanks to the traditional isolationist approach of the top of the Orthodox clergy, the intrigues of ill-wishers, the discontent of the increasingly powerful Count A.A. Arakcheev, headed by Prince Golitsyn, the united ministry did not last long. In 1824, by the will of Alexander I, who was disappointed in his original plan, it was liquidated. Eight years later, in 1832, the administration of the affairs of the Gentiles was transformed into the Department of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions (DDDII) and included in the structure of the Ministry of the Interior, where it was located (with the exception of a short period of time in 1880-1881) until 1917 .17
The era of the reign of the successor of Alexander I - his brother Nicholas I was the time of the adoption of a particularly significant number of legislative decisions on the life of Islam and Muslims in Russia. (With. 22 ) Under Nicholas I, work continued on the formation of a nationwide system of Muslim institutions of the empire. In 1831, the actual formation of the Tauride Mohammedan Spiritual Board took place, the jurisdiction of which was extended to western areas Romanov monarchy. During the years of the reign of Nicholas, preparations were underway for the creation of administrations of the Sunni and Shiite communities of Transcaucasia, which was implemented later, in 1872. confessions”, a special section of which was devoted to Muslims, 18
An analysis of numerous Nicholas decrees on Muslims makes it possible to clarify the attitude of the autocracy towards Islam in the second quarter of the 19th century, and also allows us to see a more general picture of the policy of the Russian authorities from December 14, 1825 to the Crimean War. The outward splendor of the gigantic empire concealed the constant fears of the king and his entourage about the possible emergence of internal and external threats that could lead to "shaking the foundations." This, in our opinion, resulted in a noticeable inconsistency of decrees on Islamic affairs. Sufficiently thought-out, indeed government decisions were combined with narrow-minded and simply barbaric instructions. Among the latter, one can undoubtedly include the decree of May 13, 1830 "On non-departure from the general rules for the burial of Mohammedans." 19 True, it is known that in Russia "there is a reliable remedy against bad laws - their poor enforcement." According to our impression, the local administration, which would have had to immediately come into conflict with the Muslim population in the event of an attempt to fulfill this order of the king, tried, as far as possible, to release it, as they say, "on the brakes."
A number of decrees of Nicholas I were associated with the events Caucasian war, the tasks of building relations with the Muslims of Adygea, Dagestan and other southern regions of the empire, where there were constant hostilities.
The Russian legislation on Muslims of those decades quite clearly reflected the unique personality of Nicholas I. His resolutions on reports, sometimes detailed and motivated, sometimes imperatively brief, on cases general meaning or on separate incidents, according to the apt judgment of the Russian historian A.E. Presnyakov, were a manifestation of "a kind of personal legislation of the emperor, which was inevitably fragmentary and random." twenty
(p. 23) Under the successors of Nicholas I, the number of national decrees on Muslims was noticeably reduced, the main decisions were now made within the bureaucratic machine of the empire, hidden from the outside observer.
By the beginning of the XX century. a fairly complete system of Muslim spiritual institutions has developed in the country. The regions of European Russia and Siberia were supervised by the Orenburg and Tavrichesky muftiats, which were closed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The life of the Muslims of the Caucasus was led by the Sunni and Shiite spiritual administrations established in 1872, subordinate to the tsarist administration of the region. Special rules determined the organization of Muslims on the territory of the Steppe General Government. 21 Finally, in the Turkestan Territory, there was no special body for managing Muslims at all; the fundamental issues of the life of the Muslim community here were determined by the local authorities themselves, subordinate to the Military Ministry in St. Petersburg. 22
The Department of Religious Affairs of Foreign Confessions (DDDII) of the Ministry of Internal Affairs continued to be the central government body that controlled the life of Russian Muslims. By the beginning of the XX century. The Ministry of Internal Affairs was the main department for the general administration of the country, its minister "was something like the supreme manager of the empire." 23 in supervising the Gentiles, the primary task of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and DDDII as its division was the obligation to maintain "the principle of complete tolerance, insofar as such tolerance can be consistent with the interests of the state order." 24
In the huge structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, DDDII was perhaps one of the smallest departments in terms of the number of departments (30-40 officials). Most of them by the beginning of the 20th century. usually had higher education(Petersburg and Moscow Universities, School of Law, Kyiv and Kazan Theological Academies). The DDDII staff was divided into three departments, the last of which was in charge of non-Christian religions, including Russian Islam. Unlike other divisions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, DDDII did not have its own structures on the ground, and its activities here were carried out through the existing administrative bodies. 25
An important feature of the DDDII as one of the links (along with the Synod) in the system of protecting the official Orthodox foundations of the empire was the high demands on the religion of its employees. In other government departments and structures, foreign (p. 24 ) Vertsy could sometimes occupy the highest posts. Only Orthodox officials served in DDDII. 26 An exception could very rarely be made for “Russified foreigners” who proved their absolute devotion to the throne. So, one of the first directors of the DDDII (1829-1840) was the famous memoirist F.F. Vigel. 2? In the middle of the XIX century. DDDII expert on Islamic issues was Professor A.K. Kazem-bek. 28
The range of issues in the life of the Muslim community, which was regulated by the DDDII, is revealed by the content of the sections of its fund in the Russian State Historical Archive: "The governing bodies of the spiritual affairs of Muslims", "Establishment of Muslim parishes", "Construction and opening of mosques and prayer houses of Muslims", "Muslim sects" , "Muslim press", "Opening of Muslim educational institutions", "Property of the Muslim clergy and Muslim spiritual institutions", "Marriage and divorce cases of persons of the Muslim faith", "Metrication of Muslims", "Swearing in of the Muslim clergy and Russian subjects of Muslims" , “Military service of persons of the Muslim religion”, etc. 29
The DDDII Department was in constant contact with other central and local departments and institutions of the empire. Thus, together with the Ministry of Finance, the issues of paying full-time clergy and secular persons in the system of Muslim spiritual administrations were resolved, together with the Military Ministry, the activities of military mullahs in the army were regulated, together with the Ministry of Public Education, teaching the basics of Sharia to Muslim students in educational institutions empires, etc. thirty
In this well-organized cycle of daily bureaucratic activity, however, alarming moods sounded more and more noticeable. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The Romanov Empire entered the era of the “twilight of the monarchy”. The last two decades of the 19th century, coinciding with the reign of Alexander III and the first years of the reign of Nicholas II, became the time of the triumph of the protective policy of "Orthodox conservatism", attempts of a "great power" attack on the rights of the non-Orthodox population. 31
It should be noted that at this time, the positions of Islam, especially in the outlying areas, were perhaps the least affected. Thus, there was a process of constant strengthening of the influence of Islam among the still semi-pagan Kazakh tribes and Tatars of Siberia. 32 Almost completely preserved the undivided influence of Islam in the territory of the Turkestan region. 33
(With. 25 ) Nevertheless, on the whole, the result of the Russification policy of the autocracy was the violation of the complex balance of forces and balances in the huge building of the multi-confessional Russian statehood. The justified annoyance with the policy of the authorities, the increasingly marked confrontation between the supporters of renewal and the orthodox in the Russian Muslim environment coincided with the complex, rather ambiguous processes of the awakening of the Islamic world outside of Russia.
The phenomena that took place could not but be noticed by the authors writing on the Muslim theme. So, almost equally anxiously, although from different positions, Russian publicists responded to events in the Muslim world - a prominent official monarchist V.P. Cherevansky and liberal-minded orientalist V.V. Barthold. 34
The most striking and original Muslim publicist of that time was the well-known Tatar public figure Is-mail-bey Gasprinsky (1851-1914). Critically evaluating contemporary reality, Gasprinsky nevertheless was a sincere supporter of "cordial rapprochement between Russian Muslims and Russia." According to him, due to the continuous increase in the number of Muslims within the country, soon “Russia will be destined to become one of the most significant Muslim states that ... will not in the least detract from its significance as a great Christian power. The publicist put forward the idea of cultural and national unity of the Turkic peoples of Russia and considered the introduction and development of new methods and forms of education, free from medieval scholasticism, to be the most urgent for the future of Russian Islam. According to Gasprinsky, the most important task of Russia's foreign policy should be the goal of establishing friendly relations with "everyone Muslim East", for," thanks to a particularly happy warehouse of the Russian national character, " Russian state can stand in the movement towards cultural progress "at the head of the Muslim peoples and their civilizations."
The growth of the social movement in the country in the first years of the XX century. forced the ruling elites of the empire to declare their readiness now to make certain concessions and expand the limits of the policy of religious tolerance. The day before and during Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 the autocracy made official promises (manifesto on February 26, 1903 and decree on December 12, 1904) on this occasion. Already during the beginning of the first Russian revolution, a decree on religious tolerance was promulgated on April 17, 1905, in which it was made and promised in (p. 26 ) in the future, a series of serious concessions to non-Orthodox, especially Muslim, subjects of the empire.
After the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, the autocracy was forced to admit the existence of a number of Muslim public organizations and meetings (the Muslim faction in the I-IV State Dumas, Muslim congresses, etc.). In reality, however, there was no readiness and desire to cooperate with them. In the last decade of the monarchy's existence, the most traditionalist circles of the Russian Muslim community enjoyed the greatest support from the authorities.
The understanding of the need to do something and change something in matters of policy towards Muslims in the ruling circles of the country was undoubtedly present. The presence of a number of unresolved problems, the anxiety of the situation, the inevitability that it could worsen further in the future were stated. 36 At the “Special Meeting” of 1910, assembled by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of the Interior P.A. Stolypin, was recognized as particularly dangerous "the strictly consistent program outlined by Muslim leaders for the religious and cultural unification of the entire Muslim population of Russia on an autonomous basis under the head of a higher clergyman, completely independent of the government in managing the affairs of faith and school." 37 Any real solutions on the Muslim question, however, this "Special Meeting" did not work out.
The last major statesman of tsarist Russia, Stolypin, and his often-changing successors tried somehow to hold on to the building of the once mighty empire, which was increasingly threatening to fall. During the years of the First World War, in the last months of the existence of the Romanov monarchy, officials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, including DDDII, only powerlessly watched the processes taking place in Russian society, including in its Muslim part, and did not take any real measures (yes , apparently, they would not have been able to do anything) to prevent the onset of the Russian revolution of 1917, which ended the autocracy.
What was the Muslim community of Russia in the last decades of the Romanov dynasty? Let us try to outline some features of its appearance, relying, in particular, on the data of the General Population Census of 1897. With all the relativity and conventionality of some of its data, it was undoubtedly (p. 27 ) the best census in the history of the country, in many ways much more objective than subsequent attempts to count the population made in the 20th century.
According to the 1897 census, Muslims were the second largest religious group in the empire after the Orthodox. There were 13.889.421 people (Appendix III, Table I). And the number of Muslims in Russia had a constant upward trend: by 1917, about 20 million Muslims lived in the country. 38 Most of them belonged to the Sunni branch of Islam. Only in the territory of modern Azerbaijan did the Shiites numerically predominate.
In European Russia, Muslims made up about 4% of its population, the most significant of them lived in the Ufa, Kazan, Orenburg, Astrakhan and Samara provinces. The number of Muslims in the western provinces and in Siberia was very small, but in the Caucasus - 1/3 of its population, and in Central Asia more than 90% of the inhabitants were adherents of Islam (Appendix III, Table I).
An analysis of the indicators of the 1897 census makes it possible to conclude that there is a marked predominance of the number of Muslim men over the number of women in all regions of the empire: in European Russia there were 95 women per 100 men, in the Caucasus 88, in Central Asia 86. According to researchers, this circumstance was determined both by the general patriarchal nature of Russian Islam and, apparently, by the noticeable concealment of women during the census. It is known that in rural areas the counters were limited to obtaining information from the local administration, but real communication with the population, moreover, for the most part illiterate and not knowing the Russian language, simply did not occur.
The study of statistical materials allows us to conclude that, although Sharia norms gave Muslim men the right to start a polygamous family, in reality, due primarily to economic conditions, very few people could use and used this right. (Appendix III, Table 3, J, b). The degree of literacy among Muslims was rather low: by 1897, there were only about a million literate people, 2/3 of whom were men (Appendix III, Table 2).
When characterizing various groups and strata of Russian Islam, it should be emphasized that the information available in the 1897 census was grouped according to still medieval class criteria and did not take into account either the new realities of Russian life at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, or the traditional features of the mouth (p. 28 ) swarming of the Muslim community. The complexity of the analysis is also due to the fact that the census recorded religion, language, but not the ethnicity of the population. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in Russia were identified in 1897 as speakers of the Turkish-Tatar languages and the languages of the mountaineers of the Caucasus. Therefore, these two groups were taken as the object of study, in each of which Muslims accounted for approximately 90% of total number registered persons. With all the relativity of the results obtained in this way, one can still try to outline some qualitative indicators various layers of Russian Islam (Appendix III, tables 3, 4).
The most privileged group among the Muslims of Russia, according to the definition of the authorities of the empire, was the Muslim nobility. A significant part of the Muslim secular elite was made up of hereditary tribal nobility: descendants of the Genghisids and other eminent families; a certain number of families fell into the ranks of the nobility in the process of serving their representatives to one or another Muslim ruler before joining their territories to Russia (Kazan, Crimea, the Caucasus). In the XK-beginning of the XX centuries. a significant part of the Muslim nobility was in the Russian civil service, playing in a number of places an important role in the system of government of the empire.
The process of incorporation of the highest strata of Russian Islam into the Russian nobility began in Catherine's time. As a result of the implementation of this policy by the end of the XIX century. in Russia there were approximately 70 thousand Muslims - hereditary and personal nobles and class officials (with families), which accounted for about 5% of the total number of nobles of the empire. 39
First of all, the Muslim nobility began to take shape in European Russia. The decree of February 22, 1784 extended to Muslim Tatar princes and murzas all the privileges of the Russian nobility, except for the right to own Christian serfs. 40 It should be noted that not all representatives of the Muslim nobility actually took advantage of the opportunities they received. Many of them were not rich and therefore did not even initiate applications for inclusion in the provincial genealogical books. This was typical for that part of the Tatar-Bashkir nobility of the Urals and the Tatar murzas of the Taurida province, who lived in the countryside and, according to the testimony of the local administration, did not differ at all “neither in education, nor in their occupations from peasant farmers 41 .
Muslims faced significant difficulties in connection with the need to confirm the "nobility" of their origin: " (With. 29 ) very many of them did not have required documents. The latter circumstance caused the appearance of decrees of 1816 and 1840. on the procedure for testifying the rights to the nobility by representatives of the Muslim nobility. 42 Therefore, the most reliable way to consolidate it in the nobility remained the path of military and civil service. So, in 1814, the Ufa provincial noble assembly recognized 64 Muslims as noblemen at once - participants in foreign campaigns against Napoleonic France. By the beginning of the XX century. representatives of the Muslim noble families of European Russia - Akchurins, Enikeevs, Tevkelevs - actively participated in political life countries, many of them played an important role in it. So, Kutl-Mukhammed Tevkelev was in 1906-1917. head of the Muslim faction of the I-IV State Dumas. 43
The position of the western group of the Muslim nobility - the noblemen-Tatars, who lived on the lands of the former Commonwealth, was distinguished by a well-known originality. They did not have a number of privileges available only to the Christian gentry of the Commonwealth, but they unshakably had the main right of the nobility - the right to own land and peasants, and without distinction of their religion. The inclusion of the territory of Lithuania and part of Poland into Russia in the second half of the XVIII- early XIX centuries created here a well-known legal incident for the Tatar nobles, because according to Russian legislation, Muslims were not allowed to have Christians in the service and property. Convinced, however, of the loyalty of the Western noblemen-Tatars (according to the historian S.V. Dumin, numbering about 200 clans), the imperial authorities by special decisions (especially in 1840) legitimized the special, exclusive rights to own Christian serfs of this part of the Muslim elite Russia. 44 According to the opinion of the Muslim publicist Ismail Gasprinsky, at the beginning of the 20th century. Western Muslim nobles were perhaps the most Europeanized group of the Russian Muslim community.
The position of the Muslim nobility in the Caucasus and Turkestan developed differently. Relations in society here were still largely regulated by the norms of customary law. The system of class institutions of the nobility for the Muslim nobility in the Asian regions of the empire did not take shape, the registration of the corporate rights of the nobles took a long time and was generally not completed until 1917. The landowning and nomadic nobility of the Caucasus and Turkestan basically retained ownership of land and livestock, served on military and civil service, received ranks, orders and titles, which ultimately gave, as a rule, the status of a personal nobleman. Those of them (p. 30 ) who received the rank or order, which gave the right to acquire hereditary nobility, could participate, if appropriate, in the life of elected noble organizations outside their territories.
An important aspect of the life of the Muslim nobility was its service in the armed forces of Russia. Dozens of Muslim officers and generals distinguished themselves in numerous wars that the Russian state had to wage. So, during the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905. The defenders of Port Arthur, officers Samadbek Mehmandarov and Ali Aga Shikhlinsky, who later became generals of the Russian army, became famous for their special heroism. 45 Thus, the Muslim nobility undoubtedly enjoyed patronizing attention from the authorities and, on the whole, quite successfully fitted into the system of Russian imperial statehood.
Traditionally, trade and entrepreneurial activity played a special role in the life of the Muslim community in Russia. According to the 1897 census, there were about 7,000 Muslim merchants (with their families) in Russia. Only those of them who were officially assigned to the first, second or third merchant guilds were taken into account here. Undoubtedly, the number of Muslims engaged in trade and business was much larger. They were actively involved in the bourgeoisie (according to 1897, about 300 thousand people) and representatives of other strata of Russia's Muslims. (Appendix III, Table 4).
Of course, entrepreneurial activity the majority of Muslims did not go beyond the traditional small-scale turnover and brought a fairly modest income. But in the Muslim environment there were also owners of significant capital. So, it is known that by the end of the XVIII century. in the Volga and Ural regions there were about a thousand large Tatar merchants with capital of tens of thousands of rubles. The intermediary activity of the Russian Muslim merchants of Astrakhan, Orenburg, and Omsk in trade with the countries of Central Asia stood out at that time. By the end of the XIX century. real Muslim merchant dynasties were formed in Russia - the Khusainovs in Orenburg (with a capital of about 5 million rubles), the Deber-deevs in Ufa, the Akchurins in Kazan, and others. Russian industry, within the framework of the national division of labor, the sphere of activity of Muslim entrepreneurs in European Russia became such industries as leather, soap, food, wool. 46
A significant part of the Muslim entrepreneurs of Russian Turkestan actively participated in the organization of procurement, not (p. 31 ) processing and sales of Central Asian cotton to Russia. 47 The fact that they and their employees had Russian citizenship guaranteed the inviolability of their person and property not only within the Russian Empire, but ensured the protection of their rights and interests by the Russian administration in adjacent territories. It is significant that the merchants of Bukhara, a vassal of Russia, also tried to obtain Russian citizenship, the possession of which could protect them and their property from the greed and self-interest of the Bukhara officials.
A special place in the Russian economy at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. occupied the Baku region - the main center for the production and processing of Russian oil. A number of large fortunes of Muslim oil industrialists have developed here. The most famous of them was the richest Muslim in Russia (capital about 16 million rubles) Gadzhi Zeynalabdin Tagiyev, who went from a poor apprentice to a millionaire, philanthropist and philanthropist. Tagiev was awarded highest orders empire, he was awarded the rank of real state councilor. In 1910, Emperor Nicholas II raised Tagiev to the hereditary Russian Empire noble dignity. 48
A special military class in the Russian state, who played essential role in the protection of the country's borders, was the Cossacks. Along with the Slavic Orthodox majority, the various Cossack troops included representatives of other ethnic groups and confessions. According to the 1897 census, approximately 45 thousand Muslims (with their families) were included in the staff of the military Cossacks (Appendix III, Table 4). Highlanders of the Caucasus served mainly in the Don, Kuban and Terek Cossack troops; Tatars, Bashkirs, Kirghiz (that is, Kazakhs - D.A.) - in the troops of the Don, Ural, Orenburg, Semirechensk, Siberian. 4 "There were special instructions to ensure the religious rights of Muslim Cossacks, as, indeed, of all Muslim military personnel in the armed forces of Russia, which provided for the procedure for them to take a military oath, participate in prayers, the right to be buried according to Sharia rites, etc. thirty
The majority of Muslims in Russia were "common people" - more than 90% of men and women were identified in 1897 as peasants and foreigners (Appendix III, Table 4), The latter included the Siberian Kirghiz, nomadic foreigners of the Stavropol province, the Kirghiz of the Inner Horde, foreigners of the regions of Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Ural and Transcaspian. 51 The main occupation of peasants and foreigners was agriculture and (p. 32 ) cattle breeding, as well as various crafts. A certain part of them were engaged in handicraft and trade activities, of which by the end of the 20th century. small groups of Muslim industrial workers began to appear (tanneries and soap factories in the Volga and Ural regions, cotton gins in Turkestan, oil fields in Baku, etc.).
Basically, the 1897 census covered in sufficient detail, although not always clearly, the aspects of the demographic state of the Muslim community in Russia. However, one of the most significant strata of Russian Islam, referred to in official documents and literature by the name "Muslim clergy", remained outside her attention. Origin this definition was associated primarily with the attempts of both the Russian authorities and many Russian authors to somehow name that layer of Muslim society, which in the Russian mind was habitually associated with serving God in the forms of the Christian church. The inaccuracy of using the concept of "clergy" in relation to Islam, which does not have a church-hierarchical organization, is beyond doubt. In the domestic Islamic literature, the most successful attempt, in order to compare the corresponding layers of "Christian" and "Muslim" societies, is to define the "clergy" in the world of Islam as "a social layer whose functions include the preservation of religious knowledge and the implementation of religious and moral leadership by a community of co-religionists". 52
Since the end of the XVIII century. a number of Russian legislative documents gradually defined the circle of clergy (the so-called "decree mullahs") and ministers of Muslim spiritual institutions, whose status gained legal recognition from the state. They could receive state salaries, be free from taxes, duties, military service, had the right to use the income from the respective parishes, their houses were freed from standing, etc. 53
That part of the clergy, which was not taken into account when compiling the staff list of Muslim spiritual administrations, was not granted any special rights and privileges, the administration treated them in accordance with the norms of the existence of those estates and estate groups to which they were assigned.
According to the DDDII, by January 1, 1912, there were 24,321 officially registered Muslim parishes in the Russian Empire with 26,279 liturgical buildings (cathedral mosques, summer and winter mosques and prayer houses, etc.). According to the same assessment (p. 33 )lo officially recognized the presence of 45.339 Muslim clergy (imams, mullahs, khatibs, muezzins, etc.). 54
In general, a significant part of the Muslim clergy quite steadily fit into the common system Russian imperial statehood. Many of them, especially the ranks of the Muslim Muftis, were repeatedly awarded the highest orders of the empire. So, the great-grandson of the first Muslim general Kutl-Mukhammed Tevkelev Selim-Girey Tevkelev, who was in 1865-1885. Orenburg mufti, for his outstanding services he was awarded the orders of Anna and Stanislav I degree. 55
Of course, not all representatives of the Muslim public and religious circles were enthusiastic about certain aspects of the policy of the empire's authorities. Those of them who survived the events of 1917. and found themselves under the rule of the new rulers of the country, they could compare the old, if not ideal, and new, qualitatively different conditions for the existence of Islam on the territory of the former Russian Empire.
The main task of this publication is the publication of the most important and quite significant domestic legislative acts on Islam and Muslims in Russia, starting from the middle of the 17th century. until the last years of the Romanov dynasty. The structure of the collection is determined by the main types of publications of legal material that existed in the Russian Empire.
The first section of the collection includes various papers that were published in " the full assembly laws of the Russian Empire" (PSZ). PSZ is a set of legislative acts located in chronological order, according to the numbers and dates of approval of each act by the king or queen. The compilation and publication of the PSZ was carried out by the II Department of the Own E.I.V. Chancellery (1826-1882), codification department of the State Council (1882-1893) and Code of Laws Department of the State Chancellery (1893-1917).
Three editions of PSZ were undertaken in the Russian Empire. The first edition (collection) was compiled under the guidance of M.M. Speransky and published in full in 1830. It included about 30 thousand legislative acts since Cathedral Code 1649 to December 12, 1825. The second edition (collection) of the PSZ was issued annually from 1830 to 1884. and covered more than 60 thousand legislative acts from December 12, 1825 to February 28, 1881, the Third edition (collection) was issued annually until 1916, included more than 40 thousand legislative acts and covered chro(p. 34 ) the technological period from March 1, 1881 to the end of 1913. The PSZ printed various types of legislative acts of the Russian state: personal, royal, imperial decrees, manifestos, regulations, charters, royal rescripts, royal orders, royal commands, royal permissions, royal favors, royal orders; the most obedient reports and petitions, the highest approved; provisions (opinions) of the State Council, Senate, Synod or Committee of Ministers, approved by the highest; the highest approved magazines of ministries and departments; the highest approved treaties and agreements with foreign states, etc.
The second section of the collection includes a selection of legislative materials from the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (SZ). The CZ is a collection of legislative materials in force at the time of publication, arranged in thematic order. SZ was published in 1832, 1842, 1857 and 1892, the latest official edition in 1892 consisted of 16 volumes. The text of documents in the official publications of the SZ was arranged according to articles, under which references to the source were given. Publications were published between editions of SZ individual volumes SZ, as well as the continuation of the SZ with indications of the abolished and additional articles. Of the greatest interest is part I of volume XI of the C3, where the “Charter of the Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions” was officially published three times (1857, 1893, 1896).
The third section of the collection contains legal documents on the service of Muslims in the armed forces of the Russian Empire. They are borrowed primarily from the "Code of Military Regulations" (SVP). SVP is a systematic collection of existing laws on the military land part. It was published in various editions from 1838 until 1918.
Most of the legislative acts included in the collection are printed according to their official publications. In the case of using unofficial publications, the text of the documents is verified with their previous official publications.
The last section of the collection includes the work of the famous ethnographer S.G. Rybakov "The organization and needs of managing the spiritual affairs of Muslims in Russia" (1917). In 1913-1917. Rybakov was the leading expert of the Ministry of Internal Affairs on Islamic issues in Russia (Appendix IV). His work is a brief but capacious description of the organization of Muslim institutions in different regions of the empire on the eve of the fall of the Romanov dynasty. The value of his work also lies in the fact that he supplemented his essay with a summary of projects and proposals (p. 35 ) tsarist administrators and officials, Muslim public organizations on various problems of the life of Muslims in Russia
The published documents and materials are provided with the necessary explanatory comments, at the end of the collection there are a number of appendices and a glossary of Muslim terms. When preparing texts for publication, the peculiarities of writing names, titles and terms inherent in them were preserved.
The main goal in preparing this publication was the desire to show as fully as possible the history of Russian legislation on Islam and Muslims during the rise, heyday and decline of the Romanov monarchy. The very nature of the published documents determined their submission mainly in "pure form". They very often do not cover the issues of their development, discussion and adoption, and the next most important aspect of the life of any legislation almost always remains outside the field of their attention - how, in what way and, most importantly, to what extent the adopted legislative acts were embodied in Russian reality. All these topics require self-study and should be the subject of further research.
The creation of this collection would have been impossible without the school, which was given to the compiler by his late teachers - professors of Moscow State University Pyotr Andreevich Zaionchkovsky and Pyotr Ivanovich Petrov, without the benevolent participation and advice of his colleagues and, most importantly, the enormous assistance of the entire staff of the Cabinet of the History of Countries Asia and Africa GPIB, employees of the Library of Moscow State University, St. Petersburg RGIA and SPFARAN.
NOTES :
1 Novoseltsev A.P. East in the struggle for religious influence in Russia // Introduction of Christianity in Russia M., 1987.
2 Arapov D. Yu. Russia and the East in the XIII century to the question of the possibilities of Russian influence in Mongolian history // Source study and comparative method in humanitarian knowledge M., 1996.
3 Baskakov N. A. Russian surnames of Turkic origin M., 1979.
4 Zotov O. V. Moscow Russia geopolitics in the "heart of the earth" // Russia and the East of the problem of interaction M, 1993, part I, p. 113.
5 Quoted from History of Tataria in materials and documents M, 1937, p. 375.
(c. 36 ) 6 History of Russian Oriental Studies until the middle of the 19th century, M., 1990, p. 45-47.
7 Russian Antiquities Guide to XVIII century M-SPb, 1996, p. 88-89. Similarly, according to Sharia, a Muslim convert deserved the death penalty for leaving Islam. See Exposition of the Beginnings of Muslim Jurisprudence. Comp. N. Tornau M, 1991, p. 470 (reprint ed. 1850) See also Tatishchev V. N. Selected works on the geography of Russia. M., 1950, p. 93, 199.
8 Gilyazov I. A. Landowners Tevkelevs in the 18th - early 19th centuries // Classes and estates in the period of absolutism. Kuibyshev, 1989, p. 78-79.
9 See Document No. 5 of this edition.
10 Quoted. by ed.: Under the banner of Russia (Collection of archival documents). M., 1992, p. 81.
1 " Bartold V.V. Caliph and Sultan // Barthold W. B. Works. M., 1966, vol. IV, p. 74-75, Vdovichenko D. I. Enver Pasha // Questions of History, 1997, No. 8.
12 See Document No. 8 of this edition.
13 See Documents Nos. 11, 12, 13, 18, 19 of this edition.
14 Speranskaya M. M. Projects and notes M-L., 1961, p. 94, 104, 208.
15 Temnikovskiy E. The state position of religion in France since the end of the last century in connection with the general doctrine of the attitude of the new state to religion Kazan, 1898, p. 214-219.
16 See Document No. 26 of this edition.
17 Main Department of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions // Statehood of Russia (late XV-February 1917) M., 1996, book. I, p. 182-183.
18 This statute in official correspondence, scientific literature and journalism, most often simplistically called the "Charter of the Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions." For the official name, see Document No. 117 of this edition.
19 See Document No. 40 of this edition.
20 ^ Presnyakov A.E. Russian autocrats. M., 1990, p. 287.
21 See Document No. 113 of this edition.
22 For more details see Litvinov P.P. State and Islam in Russian Turkestan (1865-1917) (based on archival materials). Yelets, 1998.
23 Pwips R. Russian Revolution M., 1994, part I, p. 84.
24 Ministry of the Interior Historical sketch 1802-1902. SPb., 1901, p. 153.
(c. 37 )
25 Arapov D. Yu. Non-Orthodox Religions in the Management System of the Russian Empire // Public administration history and modernity M., 1997, aka. Islam in the system of state legislation of the Russian Empire // Russian statehood traditions, continuity, prospects. M., 1999.
26 After 1917, the new government retained a high degree of exactingness (but according to different criteria) in the selection of employees of bodies for the control of religious cults. ”- party members with pre-revolutionary experience J. V. Stalin suspected that many of them did not like him, but he was firmly convinced of their merciless rigidity in relation to all religions and religious institutions.
27 Non-Russian by father (“Russified Chukhonets”), Vigel wanted to prove that he was “more Russian than other Russians” or, as they say about Catholics, that he was “holier than the Pope” Kunin V.V. Preface to F. F. Vigel. Notes // Russian memoirs. Selected pages, 1800-1825. M., 1989, p. 440-441.
28 Kazem-Bek, Mirza Muhammad Ali / Alexander Kasimovich (1802-1870) - Russian orientalist, author of works on the history of Islam and Muslim law Languages of St. Petersburg University He worked closely with DDDII, the author of a number of memos about Islam in Russia and abroad. See "The case of rewarding the Dean of the Oriental Faculty of St. RGIA, f. 821, op. 8, units ridge 1147.
29 RGIA, f. 821, op. 8, Table of Contents.
30 Information about the connections of DDDII with the Orenburg Muftiate and the local tsarist administration is contained in the publication “Collection of circulars and other guidelines for the district of the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly 1836-1903” Ufa, 1905.
31 ^ Zayonchkovsky P.A. Russian autocracy at the end of the 19th century. M., 1970, p. 117.
32 Bartoya) V V Diary of a trip along the route Orenburg-Bashkiria-Siberia-Kyakhta (1913). SPFARAN, f. 68, "VV Barthold", op. I, unit ridge 206.
33 This circumstance was acknowledged by V. I. Lenin, who wrote about Russian Turkestan “Complete freedom of religion Islam reigns here” See Lenin V.I. PSS. M., 1962, v. 28, p. 513.
34 Cherekanskiy V.P. The world of Islam and its awakening. SPb., 1901, part 1-2, Bartold V.V. Modern Islam and its tasks // "Outskirts", 1894, No. 30, 32, About V.P. 37) works on the history of Central Asia, Iran, Islam and the Arab Caliphate, the history of Oriental studies.
35 Gasprinsky Ismaia Bey. Russia and the East, Kazan, 1993, p. 18, 57, 73.
^ 36 Power and reforms From autocratic to Soviet Russia St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 573-575.
37 Quoted from Alov A. Vladimirov N G Islam in Russia M, 1996, p. 52
38 According to V. I. Lenin, already in 1910 there were 20 million Muslims in Russia, the same figure was given in 1916 by V. V. Bartold, however, taking into account the population of vassals from the empire of Bukhara and Khiva Lenin V I PSS, t 28, p 514, Bartold V.V. Note on the printed Islamic studies organ in Russia // SPFARAN, f. 68, op. I, unit ridge 433, l 1.
39 ^ Arapov D.Yu. Muslim nobility in the Russian Empire // Muslims. 1999, No. 2-3, p. 48.
40 See Document No. 9 of this edition.
41 Cit. by book: Karelin A.P. The nobility in post-reform Russia 1861-1904 Composition, number, corporate organization. M., 1979, p. 48.
42 See Documents No. 31, 66, 67 of this edition These legislative acts were based on the decree of February 22, 1784 and, especially, on the Letter of Complaint to the Nobility of 1785.
43 Muslim deputies of the State Duma of Russia 1906-1917. Collection of documents and materials Ufa, 1998, p. 304-305.
44 For more details see Arapov D. Yu. The policy of the Russian Empire in relation to the Slavic and non-Slavic groups of the nobility in the territories of the former Commonwealth // Inter-Slavic relations M., 1999.
45 Abbasov A.T. General Mehmandarov. Baku, 1977, Ibragimov S.D. General Ali Aga Shikhlinsky. Baku, 1975.
46 Hasanoe X. X. Formation of the Tatar bourgeois nation. Kazan, 1977, p. 42, 92.93, 115.
47 Arapov D. Yu. Bukhara Khanate in Russian Oriental Historiography. M., 1981, p. 62.
48 Ibragimov M. J. Entrepreneurial activity G. 3. Tagiyeva. Baku, 1990.
49 Cossack troops. Experience of military-statistical description. Compiled by Gen. Staff Colonel Horoshkhin. SPb., 1881, p. 149-151.
50 See Documents Nos. 117, 122, 123, 124 of this edition.
(With. 39 )
51 Internal Horde (Bukeevskaya Horde) - in the XIX - early XX centuries. a special administrative unit, located between the lower reaches of the Volga and the Urals.
52 Atsamba F. M. Kirillina S. A. Religion and power of Islam in Ottoman Egypt (XVIII - the first quarter of the XIX centuries). M., 1996, p. 137.
53 See Document No. 117 of this edition and Appendix II.
54 Rybakov S. Statistics of Muslims in Russia // World of Islam, 1913 v. 2, no. 11, p. 762.
55 In memory of the centenary of the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly, established in the city of Ufa. Ufa, 1891, p. 43-45.