Emotional reactions of a person to a painful stimulus. Emotional reactions and their types
The complex activity of the cortical and subcortical parts of the brain ensures the multilevel and multicomponent nature of emotional reactions.
1. Physiological components of emotional response:
vegetative-somatic reactions accompanying emotional states. There are such changes as the expansion of peripheral vessels and the acceleration of the pulse in a state of anger, and vice versa, vasoconstriction, slowing down and weakening of the pulse when experiencing fear. Emotional states are accompanied by changes in the rate and rhythm of breathing, pupil size, blood pressure, secretory and motor dynamics of the gastrointestinal tract, sweating, skin-electrical and electroencephalographic changes. The connection of emotions with somatovegetative reactions was noticed a long time ago and has been widely used since then to diagnose the emotional state of a person. So, for example, the verification of suspects with the help of a polygraph ("lie detector");
biochemical changes. The autonomic nervous system regulates the biochemical dynamics of the body with two to a large extent different, but interconnected components - sympathetic and parasympathetic. Sympathetic activity nervous system associated with the release of adrenaline-like substances. The sympathetic nerve causes pupillary dilation, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, inhibition of intestinal activity, increased blood sugar, increased muscle performance, increased metabolism. The parasympathetic effect caused by another substance - acetylcholine, is characterized by constriction of the pupils, vasodilation, slowing of the pulse and increased peristalsis and secretion of the stomach, the release of copious hot sweat, and a weakening of metabolism. Experimental studies show that in a state of fear, the concentration of adrenaline increases with a slight change in noradrenaline, in a state of angry irritation or anxiety, the amount of both adrenaline and noradrenaline sharply increases, asthenic emotions (sadness, melancholy) are accompanied by a distinct decrease in both.
2. Expressive components of emotional response:
expressive movements of the whole body - pantomime. Pantomimic changes in gait, posture, gestures usually occur involuntarily, as external manifestations of the general emotional state of a person. The most important component of pantomime is a gesture - an expressive movement of the hands, which serves as one of the means of clarifying speech communication. Gestures are divided into illustrative, explaining and highlighting any thought, and expressive, revealing the emotional state of a person. Some types of gestures in the process of human socio-historical practice have acquired a certain symbolic meaning. For example, folded into a ring large and forefinger- gesture "OK" - means "everything is fine"; it is understood and used by representatives of different cultures;
movements of the facial muscles - facial expressions. The face of a person has the greatest ability to express various emotional shades. Even Leonardo da Vinci said that the eyebrows and mouth change differently for different reasons for crying. P. Ekman and K. Izard described the mimic signs of basic emotions, highlighting three areas of the face: the forehead and eyebrows, the eye area and the lower part of the face. So, for example, in accordance with their description in the facial expressions of fear, the eyebrows are raised and shifted, wrinkles are only in the center of the forehead; the upper eyelids are raised so that the sclera is visible, and the lower ones are raised and tense; mouth open, lips stretched. Mimic manifestations of emotions are a synthesis of involuntary and arbitrary ways of responding, to a large extent, depending on the characteristics of the culture in which a person is brought up;
Vocalization: voice timbre and intonation, sound means of expression. Of the sound means of expression, laughter and crying are the most characteristic. Laughter is an expression of several emotions, in different situations it has ambiguous shades and meaning.
In everyday life, it is precisely thanks to the expressive components of emotional response that we, as a rule, quite accurately perceive and evaluate changes in the emotional state, in the mood of the people around us.
Functions of emotion
The importance of emotions in human life is expressed in their functions. In psychology, it is customary to distinguish a number of functions:
· Reflective-evaluative function. Emotions evaluate the significance of objects and situations for achieving goals and meeting the needs of the subject; are the system of signals through which the subject learns about the significance of ongoing, past and future events.
· incentive function. From the assessment of what is happening follows the impulse to action. According to S.L. Rubinshtein, "emotion in itself contains attraction, desire, aspiration directed towards or away from an object."
· Activating function directly related to motivation. Emotions provide an optimal level of activity of the central nervous system and its individual structures. Emotional states differently influence the dynamics of the course of activity, its pace and rhythm. Emotions of joy, confidence in success give a person additional strength, encourage more intense and strenuous work. D. Hebb experimentally obtained a curve expressing the relationship between the level of emotional arousal of a person and the effectiveness of his activity. From it it is clear that there is a curvilinear relationship between emotional arousal and the effectiveness of human activity. To achieve the highest result of activity, neither too weak nor too strong emotional arousal is desirable. Too weak emotional arousal does not provide proper motivation for activity, and too strong one destroys it, disorganizes and makes it uncontrollable. Each person has his own optimum of emotional excitability, which ensures maximum efficiency in work. It depends on many factors: the characteristics of the activity performed, the conditions in which it takes place, the individuality of the person included in it, and many others.
· Regulating function. Emotions influence the direction and implementation of the activity of the subject. The emergence of one or another emotional attitude to an object, object, phenomenon affects motivation at all stages of the course of activity. Assessing the course and result of activity, emotions give subjective coloring to what is happening around us and in ourselves. This means that different people can emotionally react differently to the same event.
· synthesizing function. Emotions connect, synthesize into a single whole separate events and facts conjugated in time and space. A.R. Luria showed that the totality of images, directly or accidentally connected with the situation that gave rise to a strong emotional experience, forms a strong complex in the mind of the subject. The actualization of one of the elements entails, sometimes against the will of the subject, the reproduction in the mind of its other elements.
· Meaning formation. Emotions serve as a signal of the meaning-forming power of the motive. So, for example, A.N. Leontiev wrote: “A day filled with many actions that seem to be quite successful, however, can spoil a person’s mood, leave him with some unpleasant emotional aftertaste. Against the backdrop of the worries of the day, this sediment is barely noticeable, but then the moment comes when a person, as if he looks back and mentally goes over the day he lived, at that very moment, when a certain event pops up in his memory, his mood acquires an objective relation, an affective signal arises, indicating that it was this event that left him an emotional sediment. that this is his negative reaction to someone else's success in achieving a common goal, the only thing for which, as he thought, he acted, and now it turns out that this is not entirely true and that almost the main motive for him was to achieve success for himself " .
· Protective function. Such a strong emotional experience as fear warns a person about a real or imaginary danger, thereby contributing to a better thinking through the situation that has arisen, a more thorough determination of the likelihood of success or failure. Thus, fear protects a person from unpleasant consequences, and possibly from death.
· expressive function. Emotions, due to their expressive component, take part in establishing contact with other people in the process of communicating with them and influencing them.
No. 4. Types of emotions: affects, specific emotions, moods, passions, stresses and feelings.
Classification of emotional phenomena (Rada Mikhailovna Granovskaya):
1) Affect- the most powerful emotional reaction. Distinctive features of affect: situational, generalized, high intensity, short duration.
2) Actually emotions- longer states. They can be a reaction not only to past events, but also to probable or remembered ones.
3) Feelings – even more stable mental states that have a clearly expressed objective character. In Soviet psychology, the assertion is widespread that feelings reflect the social nature of a person and take shape as significant relationships to the world around.
4) Mood- the longest emotional state that colors all human behavior.
5) Stress- an emotional state caused by an unexpected and tense situation. According to G. Selye, "stress is an integral part of human life, it cannot be avoided. For each person there is an optimal level of stress at which the greatest efficiency of activity is achieved."
The most significant emotions include the following emotional manifestations: affect, passion, mood.
Affect - the most powerful type of emotional reaction. Affects are called intense, violently flowing and short-term emotional outbursts. Examples of affect are strong anger, rage, horror, stormy joy, deep grief, despair. This emotional reaction completely captures the human psyche, connecting the main influencing stimulus with adjacent ones, forming a single affective complex that predetermines the reaction to the situation as a whole.
One of the main features of affect is that this emotional reaction irresistibly imposes on a person the need to perform some action. At the same time, a person loses a sense of reality, he ceases to control himself and may not even be aware of what he is doing. This is explained by the fact that in a state of passion there is an extremely strong emotional excitation, which, affecting the motor centers of the cerebral cortex, turns into motor excitation. Under the influence of this excitation, a person performs many erratic movements and actions. It also happens that in a state of passion a person becomes numb, his actions completely stop, he seems to lose the power of speech. Similar phenomena can be observed in natural disasters and technological disasters. For example, one of the victims of the earthquake in Armenia described this event as follows: “I have never felt so helpless in my life. People were petrified and did not move... Then people ran without a goal. Those in the park ran in the direction of the buildings, although this was absolutely inappropriate. They ran for their lives and screamed like crazy. Those who were in the houses fled to the parks. Everyone was in a panic."
№5. Anxiety and its impact on the performance of athletes.
Anxiety affects the success of athletes. It has been established that anxiety promotes activity in fairly simple situations for an individual and hinders in complex ones, while the initial level of a person's anxiety is essential.
Studies have shown that in sports activities, the experience of anxiety has its own characteristics. Sustained personal anxiety occurs in athletes with such traits as vulnerability, increased susceptibility, suspiciousness. This type of anxiety acts as a reaction to the threat of something non-existent, which has neither a name nor a clear image, but threatens a person with the loss of himself, the loss of his "I". Such anxiety in an athlete is due to an internal conflict between two conflicting aspirations, when something important for him simultaneously repels and attracts. The athlete becomes socially maladjusted and therefore he goes into his inner world. He becomes a chameleon according to the principle: "I (like the inner world) like everyone else." He can also become aggressive, because aggressiveness relieves anxiety. In behavior, this is manifested by increased rudeness, ruffiness, etc. With increased anxiety, the athlete has a feeling of the inevitability of an impending catastrophe, the impossibility of avoiding danger. Most high level Anxiety - anxiety-fearful excitement, which is expressed in the need for motor discharge, panic search for a way out and expectation of help. If the athlete does not receive this assistance, then the disorganization of behavior and activity reaches its maximum. Such anxiety can be generated either by the real trouble of the athlete in the most significant competitions. Or exist, as it were, contrary to an objectively favorable situation, as a result of certain personal conflicts, inadequate development of self-esteem, etc. Athletes who often compete in competitions often experience such anxiety public life, sports discipline. However, this apparent well-being comes to them at an unreasonably high price and is fraught with disruptions, especially with a sharp complication of activity. Such athletes have pronounced vegetative reactions, neurosis-like and mental disorders. Anxiety in these cases is often generated by the conflict of self-esteem, the presence in it of a contradiction between high claims and a fairly strong self-doubt. With such a conflict, athletes are forced to strive to achieve success in all areas, but it does not prevent them from correctly assessing success, giving rise to a feeling of constant dissatisfaction, instability, and tension. This leads to hypertrophy of the need for achievement. There is an overload and overstrain, expressed in impaired attention, decreased performance, as well as increased fatigue. Anxious athletes are not a completely prosperous contingent: their sports results can be extremely low, they may develop neurosis. An excessively high level, as well as an excessively low one, is a maladaptive reaction that manifests itself in a general disorganization of behavior and activity and requires various methods of correction.
Attention should also be paid to athletes who are characterized, relatively speaking, by “excessive calmness”. Such insensitivity to trouble is, as a rule, compensatory, protective in nature and prevents the full formation of personality. The athlete, as it were, does not allow an unpleasant experience into consciousness. Emotional distress in this case persists due to an inadequate attitude to reality, negatively affecting the productivity of activity.
Psychodiagnostic studies of athletes have shown that increased anxiety causes overwork, i.e., a temporary decrease in performance under the influence of prolonged exposure to stress. Energy is spent not on sports activities, but on the suppression of anxiety, as a result of which the internal resources of the individual are depleted, and if the problem is not solved, this can lead to the development of a neurotic state.
Also, in 20% of athletes, high anxiety leads to isolation, i.e. neurotic loss of a sense of reality, loss of one's individuality, as well as aggressive behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological harm and accompanied by emotional states of anger, hostility and hatred.
Thus, of course, the existence of distinct differences in the content, nature of the experience of anxiety and stress and the impact of anxiety on the results of activity.
You can also select a number of alarm functions.
Firstly, the presence of “peaks” of anxiety indicates the significance of its experience for satisfying the leading needs that characterize athletes of a certain age and gender. This confirms the idea of its signaling and mobilizing functions, and also testifies in favor of ideas about the relationship of anxiety (both as a state and as a property) with the dissatisfaction of significant needs.
Secondly, speaking about the function of anxiety in sports activities, it should be emphasized that up to the older adolescence, it mainly has a negative impact, especially in training conditions. In preschool and throughout school age, the influence of anxiety on sports activity is mediated by the peculiarities of Turner's behavior and the atmosphere he creates in the team. It is the latter, significantly increasing the affective saturation of the situation, that negatively affects the effectiveness of the athletes.
Thirdly, the interaction in the “anxiety as a state-property” system increases with the age of the athletes, although it is also largely influenced by the position and behavior of the coach.
However, from consideration of the results of studies and observations of the activities of athletes, it follows that:
Along with actual alarm states, there are also simulated ones;
Those athletes whose condition is defined as unpleasant, uncomfortable, i.e. state of anxiety;
The level of mental tension in individual athletes is not a constant value, it is influenced by the situation;
Athletes with different levels of anxiety can perform optimally;
Research findings are often conflicting;
More in-depth reflections lead to the assumption of a rather strong relationship between a person's emotionality and the effectiveness of his activity;
The state of anxiety in sports can also be a subjectively desirable state, and this, in our opinion, is one of the most interesting points.
A well-trained athlete is in a state of "before an explosion of energy" before completing a task. It is said that an anxious athlete "burns out before the start of the fight." The start is expected with impatience, and most athletes subjectively desire this state, but only inexperienced and with a weak nervous system “burns out” in the pre-start fever. From the point of view of the pre-start experiences of athletes with a strong nervous system, it can be argued with a large approximation that tension and stress for them are associated with a feeling of “comfort of psychological functioning”. The conditions of this "comfort" create a mechanism for conscious control of one's anxiety. In sports activities, external influences and management are exceptionally strong. The "harsh climate" of sport requires the pressure of strong signals rather than "free climate, independence, benevolence." Such a climate, according to L. I. Bozhovich, favors the creativity of people with strong-willed character traits.
External regulation concerns several areas of management, from simple training to complex individual decisions. Functioning in sports is interpreted not only as a personal activity of an athlete, but also as a group, team, social activity. The motivation to achieve success in sports is focused on the public recognition of the personality of the athlete and the personality of his coach.
The problem of conscious localization of anxiety control in athletes is just beginning to be developed in sports psychology. It is possible to identify several interesting facts. The readiness to succumb to manipulation and this expectation by athletes on the part of rivals constitute a certain phenomenon in sports in connection with the basic features of sports - the freedom and independence of a competing personality. The subordination of an athlete to external guidance, for example, a coach in a team, creates only the appearance of “comfort of psychological functioning”, which should also reduce the power of influence of situations that cause tension and anxiety, i.e. serve as a neutralization in the perception of threat and are the factors through which we will try to determine the state of stress.
In sports activities, two "worlds" coexist:
Realistic world: situation, task, coded program of actions, adequate to the behavior of athletes;
Unrealistic world: "a world of subjectively created anxiety." An athlete builds a threat situation with his mind and thinking, which depends on the peculiarities of his perception of real situations - one sees a threat in it, the other does not. In connection with the thesis about the “construction of a threat situation”, hypotheses regarding the “layers of experience” may appear, because a “subjectively constructed threat” can have a different duration and significance for an athlete. Omitting here a lot of statements about stress in sports and its impact on performance, let's think about the essence of stress using an unconventional approach.
A holistic description of stress in sports can be given through:
Description of the phenomenon based on the chosen general theory;
Description of the process of the behavior of athletes on the basis of the essential elements contained in the chosen concept of stress.
Taking the second of these ways, consider:
Normal behavior and genesis of disorders;
The occurrence and place of the threat in the situation;
The problem of coping with stress and the "psychological cost" of violations.
Under natural conditions, the athlete is included in the system of interactions that prepare him for the task. At the same time, the task-oriented action dominates. This is the elimination of interference, the resumption of attempts. This is also an increase in the intensity of the reaction, an improvement in orientation processes.
Along with the behavior specific to a sport action, states and reactions arise that are not directly related to the implementation of the task or the goal of the competition. These are, first of all, enhanced processes of anticipation, attributing a threatening influence to various situations that create anxiety and emotional tension Khanin Yu.L. . Behavior similar to defensive reactions is also manifested, which worsens the athlete's well-being.
The activation of defense mechanisms by the type of repression or suppression of anxiety is characterized by two different "regulatory planes", or "levels of regulation". One of them makes it difficult to complete the task, the other makes it easier to endure the situation, helps to take action, despite the difficulties.
In general, it can be argued that defensive reactions (to a certain extent of their intensity) act only as “accompanying phenomena”. They "only accompany" until a state of "real threat" arises in the field of activity.
It is allowed that the threshold of perceptual stability means the proportion between the saturation of the image of the situation:
Factors relating to achieving a valid task (well chosen).
Factors relating to other states and objects (various types of assessments, foreseeing consequences, attributing characteristics to rivals, etc.). The predominance of “outside the task” elements in the task image or the lack of task elements creates a situation of lack of concentration on the task or its minimum size.
The threat is described as a loss of security, some deformation, i.e. as circumstances that portend undesirable effects or deprivation of something. In other words, the concept of threat is a signal of possible trouble. For sports, such situations are very typical.
Without describing in detail the athlete's preparation for the start, which, in connection with the indicated categories of actions and signs of the situation in the successive stages of preparation for the start, forms a picture of the future task and its general situation. The picture evolves or shrinks as information and expectations become available. The actualization of this picture is associated with motor activity. This abbreviated thought image signals that there may be an "undulating sense of threat." More precisely, regardless of the athlete, there is an "undulating sense of threat" .
It is noted that in all types of sports competitions that differ in the structure of motor actions (the evaluation criterion is the maximization of the athlete's effort in the process of implementing the entire program of actions), the common moment is the "suspension" of the perception of the threat or its "wear and tear" under the condition of automation of activity. If under these conditions an automatically performed action is violated by consciousness, there is reason to look for the causes of this violation in the athlete's psyche.
The characteristics of activity in many sports perfectly support the state of threat, which attracts people to these sports who crave these acute threatening experiences - for example, parachuting, freestyle, auto racing, etc. Thus, it is unlikely that some of the defensive reactions can be eliminated in them feeling threatened.
No. 7. Aggression and aggressiveness of athletes.
Aggression is behavior in which the goal is to cause other people physical and moral harm or to limit their desires. From this point of view, sport is already competitive in its essence, as athletes in competition seek to infringe on the desire of others to win. According to a number of scientists, competition is aggressive behavior regulated by the rules, it is aggressiveness expressed in a socially harmless form. Often the concept of "aggressiveness" is replaced by the concept of "sports anger".
Distinguish aggression hostile and constructive. Constructive aggression is prohibitions aimed at solving pedagogical tasks. Aggression can be direct physical (fight), direct verbal (quarrel), indirect physical (direction of physical aggression to objects, for example, the goalkeeper, who guessed the direction of the kick when a penalty kick is taken, kicks the goal post out of annoyance) and indirect verbal (negative statements of the athlete on about the coach behind him). Due to the manifestation of aggression, aggression can be deliberate (for example, the defender deliberately hits the attacker on the legs in order to interrupt the attack or disable him) and provoked (the attacker's response to the defender).
No. 8. Stages and features of a sports career.
Research carried out over the past decade has provided insight into what a sports career is and how a sports career differs from other careers. The beginning of career research was laid by B. G. Ananiev. He believed that any career consists of four stages: preparation, start, climax and finish.
"training" includes the choice of profession and basic professional education- adolescence and early adulthood;
"start" - the beginning of the actual labor activity and adaptation to the profession from 23 to 30 years;
"culmination" - the stage of the highest achievements in the profession, reflected in social status personality - from 30 to 45-50 years;
· "Finish" is associated with preparation for retirement and retirement adaptation - from 50 to 60-65 years.
In our opinion, such a division of a career into stages is universal and suitable for any professional career. However, in the case of a sports career, there are specifics. A sports career begins very early, even in preschool childhood, and ends also early by the standards of professions that are not related to sports.
Our Belarusian colleagues E.A. Lupekina, O.N. Melnikov identified the following features of a sports career:
An earlier start of the “preparation” phase. Usually this is preschool or primary school age, but it happens earlier, especially in sports families;
relatively early start of a sports career and the choice of a specific sport;
Relatively early culmination of a sports career;
· gender differences in terms of climax and finish of a sports career;
· a greater shift towards birth than a professional career;
· spasmodic nature of development is expressed in a sports career;
Since sport is one of the most energy-intensive activities, therefore it is associated with the use of human reserves;
sports are characterized by tougher conditions of competition than in most other areas of activity;
· a sports career is not always professional in the sense of constant earnings, but always in the sense of a professional attitude to business;
· a sports career is characterized by the relative uncertainty of the moment of retirement - its dependence not so much on age, but on the dynamics of sports results and many other reasons - as opposed to retirement by age, typical for most professions;
The athlete has the opportunity to extend his SC by changing his sports role or sport. In many professions, similar opportunities are very limited;
“Sport is a concise model of life”. In it, due to the extreme conditions, you can find all the richness of the manifestations of human nature. It more versatile forms the adaptive capabilities of a person in the broadest sense than most other professions. For example, athletes adapt more easily in business, as the competitive situation stimulates them. Thus, a sports career lays the real prerequisites for a transition to another professional career, which is important, since it usually ends in a period very far from retirement age.
Thus, a sports career (SC) is a long-term activity of an athlete, which implies the achievement of high results, in accordance with the goals and objectives of a particular stage of a long-term professionalization of an athlete.
2. Periodization of sports career
A professional career, during which the formation of a professional takes place, is the main problem of labor psychology. That is why we consider it possible to turn to the research of this scientific discipline. Foreign and domestic researchers have repeatedly addressed the problem of the professional development of a person. The authors of the most famous concepts of the professional development of a personality are: S. Buhler, E. Gintsberg, A. A. Derkach, V. G. Zazykin, E. F. Zeer, T. V. Kudryavtsev, E. A. Klimov, K. M. Levitan, B. Livehud, A. K. Markova, L. M. Mitina, Yu. P. Povarenkov, N. I. Povyakel, A. T. Rostunov, E. Rowe, D. Super, A. R. Fonarev, R. Heyvighurst, D. Holland, E. Spranger, V. D. Shadrikov and others. Despite significant differences, common to all theories is that professionalization is a process that involves the passage of an individual through a number of stages of professional development. The analysis of the concepts of the above-mentioned authors, as well as their generalization, made it possible to present the following stages of the professional development of the individual.
Option stage. The stage of determining the sphere of interests and abilities of the individual, as well as the choice of professional activity, which can last from birth to graduation.
stage vocational training, which involves the acquisition of professional knowledge, skills and abilities within the walls of a vocational educational institution (4-5 years).
Stage of professional adaptation. It is the stage where the subject of activity enters the profession, masters the basics professional excellence(2 - Zgoda).
The stage of becoming a professional. It involves the formation of professionally important qualities and self-realization of the individual in professional activities.
· Stage of professional mastery. Here the subject of labor, having mastered professional activity, actively and creatively self-realizes.
It should be noted that the determination of the time parameters for the formation of a professional is not possible, since their passage is subjective and is determined by the specific social conditions for the implementation of professional activity, the individual meaning of its implementation, etc.
Sport is a unique model where, as mentioned earlier, the achievement of professional excellence occurs in a shorter time, and a professional career ends very early - at 25 - 30 years. The time frame for the active professionalization of a subject in sports is determined by the specifics of the sport, those physical and mental resources that are necessary for the effective self-realization of the individual in sports activities.
No. 9. Crisis of a sports career.
A career in modern sports begins very early (at 4-5 years old), and ends just as early (at 25-30 years old), that is, the beginning of a sports career falls on that period of an individual's life, which is the most sensitive in terms of the development of his physical and mental properties, qualities and abilities. In addition, this is the period when an individual, in the course of mastering and professional self-realization in sports activities, faces a complex of crisis contradictions and problems that determine the course of his sports career.
The problem of sports career crises has not yet become the subject of a wide study of sports specialists. AT domestic psychology sports, a number of works by N. B. Stambulova, I. B. Ivanov, O. Yu. Senatorova and S. N. Shikhverdiev. Most of the works mentioned above are devoted to the problems of choosing methods of psychological assistance to athletes, organization psychological counseling, creating psychological and pedagogical conditions for the social adaptation of athletes who are at the stage of completing their sports career. That is, these works represent only the stage of completion of a sports career. Therefore, it cannot be argued that this problem adequately researched.
The most complete crises of a sports career are presented in the work of N. B. Stambulova. The imposition of various periodizations of a sports career allowed N. B. Stambulova to identify seven crises-transitions of an elite sports career:
crisis of the beginning of sports specialization;
· the crisis of transition to in-depth training in the chosen sport;
· crisis of transition from mass sports to sports of the highest achievements;
· Crisis of transition from youth sports to adult sports;
· crisis of transition from amateur sports of the highest achievements to professional sports;
· crisis of transition from the climax to the finish line of a sports career;
· the crisis of the end of a sports career and the transition to another career.
Each of the presented crises is very symptomatic and is a period of transition from one stage of a sports career to another. The author describes crisis contradictions and problems, the solution of which is necessary at a particular stage of a sports career, as well as the results of passing each of the crises.
Paying tribute to the work done by N. B. Stambulova, however, we note that the crises of a sports career presented by her do not take into account the fact that an athlete, like any person, is faced with crisis phenomena not only in the course of mastering sports activities, but also outside of it on throughout his life. Therefore, for a more complete understanding of the crises of a sports career, in our opinion, it is necessary to consider a generalized typology of crises.
The whole set of crises is usually divided into normative and non-normative. Normative crises are natural, determined by the logic of development itself. These include age crises, crises of mental development, as well as directly crises of professional development. Non-normative crises include neurotic, critical and life crises. Abnormal crises are the result of random, unforeseen events in a person's life.
Rice. Personality crises according to E. F. Zeer
In our opinion, for a more effective understanding of the essence and structure of a sports career, a model for describing crises is needed. This model has been proposed by us. During the development of the model, the results of research by N. B. Stambulova, a list of requirements for the stages of many years of preparation, as well as a typology of development crises were used.
We note that sports activities are so diverse that the creation of a unified model for describing the crises of an athlete's professional career is very problematic. objective reasons. This is a different beginning and end of a sports career, this is a diverse degree of investment of an athlete in terms of physical and mental costs necessary for successful self-realization in sports activities, etc. Nevertheless, it offers a generalized model for describing the crises of an athlete's sports career, without pretending to be universal.
In the model we propose, the professional development of a personality is represented by the stages of many years of training in sports (vertical). According to the definition of crises, the transition from one stage (stage) to another generates normative developmental crises and non-normative crises (horizontal). In the presentation of this issue, we will restrict ourselves to a description of the preliminary stage of many years of preparation.
The leading factors that determine the specifics of crises of mental development are: the social situation of development, the essence of which is the restructuring of the system of relations with adults and the outside world, a change in the leading activity, as well as the emergence of psychological neoplasms. Naturally, at the stages of mental development, there is a change in the social situation of development, leading activity, and central neoplasms also appear. The essential characteristics of the crisis of mental development vary depending on the stage of many years of preparation. For example, the preliminary stage of the long-term training of a judoist falls on the beginning of adolescence. At this age, the crisis of mental development is characterized by the fact that the social situation of development is defined as the ambivalence of the child's position between the state of not yet an adult, but no longer a small child. The leading activity here is socially significant activity, which is represented by learning activities communication and socially useful activities. As the main neoplasms, we will name the appearance abstract thinking, reassessment of values, gender identification, the emergence of a sense of "adulthood".
In the studies of B.G. Ananiev, heterochrony of development was shown. Transformations of mental abilities are the result of age-related changes. So it is legitimate to assume age-related changes of a person, generated by his biological development, an independent factor that determines age-related crises. The main characteristic of adolescence is biological maturation, which is marked by rapid physical development coinciding with puberty. The restructuring of the body begins with changes in the endocrine system. The activity of the pituitary gland is activated, especially its anterior lobe, hormones that stimulate tissue growth and the functioning of other important endocrine glands (thyroid, genital, adrenal glands). The face of a teenager is changing. The development of muscles in boys occurs according to the male type, and soft tissues in girls - according to the female. The restructuring of the motor apparatus is often accompanied by a loss of harmony in movements, an inability to control one's own body appears (general awkwardness, angularity, an abundance of movements and their insufficient coordination). The growth of various organs and tissues places increased demands on the activity of the heart. It grows faster than blood vessels, which can cause functional disorders in the activity of the cardiovascular system and manifest itself in the form of palpitations, increased blood pressure, headaches, and rapid fatigue.
Thyroid and gonadal hormones are metabolic catalysts. Since the endocrine and nervous systems are functionally interconnected, adolescence is characterized, on the one hand, by a rapid rise in energy, and, on the other hand, by increased sensitivity to pathogenic influences. Therefore, mental and physical overwork, prolonged nervous tension, affects, strong negative emotional experiences can be the causes of endocrine disorders and functional disorders of the nervous system. They manifest themselves in increased irritability, weakness of restraining mechanisms, fatigue, absent-mindedness, a drop in productivity at work, and sleep disturbance.
Comparison and evaluation of oneself in terms of standards of femininity and masculinity becomes relevant. Boys and girls begin to engage in various sports. The main attraction of these activities is the possibility of strengthening one's physical strength, acquiring the appearance of a man, and for girls, harmony and flexibility. Thus, physical changes play a large role in the development of adolescent self-awareness.
However, not only the normative crises of the professional development of the personality accompany the career of an athlete. There are so-called non-normative crises. These include neurotic, life and critical crises.
Neurotic crises are caused by intrapersonal changes that provoke an internal conflict and lead to a mismatch of the psychological integrity of the individual. Neurotic crises are widely represented in the works of the Freudians, according to ideas that all our neurotic crises find their origin in childhood. They are determined by the specifics of the relationship of children with adults and with the environment. For example, the neurotic attraction to power formed in early childhood under the influence of fear, anxiety and feelings of inferiority makes the neurotic always be right, control everyone and always do his own thing.
Life crises are caused by important events for a person. For a teenager, this can be a divorce of parents, a change in a sports school or team, a change of residence, etc., that is, these are changes in a person’s individual biography that lead to mental tension, restructuring of the system social relations and consciousness.
Another group of non-normative crises is represented by critical, tragic events in the life of an individual. These events can have catastrophic consequences for a young athlete, which lead to a revision of life values, loss of the meaning of life, etc. These crises can be caused by the unexpected loss of loved ones, a series of sports failures, severe injuries, and, as a result, the impossibility of continuing a sports career.
The two groups of crises considered in the life of each person are intertwined, and when they overlap, the course of crises of professional development is very acute, conflicting. In this situation, the question arises of the need to provide psychological assistance to the athlete. We believe that the most effective form of dealing with crises is their prevention, which consists in regular monitoring of mental states.
No. 10. Feeling as a mental process. Properties, types, functions, development of sensations.
mental process - this is the course of a mental phenomenon, caused both by external influences and stimuli coming from the internal environment of the organism. Central to the human psyche is cognitive processes: sensation, perception, memory, thinking, attention and imagination.
Feeling- This is the first and simplest form of sensory knowledge. Thanks to sensations, we learn certain aspects or properties of objects and phenomena (color, shape, smell, thirst, heaviness, etc.).
Types of sensations reflect the uniqueness of the stimuli that give rise to them.
Feelings can be classified in different ways. According to the leading modality (qualitative characteristic), there are:
· visual sensations - are caused by exposure to light, i.e. electromagnetic waves that are emitted or reflected by various physical bodies. The receptor is the retina of the eye. Light waves differ in length, amplitude and shape. Length is the number of oscillations of a light wave per second. The larger the number of oscillations, the shorter the wavelength, and vice versa, the less number vibrations, the longer the wavelength. The wavelength of light determines the color tone. Colors have different psychological meanings. The amplitude of the light wave oscillations determines the brightness of the color. The shape of the light wave, resulting from mixing light waves of different wavelengths together, determines the saturation of the color.
auditory sensations - are caused by sound waves, i.e. rhythmic fluctuations in the air. There is a special physical unit, by means of which the frequency of air oscillations per second is estimated - hertz - numerically equal to one oscillation per second. The higher the frequency of air vibrations, the higher the sound we perceive. On average, a person hears sounds in the frequency range from 16 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound below the human hearing range is called infrasound; from 20 kHz to 1 GHz - by ultrasound, from 1 GHz and above - by hypersound. The loudness of the perceived sound depends on its strength or intensity, i.e. amplitude and frequency of air oscillations.
· olfactory sensations are a reflection of smells. They arise due to the penetration of particles of odorous substances that spread in the air into the upper part of the nasopharynx, where they act on the peripheral endings of the olfactory analyzer, embedded in the nasal mucosa.
· taste sensations play important role in the process of nutrition, when distinguishing different types food. Taste sensations have four main modalities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. All other varieties of taste sensations are a diverse combination of the four main ones. The olfactory analyzer plays an important role in the emergence of certain taste sensations.
· tactile sensation or skin sensitivity is the most common type of sensitivity. The familiar sensation that occurs when an object touches the surface of the skin is the result of a complex combination of 4 others: pressure, pain, heat and cold. For each of them there is a specific number of receptors, unevenly located in different parts of the skin surface. The strength and quality of sensations are themselves relative. For example, when the surface of one area of the skin is simultaneously exposed to warm water, its temperature is perceived differently, depending on what kind of water we act on the neighboring area of the skin. If it is cold, then in the first area of the skin there is a feeling of warmth, and if it is hot, then a feeling of cold. Temperature receptors have, as a rule, two threshold values: they respond to high and low impacts, but do not respond to medium ones.
These sensations are called exteroceptive and constitute a single group according to the type of analyzers, the receptors of which are located on the surface of the body or near it. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and distance. Contact sensations are caused by direct contact with the surface of the body (taste, touch), distant sensations are caused by stimuli that act on the sense organs at some distance (vision, hearing). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between them.
To proprioceptive sensations include a sense of balance, provided by the work of the vestibular apparatus, and a kinesthetic sensation, which carries information about the state of the muscular system. kinesthetic sensations(from the Greek kinesis - “movement”) come from muscles, ligaments and tendons; allow you to perform and coordinate movements. They are formed automatically, enter the brain and regulate movements at a subconscious level.
Signals from internal organs are called visceral sensations and are interoceptive. These include hunger, thirst, nausea, and internal pain.
In addition, a person has several specific types of sensations that carry information about time, acceleration, vibration. Vibrating sensations occupy an intermediate place between tactile and auditory sensitivity.
Feeling properties. Feelings have the following properties.
1. Modality- a qualitative characteristic of sensations is a property that allows you to distinguish one type of sensation from another.
2. Intensity- this is a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
3. Duration is a temporal characteristic of sensations. It is determined by the functional state of the sense organ, the time of exposure to the stimulus and its intensity.
4. Sensitivity is the ability of the nervous system to respond to stimuli. Sensitivity is characterized by two thresholds - lower and upper. The lower threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus that can cause a subtle sensation. The upper one is the maximum value of the stimulus at which pain sensation occurs. high sensitivity low thresholds correspond, and vice versa, low sensitivity corresponds to high ones. The threshold for the occurrence of sensation in different people is not the same. The value of the threshold varies with age and depends on the state of health and mental state of the person. Sensitivity can be increased or decreased by pharmacological means. An important role in changing the sensitivity is played by the fitness of the analyzer. For example, musicians develop auditory sensitivity (“musical ear”), tasters develop olfactory and gustatory sensitivity.
5. Adaptation is the adaptation of the sense organ to external conditions. Through adaptation, the receptor gets used to the sensation. For example, when moving from bright light to darkness, we do not see objects at first, but gradually begin to distinguish their outlines (dark adaptation).
6. Synesthesia- this is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of a certain analyzer of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer. For example, in some people, the sounds of music can cause a sensation of color (the so-called "color hearing") or a combination of colors gives rise to musical associations.
7. Compensation- this is a property of sensations to have taken away
No. 11. Perception as a mental process, its properties, types, functions.
Perception - this is a mental process that reflects a holistic image of objects and phenomena in the human mind with their direct impact on the senses.
Perception includes sensation and is based on it. But it is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations. It is something whole included and reproduced past experience, and processes of comprehension of what is perceived, and other mental processes. In other words, perception differs from sensation in that it active process, as a result of which the image of the object is formed.
Perception is often called human perceptual system.
Types of perception
1. Perception of space can take place at different levels. To spatial properties subject include: size, shape, position in space. In the perception of three-dimensional space, first of all, the functions of a special vestibular apparatus located in the inner ear, as well as the apparatus of binocular vision, are involved.
2. Perception of time, despite the importance of this problem, much less has been studied than the question of the perception of space. The difficulty of studying this issue lies in the fact that time is not perceived as a phenomenon of the material world. Its course can be judged only by certain signs.
The most elementary forms are the processes of perception, which are based on elementary rhythmic phenomena, known as the "biological clock". In general, there are two main aspects to consider when studying the perception of time: perception of temporal duration and perception of temporal sequence.
Estimation of the duration of a time interval largely depends on what events it was filled with. If there were a lot of events, and they were interesting, then time goes faster. And vice versa, if there were few events or they were not interesting, then time drags on slowly. A time span filled with various events seems to be longer, and vice versa.
Estimation of the length of time also depends on emotional experiences.. If events cause positive attitude to yourself, time seems to go by quickly. Conversely, negative experiences lengthen the time period.
In addition to the internal mechanisms of time perception, a person also uses certain time intervals. Such intervals can be a day, a week, a month, a year, a century, etc. The existence of these intervals is possible because a certain change of events alternates in them, for example, sunset and sunrise. So, by the number of sunrises, we can judge how many days, weeks, months, years have passed.
Thus, in the perception of time by a person, it is necessary to distinguish two aspects: subjective and objective-conditional. The subjective aspect is connected with our personal assessment of passing events, which, in turn, depends on the occupancy of a given time period with events, as well as their emotional coloring. The objectively conditional aspect is associated with the objective course of events and a series of conditionally contractual reference points, or time intervals. If the first aspect reflects the inner sense of time, then the second aspect helps a person to navigate in time.
Basic properties of perception
The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, selectivity.
Objectivity of perception - this is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects
Another property of perception is integrity . Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of the object.
The integrity of perception is also related to its structure (property opposite to integrity) - the ability to distinguish parts in the image of an object or phenomenon, as a result of which a person can establish relationships between parts
The next property of perception is constancy . Constancy is the relative constancy of the reflection of certain properties of objects when the physical conditions of their perception change. For example, a truck moving in the distance will be perceived as a large object, although its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image, as if it were nearby.
The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As mentioned above, human perception is closely related to thinking. The connection between thinking and perception is primarily expressed in the fact that to consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, that is, to attribute it to a certain group, class, to associate it with a certain word.
Another property of perception is selectivity. It lies in the fact that at any time a person can perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the real world are the background of perception, that is, they are not reflected in consciousness. For example, a student, listening to a lecture or reading a book, does not pay attention at all to what is happening behind him.
No. 12. Representative system
Each person perceives the world in their own way. Its perception is based on one or another channel of information flow: visual (visual), auditory (auditory), kinesthetic (bodily). In this article, we will look at what representational systems of perception and information processing exist, understand what each of them means, and learn how to determine the types of systems in ourselves and others.
We use our sense organs not only to perceive the external world, but also to represent these experiences to ourselves, i.e. represent. Hence the name representational systems - these are the ways in which we receive and store information in our brain. The visual, auditory, and kinesthetic representational systems are primary to Western culture. We use all of them constantly, although we are not equally aware of them, giving preference to some, and "forgetting" about others.
There are leading systems that we use most often to process information. So, many people think mostly in pictures, as if playing a movie in their head. Others find it difficult and prefer to have an internal dialogue. Still others will prefer to base their actions on internal feelings in relation to the situation that has arisen (“warms the soul” or not, “catches”).
Therefore, different people become more successful in solving certain tasks, depending on what the specifics of this task are. For example, a musician's auditory channel of perception will be clearly more developed, while an athlete needs to develop a kinesthetic channel. The architect, by virtue of his profession, prefers to think in images.
There are very few people who equally own all channels of perception and processing of information and can use them at their own discretion. Although representative systems are not mutually exclusive, basically, a person has one leading channel for perceiving, processing and storing information, the second is auxiliary, and the third is the least developed.
How to determine by a person which way of processing information is “native” for him and which is not. There are a number of indicators that can help us with this: behavior (breathing, speech rate), eye access cues, speech (words and expressions). Let's analyze each of them in order.
No. 13. Psychomotor sphere of athletes and its manifestation in sports activities.
The concept of "psychomotor" was introduced into scientific use by I. M. Sechenov. It emphasizes the dependence of human motor manifestations on mental regulation. So, the implementation of arbitrary movements ( exercise) occurs under the control of consciousness, and the manifestation of motor qualities requires the participation of volitional effort. Therefore, the psychomotor sphere of a person is an alloy of psychological and physiological mechanisms for controlling movements, motor actions, which are reflected in the manifestation of various psychomotor (motor) qualities.
6.1. Qualities that characterize speed
Performance indicators are divided into four groups:
1) the time of contraction and relaxation of muscles;
2) the time of a single movement;
3) response time to the signal;
4) frequency of movements.
There is some connection between these high-speed manifestations, in particular, due to their common high-speed typological complex of properties of the nervous system, which includes a weak nervous system, mobility of nervous processes, and high lability. However, there is also specificity in their manifestation. Therefore, you can quickly contract the muscle, but relax it more slowly. It is possible to have a high frequency of movements and a relatively poor response time to the signal. This makes it necessary to approach the assessment of the speed capabilities of an athlete in a differentiated way. In addition, it is necessary to keep in mind the specificity of the manifestation of performance indicators in laboratory conditions in comparison with the change in the speed of movement of an athlete in real conditions. As a rule, in the first case, such tests are offered that exclude the influence of anthropometric characteristics of a person on the measured indicators. In the second case, anthropometric features play a big role. Speed indicators in natural conditions of sports activity depend on the developed acceleration, and it is determined by the strength of the muscles and through it - by the mass of the body or its links, the length of the lever (limb), the total length of the body, etc.
In addition, many sports activities require the manifestation of all forms of speed (for example, sprinters), so the sports result depends on each of them. Although in a number of sports only one of the speed manifestations is predominantly expressed (for example, in skeet shooting - the reaction time to a moving object).
Signal response time (reaction time). Reaction time is measured by the interval between the appearance of a signal and the start of a response (as, for example, in runners, skaters taking a start). This time is determined by:
1) the speed of excitation of the receptor and the sensory center (depends on the sensitivity of one or another analyzer - visual, auditory, tactile);
2) the speed of signal processing in the central nervous system (recoding, recognition);
3) the speed of the athlete's decision to respond to the signal;
4) the speed of sending a signal to the beginning of action along the motor nerves;
5) the speed of development of excitation in the executive organ (muscle) and overcoming the rest inertia of the corresponding link of the body.
When measuring the reaction time in laboratory conditions (on a reflexometer), the time taken to overcome the resistance of the device button, which stops the stopwatch started by the experimenter at the moment the signal is given, is added to this. In real conditions of sports activity (taking a start), there is preliminary period reactions to the starting signal associated with his expectation (from the command "Attention!" to the command "March!" or the starter's shot).
Based on this, the reaction time includes sensory and motor components. The first is called the latent period of the sensorimotor reaction. Its duration depends on the modality of the signal (sound, visual, etc.), since the sensitivity of different analyzers is not the same: the latent period for sound signals is somewhat shorter than for visual ones; among the latter, the latency period for red is shorter than for green and blue.
Allocate also voltage latent time and muscle relaxation, determined by an electromyogram (recordings on the device of the electrical activity of the muscle, that is, biocurrents).
In many cases, the athlete is required not to simply respond to a single signal, but to assess the situation, the significance of this or that stimulus, especially if there are many of them and they appear simultaneously. Then the question arises before the athlete: which of them to respond, in what way? In this regard, allocate simple sensorimotor reactions(reaction to a single signal) and complex, which are divided into differentiation(when you need to respond to one signal, but not to another) and to choice reactions(when you need to respond to each signal, but in different ways). In complex reactions, the latent period increases due to the time spent on distinguishing and recognizing the stimulus (that is, assigning it to a certain group, which is important for unraveling the opponent’s intentions), and choosing the most appropriate response in a given situation. As a result of this "central delay", the time of a complex reaction can exceed the time of a simple reaction (120–140 ms) by almost two times. True, for experienced athletes (for example, boxers) it can approach the time of a simple reaction if they react to well-known actions of the opponent.
There is no correspondence between the simple reaction time and the "central delay" time. For example, with the development of a state of monotony, the time of a simple reaction is shortened, and the time of "prices
This is the first of the symptoms described by the doctors of ancient Greece and Rome - signs of inflammatory damage. Pain is what signals us about some kind of trouble that occurs inside the body or about the action of some destructive and irritating factor from the outside.
Pain, according to the well-known Russian physiologist P. Anokhin, is designed to mobilize various functional systems of the body to protect it from the effects of harmful factors. Pain includes such components as sensation, somatic (bodily), vegetative and behavioral reactions, consciousness, memory, emotions and motivations. Thus, pain is a unifying integrative function of an integral living organism. In this case, the human body. For living organisms, even without signs of higher nervous activity, can experience pain.
There are facts of change electrical potentials in plants, which were fixed when their parts were damaged, as well as the same electrical reactions when researchers inflicted injury on neighboring plants. Thus, the plants responded to damage caused to them or to neighboring plants. Only pain has such a peculiar equivalent. Here is such an interesting, one might say, universal property of all biological organisms.
Types of pain - physiological (acute) and pathological (chronic).
Pain happens physiological (acute) and pathological (chronic).acute pain
According to the figurative expression of Academician I.P. Pavlov, is the most important evolutionary acquisition, and is required to protect against the effects of destructive factors. The meaning of physiological pain is to reject everything that threatens the life process, disrupts the balance of the body with the internal and external environment.chronic pain
This phenomenon is somewhat more complex, which is formed as a result of pathological processes existing in the body for a long time. These processes can be both congenital and acquired during life. Acquired pathological processes include the following - the long existence of foci of inflammation that have various causes, all kinds of neoplasms (benign and malignant), traumatic injuries, surgical interventions, outcomes of inflammatory processes (for example, the formation of adhesions between organs, changes in the properties of the tissues that make up their composition) . Congenital pathological processes include the following - various anomalies in the location of internal organs (for example, the location of the heart outside the chest), congenital developmental anomalies (for example, congenital intestinal diverticulum and others). Thus, a long-term focus of damage leads to permanent and minor damage to body structures, which also constantly creates pain impulses about damage to these body structures affected by a chronic pathological process.Since these injuries are minimal, the pain impulses are rather weak, and the pain becomes constant, chronic and accompanies a person everywhere and almost around the clock. The pain becomes habitual, but does not disappear anywhere and remains a source of long-term irritating effects. A pain syndrome that exists in a person for six or more months leads to significant changes in the human body. There is a violation of the leading mechanisms of regulation of the most important functions of the human body, disorganization of behavior and the psyche. The social, family and personal adaptation of this particular individual suffers.
How common is chronic pain?
According to research by the World Health Organization (WHO), every fifth inhabitant of the planet suffers from chronic pain caused by various pathological conditions associated with diseases of various organs and body systems. This means that at least 20% of people suffer from chronic pain. varying degrees severity, varying intensity and duration.
What is pain and how does it occur? Department of the nervous system responsible for the transmission of pain sensitivity, substances that cause and maintain pain.
The sensation of pain is a complex physiological process, including peripheral and central mechanisms, and has an emotional, mental, and often vegetative coloring. The mechanisms of the pain phenomenon have not been fully disclosed to date, despite numerous Scientific research that continue up to the present day. However, let us consider the main stages and mechanisms of pain perception.Nerve cells that transmit pain signal, types of nerve fibers.
The very first stage of pain perception is the impact on pain receptors ( nociceptors). These pain receptors are located in all internal organs, bones, ligaments, in the skin, on the mucous membranes of various organs in contact with the external environment (for example, on the intestinal mucosa, nose, throat, etc.).
To date, there are two main types of pain receptors: the first are free nerve endings, the irritation of which causes a feeling of dull, diffuse pain, and the second are complex pain receptors, the excitation of which causes a feeling of acute and localized pain. That is, the nature of pain sensations directly depends on which pain receptors perceived the irritating effect. Regarding specific agents that can irritate pain receptors, it can be said that they include various biologically active substances (BAS) formed in pathological foci (the so-called algogenic substances). These substances include various chemical compounds - these are biogenic amines, and products of inflammation and cell decay, and products of local immune reactions. All these substances, completely different in chemical structure, are capable of irritating pain receptors of various localization.
Prostaglandins are substances that support the body's inflammatory response.
However, there are a number chemical compounds, involved in biochemical reactions, which themselves cannot directly affect pain receptors, but enhance the effects of substances that cause inflammation. The class of these substances, for example, includes prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are formed from special substances - phospholipids that form the basis of the cell membrane. This process proceeds as follows: a certain pathological agent (for example, enzymes form prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are generally called eicosanoids and play an important role in the development of the inflammatory response. The role of prostaglandins in the formation of pain in endometriosis, premenstrual syndrome, as well as painful menstruation syndrome (algodysmenorrhea) has been proven.So, we have considered the first stage of the formation of pain - the impact on special pain receptors. Consider what happens next, how a person feels pain of a certain localization and nature. To understand this process, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the pathways.
How does the pain signal get to the brain? Pain receptor, peripheral nerve, spinal cord, thalamus - more about them.
The bioelectric pain signal formed in the pain receptor is directed to spinal nerve ganglia (knots) located next to the spinal cord. These nerve ganglia accompany each vertebra from the cervical to some of the lumbar. Thus, a chain of nerve ganglia is formed, running to the right and left along the spinal column. Each nerve ganglion is connected to the corresponding area (segment) spinal cord. The further path of the pain impulse from the spinal nerve ganglia is sent to the spinal cord, which is directly connected to the nerve fibers.
In fact, the dorsal could - this is a heterogeneous structure - white and gray matter is isolated in it (as in the brain). If the spinal cord is examined in cross section, then the gray matter will look like the wings of a butterfly, and the white will surround it from all sides, forming the rounded outlines of the boundaries of the spinal cord. Now, the back of these butterfly wings is called the posterior horns of the spinal cord. They carry nerve impulses to the brain. The front horns, logically, should be located in front of the wings - this is how it happens. It is the anterior horns that conduct the nerve impulse from the brain to the peripheral nerves. Also in the spinal cord in its central part there are structures that directly connect the nerve cells of the anterior and posterior horns of the spinal cord - thanks to this, it is possible to form the so-called "mild reflex arc", when some movements occur unconsciously - that is, without the participation of the brain. An example of the work of a short reflex arc is pulling the hand away from a hot object.
Since the spinal cord has a segmental structure, therefore, each segment of the spinal cord includes nerve conductors from its area of responsibility. In the presence of an acute stimulus from the cells of the posterior horns of the spinal cord, excitation can abruptly switch to the cells of the anterior horns of the spinal segment, which causes a lightning-fast motor reaction. They touched a hot object with their hand - they immediately pulled their hand back. At the same time, pain impulses still reach the cerebral cortex, and we realize that we have touched a hot object, although the hand has already reflexively withdrawn. Similar neuroreflex arcs for individual segments of the spinal cord and sensitive peripheral areas may differ in the construction of the levels of participation of the central nervous system.
How does a nerve impulse reach the brain?
Further, from the posterior horns of the spinal cord, the path of pain sensitivity is directed to the overlying sections of the central nervous system along two paths - along the so-called "old" and "new" spinothalamic (path of the nerve impulse: spinal cord - thalamus) paths. The names "old" and "new" are conditional and speak only about the time of the appearance of these pathways in the historical period of the evolution of the nervous system. However, we will not go into the intermediate stages of a rather complex neural pathway, we will confine ourselves to stating the fact that both of these paths of pain sensitivity end in areas of the sensitive cerebral cortex. Both the “old” and “new” spinothalamic pathways pass through the thalamus (a special part of the brain), and the “old” spinothalamic pathway also passes through a complex of structures of the limbic system of the brain. The structures of the limbic system of the brain are largely involved in the formation of emotions and the formation of behavioral responses.It is assumed that the first, more evolutionarily young system (the “new” spinothalamic pathway) of pain sensitivity conduction draws more definite and localized pain, while the second, evolutionarily older (“old” spinothalamic pathway) serves to conduct impulses that give a feeling of viscous, poorly localized pain. pain. In addition to this, the specified "old" spinothalamic system provides emotional coloring of pain sensation, and also participates in the formation of behavioral and motivational components of emotional experiences associated with pain.
Before reaching the sensitive areas of the cerebral cortex, pain impulses undergo a so-called preliminary processing in certain parts of the central nervous system. These are the already mentioned thalamus (visual tubercle), hypothalamus, reticular (reticular) formation, sections of the middle and medulla oblongata. The first, and perhaps one of the most important filters on the path of pain sensitivity is the thalamus. All sensations from the external environment, from the receptors of internal organs - everything passes through the thalamus. An unimaginable amount of sensitive and painful impulses passes every second, day and night, through this part of the brain. We do not feel the friction of the heart valves, the movement of the abdominal organs, various articular surfaces against each other - and all this is due to the thalamus.
In case of malfunction of the so-called anti-pain system (for example, in the absence of the production of internal, own morphine-like substances that arose due to the use of narcotic drugs), the aforementioned flurry of all kinds of pain and other sensitivity simply overwhelms the brain, leading to terrifying in duration, strength and severity emotional pain. This is the reason, in a somewhat simplified form, of the so-called “withdrawal” with a deficit in the intake of morphine-like substances from the outside against the background of long-term use of narcotic drugs.
How is the pain impulse processed in the brain?
The posterior nuclei of the thalamus provide information about the localization of the source of pain, and its median nuclei - about the duration of exposure to the irritating agent. The hypothalamus, as the most important regulatory center of the autonomic nervous system, is involved in the formation of the autonomic component of the pain reaction indirectly, through the involvement of centers that regulate metabolism, the work of the respiratory, cardiovascular and other body systems. The reticular formation coordinates already partially processed information. Particularly emphasized is the role of the reticular formation in the formation of the sensation of pain as a kind of special integrated state of the body, with the inclusion of all kinds of biochemical, vegetative, somatic components. The limbic system of the brain provides a negative emotional coloring. The process of understanding pain as such, determining the localization of the pain source (meaning a specific area of \u200b\u200bone's own body), together with the most complex and diverse reactions to pain impulses, occurs without fail with the participation of the cerebral cortex.
Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex are the highest modulators of pain sensitivity and play the role of the so-called cortical analyzer of information about the fact, duration and localization of the pain impulse. It is at the level of the cortex that integration of information from various types of conductors of pain sensitivity occurs, which means the full-fledged design of pain as a multifaceted and diverse sensation. pain impulses. Like a kind of transformer substation on power lines.
We even have to talk about the so-called generators of pathologically enhanced excitation. So, from the modern point of view, these generators are considered as the pathophysiological basis of pain syndromes. The aforementioned theory of systemic generator mechanisms makes it possible to explain why, with a slight irritation, the pain response is quite significant in terms of sensations, why after the cessation of the stimulus, the sensation of pain continues to persist, and also helps to explain the appearance of pain in response to stimulation of skin projection zones (reflexogenic zones) in the pathology of various internal organs.
Chronic pain of any origin leads to increased irritability, reduced efficiency, loss of interest in life, sleep disturbance, changes in the emotional-volitional sphere, often leading to the development of hypochondria and depression. All these consequences in themselves increase the pathological pain reaction. The emergence of such a situation is interpreted as the formation of vicious circles: pain stimulus - psycho-emotional disorders - behavioral and motivational disorders, manifested in the form of social, family and personal maladaptation - pain.
Anti-pain system (antinociceptive) - role in the human body. Threshold of pain sensitivity
Along with the existence of a pain system in the human body ( nociceptive), there is also an anti-pain system ( antinociceptive). What does the anti-pain system do? First of all, each organism has its own genetically programmed threshold for the perception of pain sensitivity. This threshold allows us to explain why different people react differently to stimuli of the same strength, duration and nature. The concept of sensitivity threshold is a universal property of all receptor systems of the body, including pain. Just like the pain sensitivity system, the anti-pain system has a complex multilevel structure, starting from the level of the spinal cord and ending with the cerebral cortex.How is the activity of the anti-pain system regulated?
The complex activity of the anti-pain system is provided by a chain of complex neurochemical and neurophysiological mechanisms. The main role in this system belongs to several classes of chemicals - brain neuropeptides. They also include morphine-like compounds - endogenous opiates(beta-endorphin, dynorphin, various enkephalins). These substances can be considered so-called endogenous analgesics. These chemicals have a depressing effect on the neurons of the pain system, activate anti-pain neurons, and modulate the activity of higher nerve centers of pain sensitivity. The content of these anti-pain substances in the central nervous system decreases with the development of pain syndromes. Apparently, this explains the decrease in the threshold of pain sensitivity up to the appearance of independent pain sensations against the background of the absence of a painful stimulus.It should also be noted that in the anti-pain system, along with morphine-like opiate endogenous analgesics, widely known brain mediators, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), as well as hormones and hormone-like substances - vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), neurotensin. Interestingly, the action of brain mediators is possible both at the level of the spinal cord and the brain. Summarizing the above, we can conclude that the inclusion of the anti-pain system makes it possible to weaken the flow of pain impulses and reduce pain sensations. If there are any inaccuracies in the operation of this system, any pain can be perceived as intense.
Thus, all pain sensations are regulated by the joint interaction of the nociceptive and antinociceptive systems. Only their coordinated work and subtle interaction allows you to adequately perceive pain and its intensity, depending on the strength and duration of exposure to the irritating factor.
Health
You decide to peel a potato and suddenly cut your finger. Or they burned themselves on a hot soldering iron, dropping it from the table to their knees. And, of course, it all happened by accident. It is difficult to imagine a situation where people can deliberately cut themselves or burn themselves. And yet, such people exist. It's about not at all about masochists who derive pleasure from pain. We are talking about people for whom such self-harm helps to survive a serious emotional distress. A new study confirms that some people who are in a state of so-called borderline psychopathy are really capable of such inadequate actions.
With emotional distress, unlike ordinary stress, the body cannot quickly cope with its own resources. People with borderline personality disorder experience severe emotional upheaval., and they often simply do not have enough of their own body resources to cope with the effects of stress. It is these people who may demonstrate the desire to inflict physical harm on themselves.
"Hurt me!"
Inga Niedtfeld with colleagues from University of Heidelberg, Germany, studied the effect of an emotional stimulus on people suffering from borderline personality disorder and on healthy people. Scientists conducted an experiment during which researchers showed subjects various images that evoke positive, negative, and neutral emotions. Simultaneously with the demonstration of pictures, people were exposed to the so-called thermal stimulus.. In other words, they were hurt by applying hot objects to the skin. At the same time, the researchers took into account the fact that each individual has his own pain threshold, respectively, for each subject, the temperature of the thermal stimulus was different.
In people suffering from borderline personality disorder, increased activity of the so-called limbic system, which is a combination of a number of brain structures that are involved in the regulation of the functions of internal organs. In addition, it was noted increased activity of neurons in the amygdala, which is also associated with emotional changes. This was the reaction to visual stimuli. The thermal stimulus prevented the activation of neurons in the cerebellar amygdala. Moreover, this happened both in patients and in healthy people - the emotional reaction was drowned out by pain.
“The results of this experiment support the hypothesis that painful stimuli somewhat reduce emotional distress in people suffering from borderline personality disorder. They somehow suppress the activity of brain regions that are responsible for emotional experiences., explains John Krystal, editor-in-chief of a scientific publication "Biological Psychiatry" (Biological Psychiatry). – Perhaps this helps sick people compensate for violations in the mechanism of emotional control..
The results of this study are consistent with previous ones that also documented emotional overactivity in people with borderline personality disorder. A comparison of the data leads to the conclusion that, depending on their emotional state, such people react differently to thermal stimuli(they have an increased pain threshold), the researchers say. In fact, it is not the discovery itself that is important - people have known for centuries that emotional upheavals make us immune to pain- a mechanism of interaction of painful and emotional stimuli.
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RUSSIAN FEDERATION
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education
"TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY"
INSTITUTE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY
CENTER FOR ADDITIONAL EDUCATION
TEST
on the topic: "Emotional reactions"
Tyumen - 2016
Introduction
1. The concept of emotions
2. Classification of emotions
3. The role of emotions
4. Emotional states
6. Managing emotions
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Psychology is the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche.
Emotions (from the Latin "emotion" - excitement) are various mental phenomena that express in the form of direct experiences the significance for the individual of certain objects and situations and are an important factor in the regulation of his life. Emotions are direct biased experience life meaning, phenomena and situations.
Thanks to emotions, we better understand others, we can, without using speech, judge each other's states and better tune in to joint activities and communication. People belonging to different cultures are able to accurately perceive and evaluate the expressions of a human face, to determine from it such emotional states as joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise.
In this paper, the following issues will be considered: the concept of emotions, the role of emotions in human life, the classification of emotions, emotional state, emotional reactions.
Thus, the purpose of the work is to consider the role of emotions in human life.
1. The concept of emotions
Emotions are a kind of personal attitude of a person to the surrounding reality and to himself.
Emotions do not exist outside of human cognition and activity. They reflect the personal significance of external and internal stimuli, situations, events for a person, that is, what worries him, and are expressed in the form of experiences.
The concept of "emotion" is also used in a broad sense, when it means a holistic emotional reaction of a person, including not only a mental component - an experience, but also specific physiological changes in the body that accompany this experience. Animals also have emotions, but in humans they acquire a special depth, have many shades and combinations.
Emotions arose in phylogenesis as a signal about the biological state of the organism after certain influences on it and are now a form of species experience that allows individual individuals to perform, focusing on them, the necessary actions, the expediency of which is unclear to him. But these actions ensure the satisfaction of vital needs. Thus, the negative emotions that accompany the feeling of hunger make us look for ways to satisfy this need, which, in turn, is aimed at maintaining the normal functioning of the body.
AT depending on the personal (tastes, interests, moral attitudes, experience) and temperamental characteristics of people, as well as on the situation in which they are, the same reason can cause them different emotions.
Emotions vary in intensity and duration, as well as in the degree of awareness of the cause of their occurrence. In this regard, moods, emotions and affects are distinguished.
Under the mood understand the emotional well-being of a person that affects his behavior, thoughts and experiences for a more or less long time. The mood changes depending on the circumstances.
In critical conditions, when the subject is unable to find a quick and reasonable way out of a dangerous situation, a special kind of emotional processes- affect. During an affect, a person often loses self-control and performs actions, in which he later bitterly repents. Affects seldom lead to the desired end, because they are done without thought.
2. Classification of emotions
1. The simplest existing classification of emotions proposes to divide them into two types: experienced by the individual as negative and experienced by the individual as positive.
2. The German philosopher I. Kant divided emotions into sthenic (activating a person, increasing his readiness for activity) and asthenic (relaxing, tiring a person, causing lethargy).
3. The classification proposed by W. Wundt suggests characterizing emotions in three areas:
Pleasure-displeasure;
Voltage-discharge;
Excitation-inhibition.
4. American psychologist K. Izard identifies the following fundamental emotions:
interest-excitement;
· joy;
· astonishment;
grief-suffering;
disgust;
contempt;
All other emotional reactions of individuals, according to Izard, are derivative and complex, i.e. arise on the basis of several fundamental.
5. Domestic psychologist B. Dodonov offers an even more complex classification of emotions:
altruistic emotions (desire to help other people);
Communicative emotions (arising during communication);
Gloric emotions (associated with the need for self-affirmation);
praxic emotions (associated with the success of the activity);
pugnic emotions (associated with situations of danger, with the need to take risks);
Romantic emotions (desire for the extraordinary, new);
Gnostic emotions (arising in cognition);
Aesthetic emotions (associated with the perception of works of art);
hedonistic emotions (associated with the need for pleasure, convenience);
Akizitive emotions (associated with interest in accumulation, collecting).
3. The role of emotions
Emotions are special shape reflection of the external world or the internal state of a person, associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his organic or social needs, with the implementation or loss of his life goals. Emotions in human life perform the following roles: reflective-evaluative, protective function, control, mobilizing function, compensatory function, signal, disorganizing.
Reflective-evaluative role of emotions. Emotions give subjective coloring to what is happening around us and in ourselves. This means that different people can react emotionally to the same event in completely different ways. For example, for fans, the loss of their favorite team will cause disappointment, grief, while for fans of the opposing team, joy. And a certain work of art can cause different people opposite emotions. No wonder the people say: "There is no comrade for the taste and color."
Emotions help to evaluate not only past or current actions and events, but also future ones, being included in the process of probabilistic forecasting (anticipation of pleasure when a person goes to the theater, or expectation of unpleasant experiences after an exam, when the student did not have time to properly prepare for it).
The governing role of emotions. Beyond reflection human environment reality and its relationship to a particular object or event, emotions are also important for controlling human behavior, being one of the psychophysiological mechanisms of this control. After all, the emergence of one or another attitude to an object affects motivation, the process of making a decision about an action or deed, and the physiological changes accompanying emotions affect the quality of activity, a person’s performance. Playing a role that controls human behavior and activities, emotions perform a variety of positive functions: protective, mobilizing, sanctioning (switching), compensatory, signaling, reinforcing (stabilizing), which are often combined with each other.
The protective function of emotions is associated with the emergence of fear. It warns a person about a real or imaginary danger, thereby contributing to a better thinking of the situation that has arisen, a more thorough determination of the likelihood of success or failure. Thus, fear protects a person from unpleasant consequences for him, and possibly from death.
The mobilizing function of emotions is manifested, for example, in the fact that fear can contribute to the mobilization of human reserves due to the release of an additional amount of adrenaline into the blood, for example, in its active-defensive form (flight). Promotes the mobilization of the body's forces and inspiration, joy.
The compensatory function of emotions is to compensate for information that is missing for making a decision or making a judgment about something. The emotion arising from a collision with an unfamiliar object will give this object an appropriate color (a bad person met or a good one) due to its similarity with previously encountered objects. Although with the help of emotion a person makes a generalized and not always justified assessment of the object and situation, it still helps him get out of the impasse when he does not know what to do in this situation.
The presence of reflective-evaluative and compensatory functions in emotions makes it possible for the manifestation of the sanctioning function of emotions (to make contact with the object or not).
The signal function of emotions is associated with the impact of a person or animal on another living object. Emotion, as a rule, has an external expression (expression), with the help of which a person or animal informs another about his condition. This helps mutual understanding in communication, the prevention of aggression on the part of another person or animal, the recognition of the needs and conditions that the other subject currently has. The signaling function of emotions is often combined with its protective function: a frightening appearance in a moment of danger helps to intimidate another person or animal.
Academician P.K. Anokhin emphasized that emotions are important for fixing and stabilizing the rational behavior of animals and humans. Positive emotions that arise when a goal is achieved are remembered and, in the appropriate situation, can be retrieved from memory to obtain the same useful result. Negative emotions retrieved from memory, on the contrary, warn against repeating mistakes. From Anokhin's point of view, emotional experiences have become entrenched in evolution as a mechanism that keeps life processes within optimal limits and prevents the destructive nature of a lack or excess of vital factors.
Disorganizing role of emotions. Fear can disrupt a person's behavior associated with the achievement of any goal, causing him to have a passive-defensive reaction (stupor when strong fear, refusal to complete the task). The disorganizing role of emotions is also visible in anger, when a person strives to achieve a goal at all costs, stupidly repeating the same actions that do not lead to success.
The positive role of emotions is not directly associated with positive emotions, and the negative role is not associated with negative ones. The latter can serve as an incentive for a person's self-improvement, while the former can be a reason for self-complacency, complacency. Much depends on the purposefulness of a person, on the conditions of his upbringing.
4. Emotional states
The simplest and oldest form of experiencing emotions is the emotional tone of sensations. Any signal perceived by our analyzers causes a certain emotional reaction - positive or negative. At every moment of time, we are affected by a huge number of stimuli, and each of them is emotionally experienced by us.
If the total number of stimuli that cause a positive emotional reaction is greater, then we feel good at the moment - calm, relaxed, satisfied. If, on the contrary, there are more negatively affecting stimuli, then we feel "out of our element", "uncomfortable", tense, restless. Especially important for the formation of the general emotional tone of sensations are odor stimuli. The sense of smell is the oldest of analyzers. Through the autonomic nervous system, it is closely connected with the activity of the endocrine glands and significantly affects the general condition of the body - including the general emotional tone.
Mood is an emotional state that for a long time colors the entire mental life of a person. There are two types of moods:
Emotional undifferentiated background (elevated or depressed);
a clearly identifiable state (boredom, sadness, joy).
The factors that cause a certain mood can be very different: from physiological to highly spiritual. So, for example, indigestion, a feeling of guilt for an unseemly act or thought, a conflict situation in the family, dissatisfaction with the level of work done contribute to the formation of a bad mood, and, say, a feeling of well-being of the body after a ski trip or a good sleep, a job well done, a meeting with a dear man, good book cause good mood. The specificity of this emotional state is that a person, being in a certain mood, perceives all signals from the environment colored in the same emotional tones, even if rationally he is able to adequately evaluate them. emotion experience mood feeling
Frustration is a state of acute experience of an unsatisfied need, the realization of the impossibility of achieving any significant goal.
The factors that cause this state are called frustrators, and the situations in which this state occurs are called frustration situations. Frustrators can be a wide range of factors: physiological (deprivation of sleep, food, cold, thirst, unmet sexual needs, etc.), psychological (lack of communication, lack of information, ethical internal conflicts, etc.)
A person in a state of frustration experiences a whole range of negative emotional experiences: irritation, guilt, disappointment, despair.
Stress is a reaction to changing living conditions, the process of adapting to a new situation, "a non-specific response of the body to any requirement made to it"
Depending on the type of stressors, they are divided into:
Physiological stress (change in work schedule, heavy physical labor, excessive cold or heat, lack of oxygen, painful stimuli);
psychological stress (significant change in living conditions, loss of loved ones, information overload, resentment, etc.).
Affect is a strong and relatively short-term emotional state associated with a sharp change in life conditions that are important for the individual. The reason for the emergence of affect is the experience by a person of an internal conflict between his inclinations, aspirations and desires, or a contradiction between the requirements imposed on him by others (or by himself) and the ability to fulfill these requirements. Affect develops in critical, unexpected, often dangerous situations when a person cannot find a way out of them.
Signs of affect:
narrowing of consciousness, its focus on the irritant and the inability to adequately assess the situation and one's actions;
pronounced motor activity associated with the need to throw out the strongest mental stress generated by the situation;
partial or complete loss of memory about the events that preceded the affect and their actions during it;
severe mental exhaustion, physical weakness after an affective reaction;
The presence of "post-affective traces or complexes", which, in the event of a subsequent similar situation, impose the same method of resolving it, which was undertaken by the subject for the first time.
Depression is an emotional state characterized by a negative emotional background, a general decrease in vital activity, weakness of volitional processes, weakening of memory, thought processes, inability to concentrate. A person in a state of depression experiences painful experiences, despair, longing. Characteristic are thoughts about one's own worthlessness, about the impossibility of preventing the onset of some terrible events, fear of the future, feelings of guilt for past events. Prolonged severe depression can lead to suicide attempts. Depression in healthy people can be the result of chronic stress, prolonged overstrain, mental trauma.
Feelings are one of the main forms of a person's experience of his attitude to objects, events and other people. In ontogeny, feelings appear later than situational emotions; they represent personal level experiences by a person of his attitude to the world and depend on the culture of the society in which the person was brought up, the degree of his development. In other words, the stimuli that cause negative or positive emotions have the same effect on a person of primitive culture and on a modern highly educated Englishman, but the factors that cause a feeling of shame or indignation will be completely different. An important difference between feelings and emotions is that feelings are relatively stable and constant, while emotions are situational in nature, i.e. are a response to a particular situation. At the same time, feelings and emotions are closely related, because every feeling is experienced and found precisely in concrete emotions. Moreover, if in the first years of life it is emotions that are the basis for the formation of feelings, then as the personality develops, feelings begin to determine the content of situational emotions.
Passion is a strong, persistent, all-encompassing feeling that dominates other human motives and leads to the focus on the subject of passion of all his aspirations and forces. The reasons for the formation of passions are almost exclusively associated with unconscious complexes that require realization in the sphere of consciousness. Like any unconscious drives, these complexes cannot be realized in their present form and therefore undergo change, sublimation, in order to overcome the censorship of the ego. Being a consequence of an unfavorable personal experience individual, passions at the same time often become driving force great deeds, feats, discoveries that require the greatest effort and concentration of forces, which would be impossible under other conditions for the formation of personality.
5. External expression of emotions, emotional reactions
Emotions play an important role in a person's life and affect his activity in various ways.
Considering the activity of the brain, we paid attention to the fact that from each perceived irritation to the cortex hemispheres comes two streams of impulses. One goes directly to the cortical part of the corresponding analyzer, where it turns out what we feel and perceive; the second, passing through the reticular formation and the limbic system of the nuclei of the old cortex, finds out the significance of this irritation for the organism. This general assessment underlies the emergence of various emotional experiences. Emotions by the mechanisms of occurrence are reflex. This was also pointed out by I.M. Sechenov. He called emotions reflexes with an amplified end.
A person who thinks or decides to act needs time, and the answer needs a certain delay. Another thing is emotions. Depending on the character, they either cause violent movements, or, on the contrary, depress them. In both cases, they enhance the final third of the reflex.
An analysis of the facial and pantomimic reactions that accompany different emotions showed that each emotion is characterized by specific movements of the facial muscles, a special expression of the eyes, a certain posture and characteristic movements of the limbs. The beginnings of these mimic and pantomimic movements can be observed in the animal kingdom. In man, they, as well as all other mental processes, have changed in the process of social history and under the influence of culture.
The actions described above are usually referred to as emotional reactions. Emotional reactions - smiling, laughing, crying, excited speech, impulsive actions or complete immobility - are usually characterized by a clear connection with the events that caused them.
Emotional reactions in many cases help to determine the attitude to what is happening, to restore justice, to more fully experience successes and failures in labor and sports competition. They promote contact between people.
A number of professions require a person to be able to manage his emotions and adequately determine the expressive movements of the people around him. Understanding other people's reactions and responding appropriately to them joint activities- an integral part of success in many professions. Failure to agree, understand another person, enter into his position can lead to complete professional incompetence. The ability to understand the numerous nuances of emotional manifestations and reproduce them is necessary for people who have devoted themselves to art (actors, artists, writers). Understanding and ability to reproduce is the most important stage in teaching actors the art of intonation, facial expressions, and gestures.
Modern practice of psychological preparation of people for various types activities, their social learning allows them to develop the skills of competence in communication, the most important component of which is the perception and understanding of each other by people.
6. Managing emotions
What helps people manage their emotions and is it easy for everyone?
Observations show that depending on individual features a person, both the rise and fall of feelings can lead to different results.
For some people, failure or loss gives up, while for others, failure stimulates the will to win and mobilizes physical and spiritual forces to achieve the goal.
Some people can get dizzy from success, and under the influence of success they stop working properly and are critical of their work. For others, on the contrary, luck, which gives a mood of confidence and cheerfulness, causes a desire to work even better.
Like all mental processes, emotions are controlled by consciousness. In the experience of each feeling, there is consciousness, which barks an assessment of what is happening and influences the course of the feeling itself. It can suppress the manifestation of feelings, if necessary, or, on the contrary, give full scope for their expression, in other words, control them.
Only in certain pathological conditions, when the inhibitory function of the cortex weakens, do the affects, as an excessive manifestation of our emotions, get out of the control of consciousness. Such, for example, are hysterical reactions - alternating laughter with violent crying and seizures.
A normal person does not remain at the mercy of his feelings and moods, but seeks to control them, does not boast of victories and does not lose heart in case of failures, but tries to maintain an even mood and a sober attitude towards reality.
To relieve emotional stress contribute to:
focusing on the technical details of the task, tactics, and not on the significance of the result;
Decreasing the importance of the upcoming activity, giving the event less value, or generally reassessing the significance of the situation according to the type of "I didn't really want to";
Obtaining additional information that removes the uncertainty of the situation;
· development of a fallback strategy for achieving the goal in case of failure (for example, "if I don't go to this institute, I'll go to another one");
Postponing for a while the achievement of the goal in case of realization of the impossibility of doing this with the available knowledge, means, etc.;
Physical relaxation (as I.P. Pavlov said, you need to "drive passion into the muscles"); for this you need to take a long walk, do some useful physical work, etc. Sometimes such a discharge occurs in a person as if by itself: with extreme excitement, he rushes around the room, sorts out things, tears something, etc. Tick (involuntary contraction of facial muscles), which occurs in many at the time of excitement, is also a reflex form of motor discharge of emotional stress;
writing a letter, writing in a diary outlining the situation and the reasons that caused emotional stress; this method is more suitable for people who are closed and secretive;
listening to music music therapy was practiced by doctors in Ancient Greece (Hippocrates);
image on the face of a smile in case of negative experiences; holding a smile improves mood (according to the James-Lange theory);
Activation of a sense of humor, as laughter reduces anxiety;
muscle relaxation (relaxation), which is an element autogenic training and recommended to relieve anxiety.
Conclusion
Emotions are mental phenomena that reflect personal significance and assessment of external and internal situations for human life in the form of experiences. Emotions serve to reflect the subjective attitude of a person to himself and to the world around him.
Emotions play an important role in a person's life and affect his activity in various ways.
Emotions are essential for human survival and well-being. Without emotions, that is, without being able to experience joy and sadness, anger and guilt, we would not be fully human. .
An emotion is something that is experienced as a feeling that motivates, organizes, and directs perception, thinking, and action.
Emotion motivates. It mobilizes energy, and this energy is in some cases felt by the subject as a tendency to act. Almost any person, growing up, learns to manage innate emotionality, to one degree or another transform it.
Most scientists, like ordinary people, divide emotions into: positive and negative. But, it would be more correct to consider that there are emotions that contribute to an increase in psychological entropy, and emotions that, on the contrary, facilitate constructive behavior. Such an approach makes it possible to attribute this or that emotion to the category of positive or negative, depending on what effect it has on intrapersonal processes and the processes of interaction of the individual with the immediate social environment. Emotions affect the body and mind of a person, they affect almost all aspects of his existence. An angry or frightened person's pulse may be 40 to 60 beats per minute higher than normal. This indicates that almost all neurophysiological and somatic systems of the body are involved in the process of experiencing emotions. Emotion activates the autonomic nervous system, which in turn affects the endocrine and neurohumoral systems. Mind and body require action.
Bibliography
1. Voronin L.G. Physiology of higher nervous activity and psychology: Tutorial. / Ed. L.G. Voronin, V.N. Kolbanovsky, R.D. Mash. - 3rd ed., revised. - M.: Enlightenment, 1984. - 207 p.
2. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher ped. textbook institutions: In 2 books. - Book 1. General Basics psychology. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2000. - 688 p.
3. General psychology. Textbook for students ped. in-comrade / Under. ed. V.V. Bogoslovsky and others - M .: Education, 1973. - 351s.
4. Psychology. Textbook. / Edited by A.A. Krylov. - M.: "Prospect", 2000. - 584 p.
5. Psychology. Textbook for technical universities. / Under the total. ed. V.N. Druzhinin. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 608 p.
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Pain, caused not only from the outside, by external causes, but also by irritations coming from the internal organs in certain diseases, gives rise to both instantaneous, short-term, and longer-term functional disorders.
The establishment of these reactions and the determination of their nature to painful stimuli can serve as a diagnostic sign of the disease that causes this pain syndrome.
Pain irritation has a strong influence on the higher nervous system and behavior of the animal. In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov in the process of experimenting, a drop, and sometimes a complete disappearance of conditioned reflexes, was repeatedly observed in those cases when a pronounced pain irritation was detected in the animal.
Inhibition of conditioned reflexes under the influence of pain stimulation was later confirmed.
The excitability of the central nervous system under the influence of painful stimuli decreases. Painful stimuli have a noticeable effect on the activity of the sense organs. It was noted that even short-term pain stimulation increases the sensitivity of the tempo adaptation of the eye (S.M. Dionesov).
The reaction to pain irritation has three forms (I.I. Rusetsky): reaction to pain of low intensity - tachycardia, lability of the processes of expansion and narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels, shallow breathing; reaction to pain of moderate intensity - pronounced sympathetic excitation; reaction to severe pain - (shock type) with symptoms of depression of the centers of the autonomic nervous system. Vakhromeev and Sokolova, on the basis of their experiments, came to the conclusion that pain stimulation excites both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and in each case the effect appears according to the more mobile department at the moment.
Pain causes a variety of changes in the body. Extremely active chemicals accumulate in the blood and tissue fluid, which are carried by the bloodstream throughout the body and act both directly and reflexively on the carotid sinus zone. Chemical substances, which accumulate during pain irritation in the nerve endings of the skin and in the cells of the central nervous system, pass into the blood, tissue fluid and endocrine glands, exciting or inhibiting them. First of all, the adrenal glands, the appendage of the brain, the thyroid and pancreas react.
Pain irritation has a noticeable effect on the activity of the circulatory organs. At one time, in order to determine whether pain is being simulated, it was proposed to use the pulse count. However, painful irritation does not always accelerate the activity of the heart; severe pain depresses her.
Pain in general and pain in the region of the heart in particular affects the cardiovascular system, causing the pulse to accelerate or slow down, up to a complete cardiac arrest; weak pain leads to an increase in the rhythm, and strong pain to a slowdown. At the same time, blood pressure also changes in the direction of increase and decrease.
With a certain strength and frequency of stimulation of the afferent nerves, venous and spinal pressure increases.
According to Tinel, pain stimulation usually causes a vasodilating effect on the limb being irritated, and a vasoconstrictor effect on the opposite. In special experiments, a decrease in blood circulation in some internal organs under the influence of pain was shown. Changes in the cardiovascular system are explained by complex and numerous reflexes that occur at various levels and in various parts of the peripheral and central nervous system. Therefore, it is clear that pain irritation not only causes disorders in the cardiovascular system, but also affects the functions of many organs and systems, including metabolism. Thus, the onset of painful irritation is well known. hyperkinetic reaction, expressed in convulsive contraction of individual chest muscles. One of the effects of pain irritation is mydriasis. It is noted that the degree of pupillary dilation increases with increasing pain stimulation.
Numerous studies have also shown that under the influence of pain, the secretory is inhibited and the motor function of the digestive organs is disturbed (often enhanced); sweating is also disturbed, skin resistance to galvanic current changes, water and fat metabolism is upset, hyperglycemia appears,:
Pain irritation, according to Cannon, mobilizes sugar from the carbohydrate depot - the liver. However, for hyperglycemia to occur, great importance enhanced release of adrenaline.