Director of the Institute of the History of Wounds Academician Andrey Sakharov. A
A. N. Bokhanov, L. E. Morozova, M. A. Rakhmatullin (heirs), A. N. Sakharov, and V. A. Shestakov, text
© AST Publishing House LLC, 2016
Section I. Ancient Rus'
Chapter 1. Prehistory of the peoples of Russia
§ 1. The appearance of man in Eastern Europe
We begin the story of Russian history from the time when the first people appeared on the territory of our country. But why does our interest go so far back into the millennia? And what does this ancient population have to do with the subsequent history of Russia? The answer to these questions is quite simple. All generations of different tribes gradually, step by step, became the builders of the history of that part of Europe and Asia, which subsequently formed Russia. They were the first to walk on this land, sailed along its rivers and lakes, subsequently plowed the land, grazed their herds and built the first huts here, and going into oblivion gave life to subsequent generations. History can disappear only together with mankind, but it also arose only together with the people who lived in these parts. It was not yet the history of mankind in the full sense of the word. There were no human societies, peoples, states that make up the meaning of history, there was no writing, having mastered which people laid the foundation for the written history of the human race. But the beginning of all this was laid with the appearance of man. Therefore, we call this period “prehistory”.
What time does the appearance of man belong to and what does the very concept of “man” mean? Scientists believe that the isolation of humans from the animal world occurred about 2.5 million years ago. This is primarily due to the fact that the most ancient people began to realize themselves in this world and learned how to create tools, which was a vivid manifestation of this higher consciousness compared to animals. These were various objects made of stone: cutting tools - axes, different kind scrapers, like stone knives; their manufacture was achieved by striking stone on stone. With the help of these sharpened stone tools, the first people dug up the earth in search of edible roots, defended themselves from predators and hunted. The climate of most of the Earth at that time was warm, the land surface was covered with dense evergreen trees. At that time, huge animals lived on Earth - mammoths, saber-toothed tigers, cave bears, giant deer. People did not need housing and clothing. Among these forests, lurking everywhere danger, in small groups - primitive herds - people wandered, arranged parking in open places so that they could protect themselves in advance from the approaching, but noticed danger in time. Here, at the site of these sites, scientists discovered the first stone tools and the remains of the man himself. People, still weak, almost defenseless, only recently on their feet, needed each other in the fight against powerful animals. Therefore, they gathered in primitive collectives. People learned to communicate with each other using separate sounds, exclamations. They stood more and more firmly on their feet, their hands freed for work. Traces of the sites of these people (about 500 thousand years ago) were found in vast and distant spaces - in Africa, Asia, Europe, at the junction of Europe and Asia, in the region of Transcaucasia.
These ancient people scientists called Pithecanthropes, i.e. ape-men (from Greek. "pithekos" - monkey and "anthropos" - man). He stood on crooked legs, his Long hands reached almost to the knees. The torso was covered with thick hair, and the head was tilted down, as if this creature was still afraid to get off the ground. The forehead of such an ape-man was low, the chin was cut off. And the whole face was menacingly rude. But this was already a man: he thought, he invented tools for himself and the first weapon. He began his journey in history. Naturally, at that time there were neither nations nor various languages, but the habitats of the most ancient human groups have already been determined.
From these demi-humans to people of modern appearance, there was still long haul. But the beginning of human history had already been laid. By the way, scientists note that the penetration of human ancestors into the territory of Eastern Europe, including to Russia, began from the south - from the regions of Africa, the Mediterranean, and South Asia. It is no coincidence that the first world civilizations subsequently appeared here - in Egypt, Babylon, India, China. From there, people gradually spread north.
A decisive shift in the history of mankind occurred between 100-30 thousand years BC. e., when, under the influence of geological, climatic, and possibly cosmic changes, glaciation of significant territories began on Earth, and primarily in the northern latitudes of the Earth. The climate changed dramatically, giant animals disappeared - some of them died out, others went to warmer climes. Vegetation has become different: areas of tundra, arctic vegetation have moved far to the south. The border of the glacier reached the middle Dnieper and Don, crossed the Volga at the mouth of the Vetluga and Kama rivers, where the Chusovaya river flows into it.
Under these conditions, a person faced a difficult, truly historical choice - how to survive, survive, preserve offspring?
During all these many and harsh millennia, man desperately fought for life. Some of the people moved to the south, while others, in the changed conditions, began to develop the terrestrial spaces on the borders of the glacial zone. Man was saved by the mind and the ability to create. By this time, people had learned to use fire and received artificial heat. Apparently, at first, a person received fire from forest fires, and then carefully protected it and kept it. At that time, to lose fire meant to die from the cold. Later, people learned to make fire by rubbing dry wood against wood. This method required great skill and patience, and most importantly, the selection of appropriate wood species. Fire gave man the opportunity to roast meat on coals. A new type of food significantly changed the very physiology of man, made it more perfect; over time, people learned to use caves as dwellings and take refuge in them, warming themselves with the warmth of a fire from cold and bad weather. But most of the caves were already inhabited by predators: cave lions, bears. Man challenged them: for his first dwellings, he entered into a fight with animals and won it. How many terrible fights took place in those dark caves, where the remains of ancient people are found today near the old fires! At the same time, the first dwellings built by man from wood, stone, reeds appeared, and such a type of housing as a dugout, which happened to survive until the end of the 20th century, was born. In these harsh millennia, man learned to make clothes from animal skins, which gave him an additional chance to protect himself from the cold and survive. At the same time, people improved tools and weapons. They were still made mainly of stone, so this entire ancient period in human history is called the Paleolithic (from Greek. "palaios" - ancient and "lithos" - stone). Spears with flint tips, thin stone knives, more advanced scrapers, and scrapers appeared. They were used for processing the skins of slaughtered animals, for planing.
Finally, and this is very important, the man of that time began to bury his dead tribesmen. From this time, the first human burials reach. There was a cult of the dead. And this means that people have become aware of themselves as mortals and at the same time affirmed in their minds the hope for an afterlife. Attempts to learn the innermost secrets of the universe, the secrets of birth and death, which since then people have begun to associate with the manifestation of higher powers, a deity or deities. The emergence of religious ideas finally singled out man from the animal world. At the same time, art is born, speech develops. It was from that time that a person finally embarked on the path of transformation into a creature that scientists defined in Latin words “homo sapiens” (translated from Latin - “reasonable person”).
A new book by a famous Soviet historian tells about the formation of diplomatic relations Ancient Rus'. The author, drawing on materials little known to the general reader, reveals various aspects of the diplomatic activities of the first Russian princes Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav in a wide field of political, trade and economic relations of that time.This volume includes the following works:D. S. Dmitriev - Two emperors
D. S. Merezhkovsky - Alexander the FirstNihilists of the past and Soviet historians have created a myth about the tyranny and cruelty of Alexander II.
The authors of this volume see the personality of the king and the time of his reign in a different light.peacekeeper Alexander III he foresaw the essence of Russian and world destinies more and further than many of his contemporaries. The people who lived through His reign clearly realized that then a certain degree of restrained concentration and gathering of forces had set in...The split of the church, popular uprisings, the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, the war with Poland - these are the main milestones in the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, nicknamed the Quietest. They are described in the works of pre-revolutionary writers A. Zarin, Vs. Solovyov and in the novel by K. G. Schildkret, an undeservedly forgotten writer of the Soviet period.The niece of Peter the Great, Anna Ioannovna, ascended the Russian throne in early 1730. The time of her reign is one of the darkest eras in Russian history, called "Bironism".Stories about the life of children in different countries, about their feasible contribution to the common struggle for peace and independence.At the age of sixty, wise with rich life experience, Vladimir Monomakh stood at the head of Rus'. He used all his indomitable energy, mind and talent to unite the Russian land, to repel its enemies. The hopes of contemporaries for the blessed reign of Vladimir Monomakh came true.
The novels included in this volume of the series are dedicated to the life and reign of one of the outstanding Russian princes - Vladimir Monomakh. In a difficult time for Rus', he led the struggle of the Russian principalities with the Polovtsians.
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Volume 1: "Memories".The two-volume edition includes books of memoirs by Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov: "Memoirs" and "Gorky, Moscow, then everywhere", written in 1978-1989, Elena Georgievna Bonner's postscript to "Memoirs", as well as appendices and additions containing letters, articles and other materials.
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In this file, "appendices and supplements containing letters, articles and other materials" (and "Postscript...") are absent.
Andrey Nikolaevich Sakharov(born June 2, 1930) - Soviet and Russian historian, Doctor of Historical Sciences (1982), Professor (1988), Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences since December 7, 1991 in the Section of Humanitarian and social sciences(Russian history). Director of the Institute Russian history RAS (1993-2010). Member of the Writers' Union of Russia.
Graduated from the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov in 1953.
For 5 years he taught history in high school. Since 1958 - an employee of the press department of the Committee of Youth Organizations of the USSR, in 1961-1962 he worked at the APN. Since 1962 - head of the USSR history department of the journal Voprosy istorii. Candidate of Historical Sciences (1965, dissertation "Russian village of the 17th century (based on the materials of the patriarchal economy)"). In 1968-1971 he was an instructor in the Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the CPSU. In 1971-1974 - Chief Editor Publishing house "Science". Since 1974 - member of the board, head of the head office State Committee for publishing, printing and book trade. Doctor of Historical Sciences (1982, dissertation "The Origin of the Diplomacy of Ancient Rus'. IX - the first half of the X centuries"). Since 1984 - Deputy Director of the Institute of History of the USSR of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in 1993-2010 - Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Sakharov welcomed the creation in 2009 of the Commission to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests and actively participated in its work, being a member until it was liquidated in 2012.
Married to Olga Sakharova, father of two children (Artemy, Ignatiy).
Directions scientific activity: the history of diplomacy, foreign policy, ideology and culture of Ancient Rus'; domestic and foreign historiography of the history of Russia; socio-economic relations in Russian state in the 17th century.
He is a staunch and consistent opponent of Normanism. In 2012, he participated in the filming of the film by Mikhail Zadornov “Rurik. Lost Reality".
Author of about 300 scientific works, numerous school textbooks history of Russia and textbooks for universities.
textbooks
Modern history of Russia: textbook / ed. A. N. Sakharova. M., Prospekt, 2010
History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: textbook / ed. A. N. Sakharova. M., Prospekt, 2010
History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: a textbook for grade 10 educational institutions. - M.-" Russian word", 2012. ISBN 978-5-91218-549-6
In collaboration with A.N. Bokhanov. History of Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. Textbook for grade 10 educational institutions. - M. - "Russian Word", 2012 ISBN 978-5-00007-020-8
Monographs
Russian village of the 17th century. (Based on the materials of the patriarchal economy). Moscow: Nauka, 1966.
Living voices of history. Book. 1. M .: Young Guard, 1971 (co-authored with S. M. Troitsky).
Stepan Razin. Moscow: Young guard, 1973; 1987; 2010 (in the ZhZL series; translated in Japan, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria).
Living voices of history. Book. 2. M .: Young Guard, 1978 (co-authored with S. M. Troitsky).
Diplomacy of Ancient Rus': IX - first half. 10th century M.: Thought, 1980 (translated in Bulgaria).
Diplomacy of Svyatoslav. M.: International relationships, 1982; 1991 (in the series "From the history of diplomacy")
Generals of Ancient Rus'. Moscow: Young guard, 1985; 1986 (in the ZhZL series; 3rd ed. M .: Terra, 1999; co-authored with V. V. Kargalov).
“We are from the Russian family…”: the birth of Russian diplomacy. L.: Lenizdat, 1986.
Vladimir Monomakh. M.: Russian language, 1986; 1991 (reissues 1994, 1995, 1998).
Diplomacy of Ancient Rus'. M .: Pedagogy, 1987 (in the series "Scientists - to the schoolboy")
The Man on the Throne (Alexander I). M.: MARAN, 1992 (brochure)
Alexander I. M.: Nauka, 1998.
Devotees of Russia: historical essays. Moscow: Russian word, 1999; 2008 (with A. N. Bokhanov and V. D. Nazarov).
War and diplomacy (1939–1945) Moscow: MGIMO, 1995 (brochure)
Russia: People. rulers. Civilization. M.: Nauka, 2004.
Anxiety and hope. Moscow: Time, 2006 (vols. 1-2)
Ancient Rus' on the way to the "Third Rome". M.: Nauka, 2006 (2nd ed. M.: Grif and Co., 2010; under the title "Rus' on the way to the" Third Rome "")
Alexander Nevskiy. M.: AST, 2008, 2009 (in the series "The name of Russia. Historical choice 2008")
Russia as part of the world civilizational process. M., 2009 (brochure)
Historical acquisitions at the turn of the 21st century: essays. M.: Golden Bee, 2011.
M.: 2012. - 768 p.
The textbook is written with the latest research in mind. historical science and modern scientific approach to the study of Russian history. The main problems of national history are covered, the issues of socio-economic and state-political development of Russia are revealed, the author's concept of their study is developed. The material is presented in a bright, expressive literary language, taking into account chronology and scientific interpretation, which largely explains its accessibility to a wide range of readers. The textbook corresponds to the state educational standards higher vocational education Russian Federation.
For applicants, students, teachers, as well as all those interested in national history.
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CONTENT
Section I. ANCIENT Rus'
Chapter 1. ORIGIN OF THE SLAVES. THEIR NEIGHBORS AND ENEMIES 3
§ 1. The place of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans 3
§ 2. First invasions 3
§ 3. Greek colonies and Scythians 4
§ 4. The emergence of Eastern Slavs and new enemies 5
§ 5. Other peoples on the territory of Russia in ancient times 5
§ 6. Great Migration of Nations and Eastern Europe 6
§ 7. Antes and the first East Slavic state 7
§ 8. Fight against Avars and Khazars. Bulgarians 9
Chapter 2. ANCIENT Rus' 11
§ 1. East Slavic tribes of the VIII-IX centuries 11
§ 2. The emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs 16
§ 3. The first Russian princes 22
§ 4. Board of Svyatoslav 27
§ 5. Rus' in the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich 32
Chapter 3. THE AGE OF YAROSLAV THE WISE 39
§ 1. The second civil strife in Rus'. Boris and Gleb - martyr princes.... 39
§ 2. The struggle of Yaroslav with Mstislav of Tmutarakan and the new unification of Rus' 42
§ 3. The heyday of Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise 43
§ 4. Church and religion under Yaroslav. Metropolitan Hilarion. Saints of the Caves 47
§ 5. State power. The formation of early feudal relations. Cities. Trade. Army 50
§ 6. From pagan rebellions to social protest 58
Chapter 4. Rus' AT THE CROSSROADS 62
§ 1. Civil strife in Rus' in the 70s. XI at 62
§ 2. Rebellion of Oleg Gorislavich and a new strife 64
§ 3. The beginning of the military activities of Vladimir Monomakh 65
§ 4. The tragedy of 1096-1097 68
§ 5. Crusade to the steppe 1111 g 72
§ 6. The uprising of 1113 and the era of Vladimir Monomakh 74
Chapter 5. POLITICAL DECAY OF Rus' 78
Chapter 6. EDUCATION ON THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIA PRINCIPAL STATES 81
§ 1. Kiev principality 81
§ 2. Chernigov and Seversk principalities 82
§ 3. Galicia-Volyn principality 84
§ 4. "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" 87
§ 5. Vladimir-Suzdal principality 90
Chapter 7. CULTURE OF Rus' X-BEGINNING XIII centuries 95
Chapter 8
§ 1. The birth of the Mongolian state 107
§ 2. Conquests of the Mongols 109
Section II. MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Chapter 1. HORDE DOMINATION 112
§ 1.Batu's invasion of Rus'. Defense of Ryazan 112
§ 2. The conquest of the rest of Rus' 113
Chapter 2. THE STRUGGLE OF RUSSIAN LANDS FOR INDEPENDENCE. ... 116
§ 1. Tatar-Mongol yoke 116
§ 2. Onslaught of enemies in the northwest. The first battles with the crusaders and Lithuanians 117
§ Z. Alexander Nevsky 119
§ 4. Battle on the Ice 120
§ 5. Revival of Rus'. Rus' and Golden Horde under Alexander Nevsky ... 122
§ 6. Great "small deeds" 124
§ 7. Rise of new Russian centers 128
Chapter 3. Rise of Moscow 132
§ 1. Fight between Tver and Moscow for the championship 132
§ 2. Rise of Moscow. Ivan Kalita 134
§ 3. Vilna or Moscow? 135
§4. The beginning of the fight against the Horde. Battle of Kulikovo 139
Chapter 4. MOSCOW TAKES THE TOP 146
§ 1. In the struggle for unity and independence 146
§ 2. The role of the Orthodox Church in the unification of Rus'. 148
§ 3. Feudal war mid-XIV in 150
Chapter 5. FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN CENTRALIZED STATE 154
§ 1. Ivan III - Sovereign of All Rus' 154
§2. Liberation from the Horde yoke 157
§ 3. Centralization of state power. Formation of the state according to the Eurasian model 158
§ 4. Entry of Rus' to the international arena 161
§ 5. Formation of a multinational state 163
§ 6. Economy and people 164
§ 7. State and Church 167
§ 8. Culture and life of the XIV-XV centuries. 170
Chapter 6. RUSSIA In the XVI century in 178
§ 1. Board Basil III 178
§ 2. The struggle of boyar groups for power 180
§ 3. Reforms The chosen one is glad» 183
§ 4. Foreign policy Ivan IV. The transformation of Russia into a Eurasian power 187
§ 5. Oprichnina. From centralization to feudal dictatorship 193
§ 6. Accession of Siberia 199
§ 7. Crisis of power. End of the Rurik Dynasty 201
§ 8. New phenomena in Russian culture in the XVI century 203
§ 9. Boris Godunov - the first elected monarch of Russia 206
Chapter 7. RUSSIA IN THE PERIOD OF TROUBLES 213
§ 1. Great famine and the beginning of Troubles 213
§ 2. Triumph and tragedy of False Dmitry 216
§ 3. The crisis of the state and society in Russia 220
§ 4. Saviors of the fatherland and the path to absolute monarchy 228
Chapter 8. RUSSIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XVII century in 237
§ 1. Appeasement of the country and the revival of autocracy 237
§ 2. Establishing a peaceful life 240
§ 3. From defense to offensive 244
Section III. RUSSIA IN MODERN TIMES
Chapter 1. NEW FEATURES OF OLD RUSSIA. SECOND HALF XVII at 250
§ 1. The beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich 250
§ 2. The growth of social tension in the country 250
§ 3. Code of 1649 g 252
§ 4. Development of the economy 254
§ 5. Accession of Ukraine to Russia 257
§ 6. The internal situation of Russia in the last years of the reign of Alexei Mikhalovich 263
§ 7. Church reform and schism 270
§ 8. Gain royal power 274
Chapter 2. RUSSIA ON THE EVE OF TRANSFORMATIONS 279
§ 1. Board of Fedor Alekseevich 279
§2. Regency of Princess Sophia and the coming to power of Peter I 283
§ 3. Non-Slavic peoples of Russia in the XVII century in 290
§ 4. The final annexation of Siberia 293
§ 5. Culture and life of Russia in the XVII century in 297
Chapter 3. THE AGE OF PETER I 305
§ 1. The first years of government 305
§ 2. The beginning of the Northern War 313
§ 3. The transformation of Russia into a great power 317
§ 4. Reforms of Peter I 326
§ 5. Reforms in the field of culture, science, education 338
§ 6. Opponents of Peter 344
§ 7. Last years life of Peter I 353
Chapter 4. THE AGE OF PALACE COUPS 356
§ 1. Russia under the successors of Peter 1 356
§ 2. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and the stabilization of the country 370
§ 3. Peter III and a new attempt to Europeanize the country 380
Chapter 5. RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII in 384
§ 1. The first years of the reign of Catherine II 384
§ 2. The heyday of the noble empire. . 390
§ 3. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII in 401
§ 4. The economy and population of Russia in the second half of the XVIII in 410
§ 5. Culture of Russia in the second half of the XVIII in 416
§ 6. Russian way of life 428
§ 7. Anxious end of the century 431
Section IV. RUSSIA in the 19th - EARLY 20th centuries
CHAPTER I. RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE XIX IN 439
§ 1. The first years of the reign of Alexander I 441
§ 2. The foreign policy of Russia in the first years of the XIX century in 445
§ 3. Patriotic War 1812 448
§ 4. Foreign campaign of the Russian army. Congress of Vienna 464
§ 5. Life in Russia in the post-war period 470
§6. Decembrist movement 474
Chapter 2. RUSSIAN EMPIRE UNDER NICHOLAS I 484
§ 1. Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich 484
§ 2. Nicholas I and peasant question 487
§ 3. On guard of the autocratic empire 489
§ 4. Russian industry. Industrial revolution 492
Chapter 3. NATIONAL QUESTION AND IMPERIAL INTERESTS DURING THE REIGN OF NICHOLAS I. . 496
§ 1. Polish uprising 1830-1831 GT 496
§ 2. War in the North Caucasus. Imam Shamil 497
§ 3. Russia and European Affairs 500
§ 4. Crimean War and the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 502
Chapter 4. RUSSIA IN THE AGE OF TRANSFORMATIONS 60-70s 19th century . . 504
§ 1. Emperor Alexander II 504
§ 2. The abolition of serfdom. Fundamentals of the Manifesto of February 19, 1861 505
§ 3. Zemstvo, city, judicial, military reforms. Changing the education system 507
§ 4. Development of the national economy 508
§ 5. Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 510
§ 6. Aggravation of the social situation. Populist terror 513
Chapter 5. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN POLICY 517
§ 1. Emperor Alexander III and state priorities 517
§ 2. The most important directions domestic policy Russia 519
§ 3. Legislation in the field of judicial and educational affairs 524
§ 4. Franco-Russian alliance 526
§ 5. State system at the end of XIX in 526
Chapter 6. PUBLIC THOUGHT AND SPIRITUAL LIFE IN RUSSIA XIX century 531
§ 1. National roots national culture and foreign influences. "Golden Age" of Russian culture 531
§ 2. Slavophiles and Westernizers 536
§ 3. Russian Orthodox Church. Reverend Seraphim Sarovskiy. . 539
§ 4. Russian utopian socialism 540
§ 5. Great writers and thinkers: F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. 542
Chapter 7. RUSSIA AT THE END OF XIX in 546
§ 1. Accession of Nicholas II 546
§ 2. Reform monetary circulation 548
§ 3. Population census 1897 Rich and poor 550
§ 4. Hired workers. Labor law. Strikes 552
§ 5. Trans-Siberian Railway 556
Chapter 8
§ 1. Russo-Japanese War. Portsmouth Peace 559
§ 2. Workers' unions. " Bloody Sunday» 562
§ 3. revolutionary movement. Manifesto October 17, 1905 564
§ 4. Basic laws Russian Empire 1906 567
§ 5. Main political parties 569
§ 6. First and Second State Dumas 572
Chapter 9. THE LAST DECADE OF MONARCHICAL RUSSIA (1907-1917) 576
§ 1. Third State Duma. P.A. Stolypin 576
§2. Economic boom 1910-1913 580
§ 3. The system of international unions 582
§4. The beginning of the world war. The course of hostilities 583
§5. February 1917 in Petrograd. Abdication of Nicholas II 587
Section V. MODERN HISTORY OF RUSSIA. XX - BEGINNING OF XXI century: 1917-2005 IT.
Chapter 1. THE REVOLUTION OF 1917. ORIGINS AND CAUSES 591
§ 1. Political crises of 1917 591
§ 2. The Bolshevik stage of the revolution 602
Chapter 2. CIVIL WAR IN RUSSIA 606
§ 1. Birth Soviet power 606
§ 2. Brest: "revolutionary" way out of the war 609
§ 3. The policy of "war communism" 612
§ 4. White and red 615
Chapter 3. THE FORMATION OF THE SOVIET SYSTEM 623
§ 1. During the NEP 623
§ 2. Formation of the USSR 628
§ 3. The evolution of the Bolshevik regime 630
Chapter 4. THE SOVIET MODERNIZATION MODERNIZATION 638
§ 1. Curtailment of NEP 638
§ 2. Conservative revolution in the economy 639
§ 3. Changing the mechanism of power 644
§ 4. Formation of a new economic mechanism 648
§ 5. Soviet society on the eve of the war. Mass terror 651
Chapter 5. USSR AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR 658
§ 1. "Great game" 658
§ 2. USSR on the threshold of war 661
§ 3. Disruption of plans lightning war 664
§ 4. Decisive battles 668
§ 5. The victory of the anti-Hitler coalition 671
Chapter 6. POST-WAR CHALLENGES. 1945-1953 675
§ 1. Beginning " cold war» 675
§ 2. Creation of a nuclear missile shield 678
§ 3. Difficult revival 679
§ 4. The last years of Stalin's reign 682
Chapter 7. FIRST ATTEMPTS TO LIBERALIZE THE SYSTEM...
§ 1. Change of power in the Kremlin 688
§ 2. The beginning of de-Stalinization 691
§ 3. Reforms 50 - early 60s 694
§ 4. The collapse of the thaw 706
Chapter 8. THE ERA OF "DEVELOPED" SOCIALISM. 1964-1984 ... 709
§ 1. Change of political course 709
§2. From stagnation to crisis 710
§ 3. Soviet society at a turning point 713
§ 4. New attempts at modernization 716
§ 5. Failed detente 719
Chapter 9. The collapse of the totalitarian communist regime 723
§ 1. The origins of "perestroika" M.S. Gorbachev 723
§ 2. Difficult turn to the market 726
§ 3. Dismantling of totalitarian structures 728
§ 4. From intra-systemic reforms to disintegration 731
Chapter 10. MODERN RUSSIA 737
§ 1. The last Russian revolution of the XX in 737
§ 2. Creation of a new Russian statehood 738
§ 3. Return of the market and private property 744
§ 4. Russia at the end of XX - beginning of XXI in 749
§ 5. New trends political life 757
A.N. SUGAR
WITH ANCIENT TIMES UNTIL THE END OF THE XVI CENTURY
Textbook for grade 10 secondary general education educational institutions
Approved by the Ministry of Education
Russian Federation
Moscow "Russian Word" 2003
BBC 63.3 (2) C 22
REVIEWERS: Doctor of Historical Sciences,
Professor of the Department of History of Russia, RUDN University RA.Lrslanov; history teacher of Lyceum No. 1560 M.N. Chernova
Methodical editing - Ph.D. history Sciences, Associate Professor, Head. Department of Methods of Teaching History, Social Science and Law of the MPU A.N. Fuchs
Methodical apparatus - G.I. Starobinskaya
Artistic design - S.N. Yakubovsky
Sakharov A.N.
From 22 History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the XVI century: A textbook for the 10th grade of secondary general educational institutions. - M.; "TID "Russian Word-RS", 2003. - 320 p.: ill.
Shvi 5-94853-057-4 (part 1) Yu Sh 5-94853-126-0
In the textbook of Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Sakharov gives a broad panorama of the history of our Fatherland. The author details political history country, examines the issues of its economic life, culture, way of life. The main milestones and events of Russian history are shown through the fate of statesmen, scientists, religious thinkers, cultural figures, scientists, inventors, discoverers of new lands and other outstanding personalities.
Introduction
What do the words "history of Russia" mean? After all, Russia is also a huge territory, which by the beginning of the 20th century. occupied a sixth of the earth's land, and the nature of the country, and the climate, and its economy, and culture, and population. But first of all, the history of Russia is the history of people, peoples who inhabited our Motherland from ancient times to the present day and are united by a common destiny.
Century after century, our Fatherland was built, its territory expanded, various peoples were involved in the cycle of Russian history. The process was long, difficult, complicated and contradictory, sometimes painful and dramatic. Peoples entered into relationships with each other - they cooperated, exchanged economic experience, defended themselves from common enemies, and sometimes fought with each other, defending their own interests. national interest, and only later became involved in the mainstream of the general Russian history.
From the very first steps, the history of Russia unfolded in the spaces of Europe and Asia. And this means that in the history of our Fatherland, in the traditions and customs of our people, the influence, interaction and opposition of the West and the East were constantly reflected. Two great civilizations of the Earth - Western (European, Mediterranean, Atlantic) and Eastern, which embodied the experience of the great nomadic empires and sedentary states of antiquity and the Middle Ages, laid their furrows in the historical field of Russia.
In world history, our Fatherland is the only country that has experienced such a powerful and contradictory influence of the West and East, which largely determined its historical path as the path of a Eurasian power. Russia remains such until
today. Not without reason, in the Russian coat of arms, the double-headed eagle looks both to the west and to the east.
We have already used the word “people” several times, and we will continue to use it in the future. This word has several meanings. Firstly, the word “people” often refers to one or another nation: they say - “Russian people”, “Tatar people”, etc. Secondly, the word “people” is often understood as working people, the lower classes of society. In ancient times, these were peasants and artisans who differed from the prosperous and wealthy sections of the population - merchants, clergy, nobility, aristocracy both in their financial position and in their place in society. There is a third understanding of the word "people" - these are all layers of a particular society, taken together, society as a whole, people soldered by a common public interest and at the same time sometimes sharply different from each other, and therefore having their own collective and personal interests. These interests can clash and lead society into violent conflicts.
IN history there are no good or bad peoples, just as there are no bad and good strata of peoples. Everyone - peasants, entrepreneurs, nobility, clergy, aristocracy - is a product of historical development countries. Times have changed, the place of one or another part of the people in the history of the country has changed. And we must have a good idea of the role of various strata of society in the history of Russia, be able to identify what they gave the country, and where and when they harmed it with selfish interests.
IN At the same time, it must be remembered that each member of society is a separate person, a separate life, destiny, a unique biography. On the one hand, a person is a part of a team with its common interests, on the other hand, he himself is the embodiment of a whole unique world with his own interests, passions,
attachments, ideas that may, for many reasons, differ from the ideas of other people. All human history, including the history of Russia, is not only a constant search by people for their common great public interest, the interest of the country, but also a struggle between interests
the individual and the collective, the individual and the state. And persistent attempts are still being made to common denominator aspirations individual person and the whole society.
History is both a beautiful and cruel science, because it is designed to show life human society in all its diversity - greatness and falls, wonderful deeds, amazing inventions, beautiful movements human souls- and low passions; mutual assistance and mutual assistance of people - and violence against the personality of a person and entire nations.
The history of Russia is designed not only to show the past of our people, but also to help the current generation to reflect on this past, to draw lessons from it for the benefit of future generations.
The sources of historical knowledge are varied and numerous. The sciences of archeology (from the Greek words "archeos" - "ancient" and "logos" - "teaching") and anthropology (from the Greek words "anthropos" - "man" and "logos") tell us about ancient times.
Archaeologists, by excavating ancient settlements, studying human life in caves, analyzing found tools, weapons, household utensils, jewelry, ancient sculpture and painting, recreate the life of people of past eras, their spiritual appearance and beliefs.
Anthropologists on the found remains restore appearance people, their development over millennia, draw conclusions about how peoples and races were formed.
Helps to comprehend the history of mankind and linguistics (from the Latin word "lingua" - "language"). Linguists explore the origin of languages, their kinship, connections, development, and with their help reveal another facet of the historical destinies of various peoples.
With the advent of writing about the history of mankind testify written sources. For Russia, these are chronicles - weather (from the word "year") records of events, various secular and church laws and charters, state and international documents, church writings, literary works,
memoirs of people, their diaries, and later - books, newspapers, magazines, reflecting the life of the era, cinema - photographic materials. Invaluable evidence of past eras and a person's ideas about himself and his life are architectural structures, works of art, household items.
All this taken together is carefully studied by history, recreating the appearance of past centuries, including the past of our Motherland.
1. Explain the meaning of the title of this textbook.
2. Why is history both a beautiful and cruel science?
3. What is the meaning of the term "people" in the following sentences:
a) various peoples were involved in the cycle of Russian history; ^ :H&.7 lacyl" ^ ^ ^ ^
b) the history of Russia is the history of people, peoples who inhabited our Motherland from ancient times to the present day and are united by a common destiny.
4. Come up with a sentence in which the word "people"
6. Consider what lessons your generation can learn from our people's past.
7. What sources historical knowledge help scientists recreate the appearance of past centuries? G " " . » . "
8. The work of which scientists (historians) is invested in the study of deep
Homeland of the Indo-Europeans. Indo-Europeans - this is the ancient population of the vast territories of Europe and Asia. It gave rise to many modern European and Asian peoples, and later, already in modern times, spread to Northern and South America, Australia, New Zealand, on various islands and archipelagos. Most scientists believe that a large area became the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. southeastern and Central Europe, in particular the Balkan Peninsula and the foothills of the Carpathians and, probably, the south of Russia and Ukraine. Here, in the parts of Europe washed by warm seas, on fertile soils, in sun-warmed deciduous forests, on grassy mountain slopes and valleys, where shallow transparent rivers flowed, the most ancient Indo-European community of people took shape.
Once upon a time, people belonging to this community spoke the same language. Traces of a common origin have been preserved in many languages of the peoples of Europe and Asia. So, in all these languages \u200b\u200bthere is the word "birch", denoting a tree or just a birch. The Indo-Europeans were engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture, later they began to smelt bronze.
From that time, traces of settlements discovered by archaeologists have come down to us. On fertile lands Along the banks of full-flowing rivers from the Carpathian Mountains to the Dnieper region, farmers-cattle breeders began to settle, and further, to the east, in the boundless steppe spaces up to the southern spurs of the Ural Mountains - cattle breeders.
Tripolye settlements. The remains of an ancient settlement in the Dnieper region near the village of Trypillya, dating back to the 4th-3rd millennia BC, can serve as an example of settlements of farmers-cattle breeders. e. Therefore, the inhabitants of that time were conditionally called Tripolites.
Farming and cattle breeding increased the economic power of the Indo-European tribes and contributed to the growth of their population. And the domestication of the horse, the development of bronze tools and weapons made the Indo-Europeans in the III millennium BC. e. easier to climb in the search for and development of new lands.
Pedigree of the peoples of Eurasia. From the southeast Europe began the triumphant spread of the Indo-Europeans across the expanses of Eurasia. Moving west, they reached the shores of the Atlantic. Another part of them settled in the north of Europe and the Scandinavian Peninsula. Wedge of Indo-European settlements cut
among the Finno-Ugric peoples and buried himself in the Ural Mountains. In the south, in the forest-steppe and steppe zone, the Indo-Europeans advanced into Asia Minor and North Caucasus, went to the Iranian plateau and settled in India. Now the lands inhabited by the Indo-Europeans stretched from the Atlantic to India. Poetdmu they were named Indo-Europeans.
In T U - III millennia BC. e. the former community of Indo-Europeans began to disintegrate. Later they were divided into the eastern group of peoples (Indians, Iranians, Armenians, Tajiks), Western European(English, Germans, French, Italians, Greeks, etc.), Slavic (Eastern, Western and South Slavs: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Bulgarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, etc.) and Baltic ( Lithuanians, Latvians, etc.).
However, traces of the former community are visible everywhere. There are many common words and concepts in Slavic and Iranian languages - god, hut, boyar, lord, axe, dog, hero etc. All of them came to us from the ancient Iranians. This commonality is also visible in applied art. In embroidery patterns, in decorations and clay vessels, a combination of rhombuses and dots was used everywhere. In the areas of settlement of the Indo-Europeans, the domestic cult of elk and deer has been preserved for centuries, although these animals are not found in Iran, India and Greece. The same applies to some folk holidays - for example, to the bear holidays, held by many peoples on the spring days of the awakening of the bear from hibernation. All these are traces of the northern ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans.
These peoples also have much in common in religious cults. So, the Slavic pagan god Perung the Thunderer is akin to the Lithuanian-Latvian Perkunis, the Indian Pardzhanya, the Celtic Perkunia. And he himself is very reminiscent of the main Greek god Zeus. The Slavic pagan goddess Lada, the patroness of marriage and family, is comparable to the Greek goddess Lata.
The mixing of the Indo-Europeans with the tribes who lived here earlier, including the Finno-Ugric peoples, began.
Clay figurines.
Tripol culture. III millennium BC
Bone ritual hatchet.
II millennium BC e.
Finno-Ugric peoples, who previously occupied large areas of the north of Eastern Europe, Cis-Urals and Trans-Urals, broke up into new branches - Ugrians (Hungarians) and Finns. The descendants of the Finno-Ugric population are many Russian peoples of the Volga region and the North - Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Komi, etc. People from the lands where the ancestors of the Turks and Mongols lived also appeared here. Their descendants are Kalmyks and Buryats. All of them, like the Slavs, later turned into full-fledged inhabitants of the East European Plain. In the Northern Urals, between the mouths of the Pechora and the Ob, there were the Neolithic ancestors of the Ural peoples, who spoke the so-called Uralic languages. The population of Southern Siberia, Altai and Sayan - the ancient Altaians - was explained in the Altaic languages. Caucasian languages were spoken in the Caucasus. To the south of the Caucasus Range, the ancestors of the Georgians stood out.
The North Caucasians mastered the smelting of metal earlier than others (fortunately, it was abundant in the Caucasus) and the manufacture of metal tools and weapons, they raised cattle and pigs, switched to cattle breeding, and were the first to master wheeled carts.
The Ural peoples were the first to launch boats, invented skis and sledges.
The Indo-Europeans who settled in the forest zone switched to cattle breeding and forest-type agriculture, continued to develop hunting and fishing. All together, the local population in the harsh conditions of the forest and forest-steppe lagged behind the peoples of the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Western Asia, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, which were gaining momentum in development. Nature at that time was the main regulator of human development.
The place of the ancestors of the Slavs among the Indo-Europeans. In the II millennium BC. e. the Indo-Europeans of Central and Eastern Europe spoke the same language and represented one whole for a number of centuries. And they were sharply different from those who settled in India, Central Asia and in the Caucasus.
In the middle of the II Millennium "to BC. e. Germanic tribes separated themselves. LG Balts and Slavs made up a common
Balto-Slavic group. The Balts settled in the northern regions of Eastern Europe, the Germans