What are the ways of transmitting someone else's speech. someone else's speech
Ways to design someone else's speech
I.Direct speech
A: "P". "P", - a. "P, - a, - p."
A: "P?" "P?" - A. "P? - A. - P".
A: "P!" "P!" - A. "P! - A. - P".
A: "P ..." "P ..." - a. "P-a. - P".
Etc.: 1) . P. I. Tchaikovsky wrote: “Inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
2). “Inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy,” wrote P.I. Chaikovsky.
3). “Inspiration,” wrote P. I. Tchaikovsky, “is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
If direct speech is presented in the form of a dialogue, then each replica begins with a new paragraph and is preceded by a dash.
- Are you satisfied, gentlemen generals? - meanwhile the couch potato man asked.
- Satisfied, dear friend, we see your zeal! - answered the generals.
- Will you let me rest now?
- Take a rest, my friend, just put the rope first.
M. Saltykov-Shchedrin
II. Indirect speech
, (). Complex sentence with an explanatory clause after the main clause.
Direct speech sentences |
Suggestions with indirect speech |
1) He said: "I will bring this book tomorrow." |
1) [He said], ( What bring this book tomorrow). |
2) He told me: "Bring this book tomorrow." |
2) [He told me], ( to I brought this book tomorrow). / indirect inducement/ |
3) He asked: “When will you bring this book?” |
3) [He asked] (When I will bring this book. /Indirect question/ |
4) He asked: “Will you bring this book tomorrow?” |
4) [He asked], (I will bring whether I will read this book tomorrow). /Indirect question/ |
III. Basic Citation Methods
Proposal with direct speech |
A.P. Chekhov wrote: “Everything should be beautiful in a person: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts.” |
Sentence with indirect speech |
A.P. Chekhov believed that "everything should be beautiful in a person: the face, and clothes, and the soul, and thoughts." |
Offer from introductory words |
According to A.P. Chekhov, “everything should be beautiful in a person: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts.” |
Partial citation |
A.P. Chekhov believed that "everything should be beautiful in a person." |
Introductory constructions (message source)
BB, ….…, BB,……, BB.
1) According to P. I. Tchaikovsky, "inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy." /Introductory phrase/.
2) As P. I. Tchaikovsky wrote, “inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.” /Introductory sentence/.
3) “Inspiration,” as P. I. Tchaikovsky wrote, “is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
Partial citation
1) In the middle or end of a sentence.
Etc. a) "This is the hope of our literature." (V. A. Zhukovsky about A. S. Pushkin)
V. A. Zhukovsky called A. S. Pushkin "the hope of our literature."
b) “You marvel at the jewels of our language: whatever sound, then a gift ...”
(N. V. Gogol)
N.V. Gogol always "marveled at the treasures of the Russian language."
2) At the beginning of a sentence.
"Nikolai Ostrovsky! You left us, but your wonderful fiery life goes on blossoms, boils in millions your readers! (V. Kataev about N. Ostrovsky)
"... Fiery life continues... in millions... of readers", -
V. Kataev wrote about N. Ostrovsky.
IV. Errors in the design of someone else's speech
- A mixture of direct and indirect speech.
A. P. Chekhov wrote that: "Everything should be fine in a person."
Right:
A.P. Chekhov wrote: “Everything should be beautiful in a person.”
A.P. Chekhov wrote that "everything should be beautiful in a person."
2. The use of an extra union in a sentence with indirect speech.
I asked at the theater What will whether premiere today.
Right: I asked at the theater whether premiere today.
3. Putting a question mark in a declarative sentence with an indirect question.
I asked at the theater if there would be a premiere today?
Right: I asked at the theater if there would be a premiere today.
4. Making the introductory sentence as the words of the author in direct speech.
According to A.P. Chekhov: "Everything should be fine in a person."
Right: According to A.P. Chekhov, "everything should be fine in a person."
Ways of transmitting someone else's speech
1) the theme of someone else's speech is conveyed with the help of a deliberative object in simple sentence: He told me about his trip to the mountains;
2) through the object infinitive in a complicated simple sentence, the general content of someone else's speech is expressed, represented by an expression of will: I asked him to go get some bread;
3) verbatim, literal transmission of someone else's speech - direct speech: He asked the girl: « Where is your mother?»;
4) the most complete transmission of the content of someone else's speech without preserving its form and style - indirect speech: He asked the girl, where is her mom.
Terms and concepts of linguistics: Syntax: Dictionary-reference book. - Nazran: Pilgrim LLC. T.V. Foal. 2011 .
See what "methods of transmitting someone else's speech" are in other dictionaries:
ways of transmitting someone else's speech- 1) the theme of someone else's speech is conveyed with the help of a deliberative object in a simple sentence: He told me about his trip to the mountains; 2) through the object infinitive in a complicated simple sentence, the general content of someone else's speech is expressed, ... ... Dictionary linguistic terms T.V. Foal
The dialogue of written speech- is an expression in the text by means of the language of interaction between the communicants, understood as a ratio of semantic positions, as an account of the reactions of the addressee (including the second self), as well as explication in the text of the signs of the dialogue itself. At the same time, the concept…
Improperly direct, or improperly authorial, speech- - a method of transmitting someone else's speech, in which elements of direct (see) and indirect (see) speech are used. This is the speech of the narrator, at the same time permeated with vocabulary, meanings (semantics), syntactic constructions of the speech of the character - the source ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language
Indirect speech- is someone else's speech, reproduced not on behalf of the speaker and introduced by the author of the narration in the form of an explanatory clause of a complex sentence. For example: So he, without any hesitation, explains to Bunin that he does not consider him a poet and ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language
The category of dialogicity is functional semantic-stylistic- - one of the varieties of text categories, which is a system of multi-level language tools (including text), combined on a text plane common function expressions of dialogicity (see); structured on the basis of the field ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language
Rome city*
Rome, city- Contents: I. R. Modern; II. History of the city of R.; III. Roman history before the fall of the western Roman Empire; IV. Roman law. I. Rome (Roma) the capital of the Italian kingdom, on the Tiber River, in the so-called Roman Campania, at 41 ° 53 54 north ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
FAITH one of the main phenomena human life. By its nature, V. is divided into relig. and non-religious “Everything that is done in the world, even by people who are strangers to the Church, is done by faith... very many human deeds are based on faith; and this is not alone... Orthodox Encyclopedia
Peasants- Contents: 1) K. in Western Europe. 2) The history of K. in Russia before the liberation (1861). 3) The economic situation of K. after liberation. 4) The modern administrative structure of K. I. K. in Western Europe. The fate of the peasant or agricultural ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
literary property- (also musical and artistic) term of our laws, denoting copyright. Like the French propriété littéraire et artistique, it reflects one of the legal theories on the subject. More precise terms: English. copyright (right ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Books
- Modern Russian Literary Language Textbook , Starichenko V. , Balush T. , Gorbatsevich O. , Topical issues of phonetics, phonology, orthoepy, graphics, word formation are highlighted; the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is considered from the point of view of its systemic connections, origin, scope ... Category: Literary criticism. Folklore Buy for 666 rubles
- Russian language. Grade 9 (CDpc) , Starychenok V. , Balush T. , Gorbatsevich O. , Educational complex(hereinafter OK) `Russian language, 9 cells` - tutorial for 9th grade students general education schools and schools with in-depth study of the Russian language. Educational,… Category:
Alien speech. Direct and indirect speech
Someone else's speech is the statement of other persons.
Someone else's speech can be transmitted by direct and indirect speech.
Direct speech- this is a literal transmission of someone else's statement, accompanied by the words of the author.
In direct speech, the statement retains its lexical, syntactic and stylistic features.
Direct speech is independent, connected with the words of the author only in meaning and intonation.
Example:
Anton said: "Tomorrow we are going out of town."
Indirect speech- this is a way of transmitting someone else's speech, in which only the content of the statement is reproduced, without preserving its lexical, syntactic and stylistic features. The statement changes depending on the context and goals of the author.
Syntactically, indirect speech is a complex sentence, where the words of the author are transmitted in the main sentence, and the statement itself is conveyed in the subordinate clause.
For example:
Anton said that tomorrow we will go out of town.
When transmitting other people's words in direct speech, appeals, interjections, introductory words are preserved, and in indirect speech they are omitted.
For example:
Hey Petya, did you pass the exam? - Nadia asked direct speech).
Nadia asked Petya if he passed the exam ( indirect speech).
Ways of transmitting someone else's speech:
1) Offers with direct speech | Grandfather said: "The harvest will be good today." |
2) Complex sentences with indirect speech for the transmission of someone else's speech with changes | Grandfather said that this year the wheat harvest will be rich. |
3) Simple sentences with an addition that names the topic of someone else's speech | Grandfather talked for a long time about the effect of weather on the harvest. |
4) Sentences with introductory words and sentences to convey the source of the message | As grandfather said, bread loves good hands. |
Punctuation marks in sentences with direct speech.
If direct speech is after the words of the author: Direct speech is marked with quotation marks. ATTENTION! If the sentence is declarative, then closing quotes are first put at the end, then a period. If the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory, then a question (exclamation) mark is first put at the end, and only then - closing quotes. | Mom said, "It's time for dinner." Mom asked: “Is it time for dinner?” Mom called: "It's time for dinner!" |
If direct speech comes before the words of the author: open quotes; The following punctuation marks are placed after direct speech: In a declarative sentence, closed quotation marks, a comma and a dash; In an interrogative sentence - a question mark, closed quotes and a dash; In an exclamatory sentence - an exclamation point, closed quotes and a dash. | "We're going home," said dad. "We are going home?" Dad asked. "We are going home!" Dad exclaimed. |
If direct speech is interrupted by the words of the author: Direct speech begins with quotation marks. BUT! If, as a result of a break in direct speech, its first part loses its semantic completeness and creates a feeling of understatement, then a comma is placed after the words of the author, and the continuation of direct speech begins with lower case. | "Let's meet," Danil suggested. - Let's go to the cinema. “Come on,” Danil suggested, “we’ll meet today, we’ll go to the cinema.” |
If direct speech is inside the words of the author: A question (exclamation) mark and an ellipsis are placed before closing quotation marks. | He said, “I passed the exam with an A,” and smiled. He asked, "May I come in?" - and opened the door. He exhaled, "Wow!" - and shook his head. The boy said: "I would like ice cream now ..." - and sighed. |
The author's narrative may include statements or individual words owned by others. There are several ways to introduce someone else's speech into a sentence or text: direct speech, indirect speech, indirect speech And dialogue.
1. Punctuation in sentences with direct speech
Legend:
P- direct speech beginning with capital letter;
P- direct speech, starting with a lowercase letter;
A- words of the author, starting with a capital letter;
A- words of the author, beginning with a lowercase letter.
Exercise
And his father told him
_ You, Gavrilo, well done!_
(Ershov)
Everything will be decided_ _ he thought, going up to the living room_ I will explain myself to her_. (Pushkin).
He sat down in an armchair, put his cane in a corner, yawned and announced_ _ that it was getting hot outside_ (Lermontov).
I did not ask my faithful companion_ _ why he did not take me straight to those places_ (Turgenev).
Suddenly the coachman began to look to the side and, finally, taking off his hat, turned to me and said _ _ Master, would you order me to return? _ (Pushkin)
No, no, she repeated in despair, it’s better to die, it’s better to go to a monastery, I’d better go after Dubrovsky.
Oh, my fate is deplorable! _
The princess tells him
If you want to take me
Then you deliver to me in three days
My ring from okiyana_.
(Ershov)
I answered indignantly_ _ that I, an officer and a nobleman, would not enter into any service with Pugachev and could not accept any orders from him_ (according to Pushkin).
Sometimes I say to myself_ _ No, of course not! The little prince always covers the rose with a glass cap at night, and he watches the lamb very much ..._ (Antoine de Saint-Exupery)
The girl tells him
_ But look, you're gray;
I am only fifteen years old.
How can we get married?
All the kings will start laughing
Grandfather, they will say, took his granddaughter!_
(Ershov)
He reported_ _ that the governor ordered his officials on special assignments to wear spurs_ (according to Turgenev).
He sat down next to me and began to say _ _ what a famous surname he was and important education _ (according to Leskov).
It doesn't matter, Petrusha_ _ my mother answered me_ this is your imprisoned father; kiss his hand and let him bless you ... _ (Pushkin)
You used to stand, stand in a corner, so that your knees and back would ache, and you would think_ _ Karl Ivanovich forgot about me; it must be easy for him to sit on an easy chair and read hydrostatics - but how do I feel?
You are not our sovereign_ _ Ivan Ignatich answered, repeating the words of his captain._ You, uncle, are a thief and an impostor!_ (Pushkin)
The next day, at breakfast, Grigory Ivanovich asked his daughter_ _ whether she still intended to hide from the Berestovs_ (Pushkin).
The concept of someone else's speech and ways of its transmission. Direct speech. Indirect speech. Translation of direct speech into indirect. Improperly direct speech as a contamination of the forms of direct and indirect speech. Structural-formal features and structural-semantic varieties of improperly direct speech.
Quotation and its forms. Dialogue. Punctuation design of various ways of transmitting someone else's speech.
Alien speech is a new speech layer in the speech of any native speaker, in the narration of the author, the narrator introduced by him or the hero of the work, for example: “Dear, kind Marya Ivanovna,” I told her, “be my wife, agree to my happiness.” She, without any affectation, confessed to me her heartfelt inclination and said that her parents, of course, would be glad of her happiness (A. Pushkin).
The particular complexity of studying and linguistic description of someone else's speech lies in the fact that it is organically connected with the speech act, with the entire process of communication. As a result, it is not possible to characterize someone else's speech only from a grammatical, linguistic point of view, that is, as a set of ways of its transmission, but it is necessary to take into account the features of the functioning of these ways in speech. It should be emphasized that it is precisely this approach to the language that is fully consistent with understanding it as a system: after all, “a system is a set of elements with relationships and connections between them that form a certain integrity”, and its behavior and functioning are among the features of the system. In accordance with this, each of the methods of transmitting someone else's speech is considered as a language construct, the relationship between them is established, and then the features of their use in real communication and in conditions of communication are characterized. different forms storytelling. The same approach applies to all concepts associated with someone else's speech, and above all the concepts of "author" and "speaker". In this case, the author is called the person who transmits someone else's speech, and the speaker is the person whose speech is transmitted. Thus; V fiction The "author" who conveys someone else's speech can be the author of the work, and the narrator on behalf of whom the narration is being conducted, and any hero of the work: We spoke in an undertone. Maria Ivanovna tenderly reprimanded me for the anxiety caused by my whole quarrel with Shvabrin. “I just died,” she said, “when they told us that you intend to fight with swords” (A. Pushkin). The author who conveys the words of Maria Ivanovna (the speaker) in the form of direct speech is Grinev, on behalf of whom Pushkin narrates, that is, the narrator; and the author, who conveys the words of unknown persons (speakers), is Maria Ivanovna, that is, one of the characters in the story "The Captain's Daughter".
Due to the fact that the assessments and opinions that the author has invested in his work can only indirectly reflect the true assessments and opinions of the writer himself, in the communicative situation of the narration (narrative) it is customary to talk about the image of the author or the narrator. The narrator may be one of the characters of the text, i.e., he may enter the world of the text, and then he is called the narrator, or he may not enter the world of the text (such, for example, is the narrator I of A. Pushkin's story "The Shot").
The speaker in real communication necessarily belongs to the world he is talking about. The author artistic text creates a fictional world, which only gives out as a fragment of the real world. He himself does not belong to the world of the text of his work. These and many other features literary works lead to the use of numerous artistic techniques associated with the transmission of someone else's speech. However, it is advisable to put the criterion of correlation in the text of “two quantities - transmitted (“alien”) and transmitting (“author's”) speech” as the basis for characterizing the methods of transmitting someone else's speech as language constructions. This possibility is due to the fact that for each of these language constructions there are typical narrative forms in which they function.
In the form of direct speech, someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the speaker, while preserving the features of the transmitted speech: “Fu, what. . . "- thought Seryozha (V. Panova). For direct speech, it is typical to use it in first-person narration (traditional narrative, primary narrative form).
In the form of indirect speech, someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the author, which does not allow preserving all the features of the transmitted speech without exception. Wed : Korostelev said that he would pass now and Korostelev said: “What are you, brother. It will pass now” (V. Panova). For indirect speech, it is typical to use it in third-person narration (traditional narrative, third-person narrative form).
In the form of improperly direct speech, someone else's speech is transmitted both from the point of view of the hero and from the point of view of the author, which makes it possible to preserve the features of the transmitted speech: I looked around with surprise and thought: is there really no day, how did she drive away from their places ?. . (V. Panova). For improperly direct speech, its use is characteristic in a narrative form, which in last years called "free indirect discourse" (non-traditional narrative).
Traditionally, direct speech is defined as a way of transmitting someone else's speech, in which it is introduced into the text by the words of the author and reproduces the statement (or thought) from the person to whom it belongs, while preserving the lexico-phraseological, grammatical and intonation features his own speech.
Thanks to this, the individual style of each speaker is freely conveyed by the forms of direct speech and it gives the impression of being restored literally. However, in fact, it cannot be considered that direct speech necessarily conveys the statement literally. This can be easily proved by comparing the transmission of any real words in different sources: V. I. Kodukhov compares the transmission of the words of M. I. Kutuzov, said by him at the council in Fili, in L. N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”, in the book of the military historian A. I. Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky and in the epic M. S. Kryukova. In all three sources, Kutuzov's words are transmitted in the form of direct speech, but they are completely different, which is due to the specifics of the genre of each of these works.
Direct speech is characterized by independent use of face forms, i.e. from the point of view of the speaker himself: 1st person denotes the speaker, 2nd person denotes the interlocutor or listener, 3rd person denotes persons not taking part in the conversation, or objects . In the words of the author, the forms of the face are used from the point of view of the author: Ivan Kuzmin, reprimanding me for the duel, said to me: “Oh, Pyotr Andreich! I should have put you under arrest, but you are already punished” (A. Pushkin). So the pronoun me has different meaning: in the words of the author, it means Grinev, and in direct speech - Ivan Kuzmich.
Direct speech is built on the principle of parataxis - a free juxtaposition of constructive parts without their grammatically expressed connection: He said: “How good it is here!”; "Could you help us?" I asked him; “It would be nice,” my father suggested, “to take a little walk.” The words of the author in a construction with direct speech can take any place: they can be placed before direct speech, after direct speech, or they can break it. The words of the author can also be torn by direct speech: the Red Army soldier, calmly saying: “You sit here for a while,” climbed out after the investigator (K. Simonov).
The introduction of direct speech by the commenting remark of the speaker (in the words of the author) is typical, but not necessary: He [Seryozha] was exhausted, he calmed down, pressing his inflamed wet cheek against Korostelev's face. - It's winter! Again you will walk a lot, sledding - time will fly by unnoticed. . . (V. Panova).
The words with the semantics of speaking in the composition of the words of the author, which introduce direct speech, are very diverse. This is especially true for verbs. The main categories of these verbs: 1) verbs of speech (say, notice, report, yell, chatter, etc.); 2) verbs with the meaning of the internal state and feelings (to catch on, be perplexed, offended, doubt, etc.); 3) verbs of facial expressions, gestures, body movements and other ways of expressing the internal state of the speaker (moan, sob, wink, wince, etc.); 4) verbs of thought (think, think, decide, etc.); 5) verbs of perception (hear, catch, etc.). But in addition to the verbs of the listed groups, verbs of various specific actions are possible here: There was a knock on the door: - Get up quick!
The words of the author are most often a two-part sentence with a subject indicating the person to whom the direct speech belongs, and a predicate, an expressed verb with the meaning of speech or thought. But the author's words can also be expressed in incomplete sentences: And he: "I know it."
Direct speech can consist of one sentence or several sentences, which can be different in structure, purpose of the statement, etc.: - Agreed! Serezha said. - I want a bike. Is Sunday coming soon? (V. Panova).
The intonation of sentences in direct speech is independent, since the speaker uses not only declarative sentences, but the author's sentences are usually declarative.
Direct speech can be included as an integral part in the direct speech of the one who conveys his own or other people's words. Such direct speech is called included:
Dolly, who had a gift from her father for telling funny stories, made Varenka fall down with laughter when for the third and fourth times, all with new humorous additions, she told how she had just got ready to put on new bows for the guest and was already going out into the living room, suddenly heard a roar rattles. And who is in the carriage? - Vassenka himself, with a Scottish cap, and romances, and leggings, is sitting in the hay.
- If only he ordered the carriage to be harnessed! No, and then I hear: “Wait!” Well, I guess they took pity. I saw that they put a fat German next to him and took him away. . . And my bows are gone! . (L. Tolstoy).
Usually in fiction there are various variations of two-degree or three-degree constructions.
I. . . And I, a fool, walked from Moscow and thought,
II the mistress will call me and say:
III - Play me, Ivan, a little thing on the harmony! (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
A variety of direct speech is the so-called unmarked direct speech, that is, speech that is not highlighted graphically.
In the darkness your eyes shine before me,
They smile at me - and I hear the sounds:
“My friend, my tender friend. . . I love. . . yours. . . yours! (A. Pushkin).
Indirect speech is usually defined as a way of transmitting someone else's speech, in which the statement is transmitted on behalf of the author (or narrator) in the form of a subordinate clause, and in most cases with significant changes.
But in indirect speech, someone else's statement can be transmitted literally: He said: "I was not there"; He said he wasn't there. In other words, for direct and indirect speech, the sign of literalness / non-literalness of the transfer of someone else's speech is not differential.
In a complex sentence with indirect speech, the main sentence is the author’s words, and the explanatory clause is someone else’s speech: Uncle looked at his watch and said that it would be nice to bathe (V. Panova). The main and subordinate clauses are usually located one after another, but the main sentence (author's words) can be broken by a subordinate clause: Verochka said she didn't want tea and went to her room (N. Chernyshevsky). It is impossible to omit the words of the author in a sentence with indirect speech. There are much fewer verbs that introduce indirect speech than verbs that introduce direct speech. So, for example, the verbs of some semantic groups do not introduce indirect speech at all (smile, nod, etc.) or introduce it much less often than direct speech (continue, insert, say, etc.).
Sentences with indirect speech are characterized by a single (usually narrative) intonation.
With the help of indirect speech, the author conveys other people's statements on his own behalf, and therefore he replaces all personal forms in an appropriate way, that is, in indirect speech, personal forms are dependent. Wed : Serezha didn’t want to get off terribly, he grabbed the bike with his hands and said that he still wanted to ride, that it was his “bicycle” and Serezha didn’t want to get off terribly; he grabbed the bike with his hands and feet and said:
- I want more! This is my bicycle (V. Panova).
In the literature on indirect speech, it is often indicated that its subordinate clause is connected with the main clause by explanatory conjunctions that, to, as if, as if, and the union that introduces declarative sentences in which reliable information is transmitted, the union to - incentive, and the unions as if, as if - narrative sentences conveying unreliable, dubious information: The servant entered and announced that the horses were ready (A. Pushkin); The governor ordered that they come to him tomorrow at exactly nine o'clock in the morning, by all means (A. Chekhov); They told about him, as if he drove his wife into the coffin by talking (A. Chekhov). But there may be other cases. So, for example, the union can introduce not only incentive proposals: Since then, not a single day has passed without me thinking about revenge (A. Pushkin).
Interrogative sentences are combined with the main particle-union li; these are the so-called indirect questions: Forgive me, my charm, are you satisfied with my chatter today? (A. Pushkin). But indirect questions can also be introduced with allied words who, what, which, which, where, how, when, etc.: Then she began to ask me where I now work, how much I earn, where I live (A. Chekhov). However, sentences of indirect speech and not containing a question are often introduced with allied words, for example: Without looking at us, she very seriously and in detail told us how many houses burned down in the village of Siyanov, how many men, women and children were left homeless and what she intends to do in the first pores of the fire-fighting committee, of which she was now a member (A. Chekhov).
As part of the subordinate clause of indirect speech, as an additional reference to someone else's speech, as in direct speech, they can be used, they say, de: It smells of spring and an inexpensive cigar, it smells of happiness - and everyone seems to want to say that now de man lived, worked hard and finally achieved the happiness possible on earth (A. Chekhov).
Indirect speech is usually a complex sentence, but in contemporary literature sometimes it is conveyed with the help of a syntactic whole: Lena began to convince herself that one can live without love. That she has an interesting job, comrades, Shurochka. That now is not the time for dramas (V. Panova). Researchers of someone else's speech also talk about the transmission of indirect speech in the structure of a simple sentence, for example: It occurred to me to invite my landlord neighbors and invite them to organize something like a committee in my house. . . (A. Chekhov); Laptev gave her a hundred rubles and promised to talk to Panaurov (A. Chekhov). But the degree of curtailment of the transmitted speech in a simple sentence is very different, so often this is only the topic of the statement: Both talked for a long time about tomorrow's visit (A. Pushkin).
Indirect speech is used not only as an independent construction as part of the narrative, but it can also be speech in speech, that is, it can be indirect speech of the second stage: Karpovna said that every time a soldier brought it, but it was not known from whom; and the soldier asked if I was healthy, if I had lunch every day and if I had a warm dress (A. Chekhov).
Indirect speech is used to convey oral and written speech: In December, during the holidays, he got ready for the road and told his wife that he was leaving for St. Petersburg to work for one person - and left for S. (A. Chekhov); Waiting for my husband to come. But a letter came from him, in which he announced that his eyes ached, and begged his wife to return home as soon as possible (A. Chekhov).
The transmitted speech can also be collective: They said that a new face appeared on the embankment: a lady with a dog (A. Chekhov).
Forms of indirect speech can convey thoughts, internal monologues: Gurov thought about how, in essence, if you think about it, everything is beautiful in this world, everything except what we ourselves think and do when we forget about higher purposes being, about their human dignity (A. Chekhov). These thoughts may also be imaginary: the father and the boy looked at her somehow especially, as if just before she arrived they were condemning her for marrying an unloved, tedious man for money, boring person. . . (A. Chekhov).
When replacing direct speech with indirect speech (see Table 1), unions and allied words are used depending on what the sentences of direct speech are for the purpose of the statement: the union what is used when replacing a declarative sentence, the union to - when replacing an incentive sentence, the conjunction-particle whether - when replacing an interrogative sentence. If in the interrogative sentence of direct speech there was question word, then this word is used to connect the subordinate clause of indirect speech with the words of the author. When transmitting direct speech using indirect speech, emotionally expressive words and expressions are omitted that are inappropriate when conveying the main content of the statement or those that cannot be conveyed through indirect speech, as well as those components of direct speech, the use of which is associated with direct contact between the participants in the communicative act (for example, appeal). The patterns of pronoun replacement are related to whether the person reported in the form of indirect speech is a participant in the dialogue or not.
Since the 30s of the XX century. , much attention of linguists is attracted by the artistic device of the versatility (polyphony, polyphony) of the narration, which allows the voices of both the author of the work and its heroes to sound simultaneously, reflect different points of view on what in question. But for
Table 1
The ratio of persons in direct and indirect speech
Person referred to in indirect speech | face in direct speech | Examples |
The author himself | 1st | I said I didn't like this book. I said, "I don't like this book." You said you haven't read this book. You said, "I haven't read this book." |
Author's interlocutor | 2nd | Vanya told me that this book was not interesting for me. Vanya told me: "This book is not interesting for you." Vanya told you that you should read this. |
Person not participating in the conversation | 3rd | And you said about me that I will not solve this problem. And you said about me: "He will not solve this problem." Vanya said about you that you did not read this. Vanya said about you: "He did not read this." Vanya said about Petya that he didn't read it. Vanya said about Petya: "He didn't read it." |
there was no single term for this technique. The terms “free indirect speech”, “experienced speech”, “improper direct (improper direct) speech”, “inappropriate indirect speech”, “indirect speech of the author”, “free indirect discourse”, etc. were used. This is due to the great complexity of the phenomenon . On the one hand, various forms of expression are used to create a multifaceted narrative, and on the other hand, this technique is implemented in various ways in specific texts. But gradually, two terms became firmly established in science - “inappropriately direct speech” (to designate the type of device for which a certain syntactic pattern was fixed in the language) and “free indirect discourse” (to designate the type of narration in which this device functions, i.e. for its speech implementation).
Improperly direct speech is a way of transmitting someone else's speech, in which grammatical features direct and indirect speech: the statement is built on behalf of the author, as indirect speech; the connection between someone else's speech and the words of the author is unionless, as in direct speech, and all the features of the speech of the speaker (hero) can be preserved.
She thought: what will happen to her now? Will they give her food first, or will they immediately begin to teach how to treat the wounded?; Faina took him to the staff car to rest. By the way, she said to Yulia Dmitrievna, she, too, would clean herself up a little and change her clothes, she was already sick of blood, and her linen was all wet from sweat. . . ; Who is she? Just as simple as he is. Her felt boots are in patches, the scarf is the same as her mother's. She learned and what she became, he thought; He said. He was instructed to collect on notebooks. He collected and wanted to give it to Olga Ivanna, but Olga Ivanna was not there, and he was ordered to give it back tomorrow; She had a gray face and dull eyes. And gray lips. And then the lips smiled. She will have the same fate as him (V. Panova).
Improper direct speech can be used in real speech communication, but the main area of its functioning is fiction. The specificity and special advantage of improperly direct speech is that it makes it possible to combine the subjective plans of the author and the speaker (in a work of art - the author and the hero), and the lines of speech of the author and the hero are formally expressed in it approximately equally. The reflection of the author’s speech brings this variety closer to indirect speech: this is expressed by the use of personal forms of the verb, personal and possessive pronouns, and the reflection of the hero’s speech is with direct speech (except for the transmission of the features of the speech of the hero himself, which is not characteristic of indirect speech, from a grammatical point of view, this is expressed by the same type of syntactic structures - unionless bond between the words of the author and the hero, the possibility for the words of the author to be located in relation to the transmitted speech in preposition, postposition or interposition, and also to be omitted). There is a contamination of the forms of direct and indirect speech.
Differential features of different ways of transmitting someone else's speech are presented in Table 2.
table 2
Differential features of ways to transmit someone else's speech
Direct speech | Indirect speech | Improper direct speech |
I. The nature of the ratio of transmitted (alien) and transmitting (author's) speech | ||
1. Someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the speaker (hero). | 1. Someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the author. 2. The transmission of the main content of someone else's speech is typical. | 1. The points of view of the hero and the author are combined. 2. The literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical. |
II. The main linguistic features of different ways of transmitting someone else's speech | ||
1. Allows you to save all the lexical-phraseological and syntactic features of the transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of direct speech sentences is independent. 4. Grammar signs: b) the use of face forms is independent (from the point of view of the speaker). | 1. It does not allow saving all the features of the transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of indirect speech sentences is dependent. 4. Grammar signs: a) connection with the help of unions or allied words (indirect speech is transmitted by a subordinate clause); 5. Indirect speech is not marked with quotation marks. | 1. Allows you to save all the features of the transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of sentences of improperly direct speech is independent. 4. Grammar signs: a) the connection of the parts of the construction (nonproperly direct speech and the words of the author) is unionless. b) face shapes are used from the point of view of the author (dependent use). 5. Quotation marks or dashes are not distinguished (otherwise, punctuation is the same as in direct speech). |
The proposed set of features is not exhaustive. For the ways of transmitting someone else's speech, the possibility / impossibility of using the imperative mood and appeals is relevant: in direct speech, appeals and verbs in the imperative mood are used, in indirect speech they are not used; in improperly direct speech, appeals are not used, as in indirect speech, and the imperative mood is used only in the form of an indirect command (let him do it); for constructions with someone else's speech, peculiar correlations of species-temporal forms are characteristic. It is possible to detail the characteristics of the constructions of each of the ways of transmitting someone else's speech, to consider the location of the author's words in these constructions, which is associated with their punctuation. Of interest is also the nature of the words requiring explanation (as part of the author's introductory words), the syntactic structure of each of the parts of the structure.
For those varieties of ways of transmitting someone else's speech, which are located on the scale of transition between direct speech and indirect speech, the sets of features will change somewhat.
A systematic approach to the objects of study leads to the need to use the concept of "paradigm" not only in morphology, but also in syntax. A paradigm is seen as "a series of opposed linguistic units, each member of which is determined by relations to other members of the series" . The appeal to the concept of "paradigm" in syntax is due to the desire to present syntactic constructions not in isolation, but in rows that are formed in connection with the change of syntactic meanings, communication tasks etc. .
So, direct speech, indirect speech and improperly direct speech form a syntactic paradigm: “By the way,” she said to Yulia Dmitrievna, “I’ll also come to my senses a little and change clothes, I’m already sick of blood, and my underwear is all wet from sweat.” “By the way,” she said to Yulia Dmitrievna, “she, too, will come to her senses a little and change her clothes, she is already sick of blood, and her underwear is all wet from sweat. - She told Yulia Dmitrievna that she, too, would come to her senses a little and change clothes, that she was already sick of blood, and her underwear was all wet from sweat.
Improper direct speech, along with some other methods of transmitting someone else's speech, is used in this type of narration (in free indirect discourse), which is based "on the complex coordination of the voices of different characters with each other and with the voice of the narrator":
Lisa was delighted with the success of her invention. She embraced her father, promised him to think about his advice, and ran to propitiate the irritated Miss Jackson, who hardly agreed to open her door to her and listen to her excuses. Lisa was ashamed to show herself such a blackhead before strangers; she dared not ask. . . she was sure that kind, sweet Miss Jackson would forgive her. . . and so on. and so on. (A. Pushkin); She recalled how painful the wedding was, when it seemed to her that both the priest and the guests, and everyone in the church looked at her sadly: why, why, why is she, so sweet, good, marrying this elderly, uninteresting gentleman? (A. Chekhov).
In the example from The Young Lady-Peasant Woman, the narrator (author) conveys the words of Lisa herself (the character), and in the example from Anna on the Neck, the narrator (author) refracts someone’s opinions through the prism of Anya’s (the character’s) consciousness.
Especially widely indirect speech is used to convey thoughts, and these can be individual thoughts, and entire internal monologues:
And suddenly he remembered. How did he not do anything to find Igor? Obviously something could be done. Make a phone call. To write an application. Sweep somewhere, ask someone. . . Nonsense, nonsense - where to call, where to bother, who to ask?
No no. Something could be done, for sure. He just doesn't know how. Sunny could do it. He is slow-witted, has always been slow-witted about such things. Sonechka would have guessed, because she loved Igor. Real love knows everything and knows everything. He loves Igor little, he has always loved him too little, he is a worthless, uncaring, inept father. He loved Lyalya more. And why is she better? Curls on the mind, operetta and flirting. The craftswoman has just been flattering. . . (V. Panova).
Very often, when transmitting someone else's speech or thoughts, the points of view of the author and the hero fundamentally diverge:
At the news of this [that his wife, Zinochka, is expecting a child], Spousov experienced a real chilling horror.
Child?! Father-in-law and mother-in-law will immediately push him along with Zinochka to Sprugov, his six and a half meters. These are the same callous egoists. He, Suprugov, is not interested in their future. From morning to night, children's squeak, pots, diapers. . . He will go crazy.
And the cost of child support. I'll have to leave the faculty and go to the village as a paramedic.
He decided not to give up (V. Panova).
The passage, conveyed in an improperly direct speech, expresses both the horror of the egoist Suprugov before the prospect that he painted for himself, and the condemnation of the spouse's egoism by the author.
But, having gone around the deck and not finding Dasha, Ivan Ilyich became agitated and began to look everywhere. Dasha was nowhere to be found. His mouth went dry. Obviously something has happened. And suddenly he stumbled upon her directly (A. N. Tolstoy).
The words are obvious, something happened - improperly direct speech, since the author and the reader know that nothing happened to Dasha, but Ivan Ilyich does not know this.
There are also such cases that “does not know” something from what is transmitted in the form of improperly direct speech, another hero:
Oh, a lamp? She has not been working for a long time, I put her somewhere under the sofa. Let's drink some tea first, I'm dying to drink!
(It was impossible to admit that the lamp was in perfect working order...)
The lamp could not be repaired. By the end of the tea party, Nizvetsky remembered the purpose of his visit. But Faina said that she wanted to sleep, and asked Nizvetsky to come tomorrow evening: in fact, the lamp must be repaired, without a lamp, she, Faina, is like without hands. . . (V. Panova).
But such a discrepancy may not exist, although it is quite obvious that along with the voice of the author, the voice of the character begins to sound in the narrative:
She got up, took off the expensive dress in which she saw him off, and put on an old blue T-shirt, darned at the elbows. The key is the manager. Another key is Katya Gryaznova. And there is nothing to sit here. Only it is necessary to clean everything carefully: what if he returns before her? She cleaned, left her paradise and went to the draft board (V. Panova).
If another speech layer, transmitted by the form of improperly direct speech, is not emotionally marked, not clearly split, there are usually the words of the author introducing it:
In that case,” Julie continues in the same long, long tone of official notes, “she will send a letter on two conditions. . . (N. Chernyshevsky).
This way of creating a multifaceted narrative is sometimes called a lexico-phraseological variety of improperly direct speech. This variety is closely related to a fundamentally different phenomenon - citation.
Quote (from Latin cito - I call, I quote) - a verbatim excerpt from a text or exactly quoted someone's words.
Quotations are used to reinforce the stated thought with an authoritative statement, to criticize the quoted thought; in linguistic studies, quotations play the role of illustrative material, and in dictionaries, grammars and other scientific papers are given as examples of literary speech.
The words of ordinary participants in the conversation can also be quoted: One of the favorite places in the garden was the “birch circle”. So we called a small area in the depths of the garden. . . (M. Beketova). The quotation, as a rule, is distinguished by quotation marks, because words given without quotation marks may not be perceived as a quotation.
Quotations that are used in scientific, popular scientific works should be accompanied by a bibliographic reference, on the basis of which you can quickly find the source and the cited place. If the quotation is not given in full, then the omission is indicated by an ellipsis: V. V. Vinogradov wrote: “The language is enriched along with the development of ideas. . . » .
Verbs used to introduce quotations are isolated from a large class of verbs of speech (to speak, write, quote, state, expound, answer, inform, formulate, etc.), but quotations can also be introduced by some verbs that do not have the meaning of speech (compare, contrast, contrast, distinguish, outline, etc.). Often, verbs that introduce quotations also give an assessment of what is being quoted (mix, broadcast, utter, reproach, etc.).
Quoting is a phenomenon that intersects in a complex and diverse way with direct, indirect and improperly direct speech, as with certain syntactic patterns, and functioning in the author's narrative, takes part in the formation of the type of statement.
So, elements of direct speech can be included in the subordinate clause of indirect speech:
The prince, who firmly adhered to the difference in fortunes in life and rarely allowed even important provincial officials to the table, suddenly proved to the architect Mikhail Ivanovich, who was blowing his nose in a checkered handkerchief in a corner, that all people are equal, and more than once inspired his daughter that Mikhailo Ivanovich did nothing worse than you and me (L. Tolstoy).
In fact, this is a mixture of signs of indirect speech with signs of direct speech, that is, a syncretic way of transmitting someone else's speech. The term "semi-direct speech" is sometimes used to refer to it. But if we leave aside the moments of a formal nature and base the qualification of this phenomenon on the fact that in this way a fragment of the speech of another person is literally transmitted, then such cases can be considered a kind of quotation, as has been done in linguistic studies of recent years.
A kind of citation is considered to be such cases when the subordinate clause of indirect speech includes vivid figurative words and expressions (often phraseological turns) from the speech of heroes that are not usually characteristic of indirect speech. But there are no formal signs of direct speech, such as the use of pronouns that show the point of view of those persons whose speech is transmitted:
The guys [workers] suspected me of a religious sectarian and good-naturedly made fun of me, saying that even my own father had refused me, and they immediately told me that they themselves rarely looked into the temple of God and that many of them had not been in the spirit for ten years, and they justified such their debauchery by saying that a painter among people is the same as a jackdaw among birds (A. Chekhov); She consulted with her husband, with some neighbors, and finally everyone decided that, apparently, such was the fate of Marya Gavrilovna, that you can’t go round your betrothed, that poverty is not a vice, that living not with wealth, but with a person, and the like ( A. Pushkin).
This kind of transmission of someone else's speech is sometimes called "artistic indirect speech." Unlike traditional quotations, the elements of someone else's speech being transmitted are not marked with quotation marks.
The same unquoted words and expressions from the characters' speech are often used in the author's narrative:
Seryozha did not want to get off, he dug into the bike with his hands and feet and said:
- I want more! This is my bike!
But now Shurik scolded him, as one would expect:
- Greedy!
Being a greedy beef is very shameful; Seryozha silently tears down and walks away (V. Panova).
Sometimes the author himself highlights such words from the speech of other people in type, and with them there may be direct indications that these are quoted words:
We have already said that, despite her coldness, Marya Gavrilovna was still surrounded by seekers. But everyone had to retreat when the wounded hussar colonel Burmin appeared in her castle, with George in his buttonhole and with an interesting pallor, as the ladies there (A. Pushkin) said; Lizaveta Ivanovna looked at him, and Tomsky's words resounded in her soul: this man has at least three evil deeds in his soul! (A. Pushkin); Her playfulness and minute pranks delighted her father and drove her madam, Miss Jackson, a forty-year-old prim girl, who whitened and frowned her eyebrows, re-read Pamela twice a year, received two thousand rubles for that and died of boredom in this barbaric Russia ( A. Pushkin).
If, however, such words and expressions, foreign to the author's narrative, are not introduced into the text by any indication and are not distinguished by quotation marks or a font, formally quoting merges with another phenomenon - with the so-called lexico-phraseological variety of improperly direct speech. But quoting and improperly direct speech in any of its varieties are phenomena that are fundamentally different from the point of view that when quoting, the author, as it were, conveys his voice to the hero, and with improperly direct speech, the artistic effect lies in the fact that the voices of the author and the hero sound together. This joint sound is revealed due to the fact that the divergence of the points of view of the author and the hero on what is being discussed, the nature of their perception of the same events is quite obvious: been for an eternity. While she was gone, that uncle managed to buy an accordion, and Korostelev bought a gramophone (V. Panova).
Quoting is the basis of a special stylistic device - mimesis (from Greek - imitation, mimicry). Mimesis is used both in everyday colloquial speech and in fiction: Derzhimorda: Was on orders. . . Mayor: Shh! (Closes his mouth.) Ek croaked a crow! (Teasing him.) Was on orders! (N. Gogol). The notion of a tale is also connected with quoting. A tale is defined as a form of authorial speech in which, throughout the entire work, the presentation is carried out in the spirit of the language and character of the person on behalf of whom the narration is being conducted. Thus, the skaz is a quotation taken to the limit: formally, this is the speech of the narrator, that is, as if the author, but in essence the author hides behind a continuous quotation. In the manner of a tale, many stories by N. Leskov are written, for example, “Lefty”.
It is not someone else's speech itself that can be transmitted, but only its theme. The theme of someone else's speech, its subject can be expressed in a simple sentence with the help of additions to verbs with the meaning of speech or thought: Korostelev told him about the war (V. Panova). But the theme, the subject of someone else's speech, can also be transmitted in the structure complex sentence: Seryozha told the guys about his illness and how Korostelev talks about the war (V. Panova).
Often the general meaning or content of someone else's speech is conveyed in sentences with introductory words that indicate the fact of someone else's speech, its source: according to (such and such), as it is customary to say, as they say, etc. the school was accepted (V. Panova).
Particles are also used, indicating the subjectivity of the transmission of someone else's speech or its topic: they say, de, they say, and some others: The road, they say, he did not know (V. Panova).
Dialogue (from Greek dialogos) is a conversation, a conversation between two or more persons.
The main sphere of functioning of the dialogue is oral speech in any conditions, and above all, everyday speech. Speaking. In direct communication, the dialogue is carried out in the form of direct speech:
1st l. - Now I gave money for a refrigerator.
2nd l. - How much did you give?
3rd l. - 210.
The conditions in which spontaneous dialogical speech proceeds (situation, gestures, facial expressions, intonation) determine its features and, above all, the tendency to save speech means. Thus, the dialogue responses most often represent incomplete sentences, which contain only "new"; speakers often do not finish sentences, interrupt each other:
1st l. - Are you going fishing? No?
2nd l. - Necessarily.
1st l. - When?
2nd l. - Well, when is it. . . Here. . .
1st l. No, I'm just asking. Because now I'm leaving. We are leaving. . .
2nd l. - At all?
1st l. – . . . relax.
1st l. - Let's go, perhaps, to the same place where we went, to this very one, to the island.
In dialogues, individual remarks are very extensive, so that the delimitation of dialogues from monologues is often very arbitrary. IN works of art to convey dialogues, the form of direct speech is also mainly used, and dialogue replicas can be introduced by the words of the author, but the words of the author may not be:
Are we all going to die?
They were embarrassed as if he had asked something indecent. And he looked and waited for an answer.
Korostelev replied:
- No. We won't die. Aunt Tosya does what she wants, but we will not die, and in particular you, I guarantee you.
“I will never die?” Seryozha asked.
- Never! - firmly and solemnly promised Korostelev (V. Panova).
But the ways of transmitting dialogues in works of art are very diverse. So, sometimes some dialogue lines are omitted:
I don't feel capable of making her happy.
- Not your grief - her happiness. What? Is that how you honor your parent's will? Good!
- As you wish, I do not want to get married and will not get married (A. Pushkin).
There are cases when only one replica-stimulus or replica-reaction is transmitted at all, and not only the form of direct speech, but also the forms of indirect and improperly direct speech in full or in various combinations are used to transmit dialogues:
Korsakov showered Ibragim with questions, who is the first beauty in St. Petersburg? who is famous for being the first dancer? what kind of dance is in fashion now? Ibrahim very reluctantly satisfied his curiosity (A. Pushkin);
Prokhor pulled out rock samples from his possessions from his suitcase. Engineer Protasov carefully examined. This is copper pyrite, it seems to be mestizo azure, wonderful, this is amber - wow! This is gold sand. From what quantity by volume? Percentage? Prokhor doesn't know. It's a pity. In any case, it is wealth. Yep, a gold nugget! Fabulous. Wow, Prokhor Petrovich has a lot of samples! .
“I am researching them,” said the engineer (V. Shishkov).
Often in works of art internal dialogized monologues of characters are transmitted, including with themselves:
Seeing nothing, she returned home. Things were scattered around the room. . . Nothing is needed when there is none. How long will the war last? Two years, he said. Two years! When not a single minute lived without him has no price. She will die of boredom. What to live? You can suffocate (V. Panova).
“It's true,” I say.
The reader is not limited to such easy conclusions, because in a man the thinking ability is naturally stronger, and much more developed than in a woman; he says—the reader probably also thinks this, but does not consider it necessary to speak, and therefore I have no reason to argue with her—the reader says: "I know that this gentleman who shot himself did not shoot himself." I seize on the word “know” and say: you don’t know this, because you haven’t been told this yet, and you only know what they will tell you; you yourself don’t know anything, you don’t even know that by the way I began the story, I insulted, humiliated you. You didn't know that, did you? - well, you know (N. Chernyshevsky).
Thus, various methods of dialogization of the author's text, including publicistic ones, are used. See, for example, a critical article by N. G. Chernyshevsky about A. Ostrovsky’s comedy “Poverty is not a vice”:
Readers now see that almost the entire play consists of a series of incoherent and unnecessary episodes, monologues and narratives. . . How can this be explained? First, the author's disregard for the requirements of art. . .
Of course, you say, did the fiery Mitya immediately read the decision of his fate? A. Ostrovsky does not consider this necessary. . .
Table 3
Scale of transitivity of ways of transmitting someone else's speech
On this scale, between the narration from the 1st person and the narration from the 3rd person, there are those ways of transmitting someone else's speech that are realized in certain syntactic constructions, and below - those that do not have their own syntactic pattern and can be used both in the author's narration and in the transfer of someone else's speech in other ways. In real linguistic reality and in fiction, all these methods alternate, combine with each other in various ways, and the boundaries between them are very mobile.