What are the grounds for classifying the types of lz words. Types of lexical meaning
Words in Russian have 2 meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the second type is abstract, then the first is individual in nature. In this article we will present the main types lexical meanings words.
Lexical meaning, or, as it is sometimes called, the meaning of a word, shows how the sound shell of a word relates to objects or phenomena of the world around us. It is worth noting that it does not contain the entire complex of features characteristic of a particular object.
Classmates
What is the lexical meaning of a word?
Meaning of the word reflects only features that allow one to distinguish one object from another. Its center is the base of the word.
All types of lexical meanings of a word can be divided into 5 groups depending on:
- correlation;
- origin;
- compatibility;
- functions;
- nature of the connection.
This classification was proposed by the Soviet scientist Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov in the article “Basic types of lexical meanings of a word” (1977). Below we will consider this classification in detail.
Types by correlation
From a nominative point of view (that is, by correlation), all meanings of a word are divided into direct and figurative. Direct meaning is basic. It is directly related to how this or that letter and sound form relates to the concept that has developed in the minds of native speakers.
Thus, the word “cat” refers to a small predatory animal from the cat family, which belongs to the order of mammals that exterminate rodents. A "knife" is a tool that is used for cutting; consists of a blade and a handle. Adjective "green" denotes the color of growing foliage.
Over time, the meaning of a word can change, subject to trends characteristic of a particular time in the life of a people. So, back in the 18th century, the word “wife” was used in the sense of “woman”. It came into use much later to mean “wife” or “a woman who is married to a man.” Similar changes occurred with the word “husband”.
figurative meaning the word is derived from the main one. With its help, one lexical unit is endowed with the properties of another based on common or similar characteristics. Thus, the adjective “dark” is used to describe a space that is immersed in darkness or in which there is no light.
But at the same time, this lexeme is quite often used in a figurative meaning. Thus, the adjective “dark” can describe something unclear (for example, manuscripts). It can also be used in relation to a person. In this context, the adjective “dark” would indicate that a person in question, uneducated or ignorant.
As a rule, value transfer occurs due to one of the following signs:
As can be seen from the above examples, the figurative meanings that have developed in words are in one way or another connected with the main one. Unlike author's metaphors, which are widely used in fiction, figurative lexical meanings are stable and occur much more often in the language.
It is worth noting that in the Russian language there is often a phenomenon when figurative meanings lose their imagery. Thus, the combinations “teapot spout” or “teapot handle” have become closely integrated into the Russian language and are familiar to its speakers.
Lexical meanings by origin
All lexical units existing in a language have their own etymology. However, upon careful consideration, you will notice that the meaning of some units is easy to deduce, while in the case of others it is quite difficult to understand what a particular word means. Based on this difference, a second group of lexical meanings is distinguished - by origin.
From the point of view of origin, there are two types of meanings:
- Motivated;
- Unmotivated.
In the first case, we are talking about lexical units formed by adding affixes. The meaning of a word is derived from the meaning of the stem and affixes. In the second case, the meaning of the lexeme does not depend on the meaning of its individual components, that is, it is non-derivative.
Thus, the words “running”, “red” are classified as unmotivated. Their derivatives are motivated: “to run”, “to escape”, “to blush”. Knowing the meaning of the lexical units underlying them, we can easily deduce the meaning of derivatives. However, the meaning of motivated words is not always so easy to deduce. Sometimes an etymological analysis is required.
Lexical meanings depending on compatibility
Each language imposes certain restrictions on the use of lexical units. Some units can only be used in a certain context. In this case, we are talking about the compatibility of lexical units. From the point of view of compatibility, there are two types of meanings:
- free;
- not free.
In the first case, we are talking about units that can be freely combined with each other. However, such freedom cannot be absolute. It is very conditional. Thus, nouns such as “door”, “window”, “lid” can be freely used with the verb “open”. At the same time, you cannot use the words “packaging” or “crime” with it. Thus, the meaning of the lexeme “open” dictates the rules for us, according to which certain concepts may or may not be combined with it.
Unlike free ones, the compatibility of units with a non-free meaning is very limited. As a rule, such lexemes are part of phraseological units or are syntactically determined.
In the first case, the units are connected phraseological meaning. For example, the words “play” and “nerves,” taken separately, lack the semantic component “deliberately irritate.” And only when these lexemes are combined in the phraseological unit “play on your nerves” do they acquire this meaning. The adjective “sidekick” cannot be used together with the word “enemy” or “comrade”. According to the norms of the Russian language, this adjective can only be combined with the noun “friend”.
Syntactically determined meaning is acquired by a word only when it performs a function unusual for it in a sentence. Thus, a noun can sometimes act as a predicate in a sentence: “And you are a hat!”
Functional types of lexical meanings
Each lexical meaning carries a specific function. Using some units of language, we simply name objects or phenomena. We use others to express some kind of assessment. There are two types of functional values:
- nominative;
- expressive-semantic.
Tokens of the first type do not carry additional (evaluative) characteristics. As an example, we can cite such linguistic units as “look”, “man”, “drink”, “make noise”, etc.
Tokens belonging to the second type, on the contrary, contain an evaluative attribute. They are separate linguistic units, separated into a separate dictionary entry and act as expressively colored synonyms for their neutral equivalents: “look” - “stare”, “drink” - “thump”.
Lexical meanings by nature of connection
Another important aspect of the meaning of a word is its connection with other lexical units of the language. From this point of view, the following are distinguished: types of lexical meanings:
- correlative (lexemes that are opposed to each other based on some attribute: “big” - “small”);
- autonomous (lexical units independent of each other: “hammer”, “saw”, “table”);
- determiners (lexemes with an expressive meaning, determined by the meaning of other lexical units: “huge” and “hefty” are determiners for the adjective “big”).
Cited by V.V. Vinogradov’s classification quite fully reflects the system of lexical meanings in the Russian language. However, the scientist does not mention another equally important aspect. In any language there are words that have more than one meaning. In this case, we are talking about single-valued and polysemantic words.
Single and polysemous words
As mentioned above, all words can be divided into two large groups:
- unambiguous;
- multi-valued.
Single-valued lexemes are used to designate only one specific object or phenomenon. The term “monosemantic” is often used to denote them. The category of unambiguous words includes:
However, there are not many such lexemes in the Russian language. Polysemantic or polysemantic words have become much more widespread.
It is important to note that the term “polysemy” should in no case be confused with “homonymy”. The difference between these linguistic phenomena lies in the connection between the meanings of words.
For example, the word "escape" can mean:
- leaving the place of serving a sentence (imprisonment) at one’s own request, thanks to a well-developed plan or by chance.
- young plant stem with buds and leaves.
As can be seen from this example, the given values are not related to each other. Thus, we are talking about homonyms.
Let's give another example - “paper”:
- material made from cellulose;
- document ( trans.).
Both meanings have one semantic component, so this lexeme belongs to the category of polysemantic ones.
Where can I find the lexical meaning of a word?
In order to find out what a particular word means, you need to consult a dictionary. They give the exact definition of the word. By turning to an explanatory dictionary, you can not only find out the meaning of the lexical unit of interest, but also find examples of its use. In addition, describing the meaning of a word helps to understand the difference between synonyms. All vocabulary in the explanatory dictionary is arranged alphabetically.
Such dictionaries are usually intended for native speakers. However, foreigners learning Russian can also use them.
As an example you can provide the following dictionaries:
- “Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language” - V.I. Dahl;
- “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” - S.I. Ozhegov;
- “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” - D.N. Ushakov;
- “Dictionary of Russian onomastic terminology” - A.V. Superanskaya.
As mentioned above, in the explanatory dictionary you can find the lexical meanings of words in the Russian language and examples of their use. However, this is not all the information that this type of dictionary provides. They also provide information about grammar and stylistic features lexical units.
Lexical meaning words, being an element of the general linguistic system, nevertheless have sufficient independence. It has actually semantic, that is, specific properties inherent only to it, for example, different ways of nominating objects, concepts, phenomena, features according to the nature of their correlation with reality ( direct- indirect, or portable), according to the degree of motivation ( non-derivative - derivative), according to the methods and possibilities of lexical compatibility ( free - unfree), by the nature of the functions performed ( nominative - expressive-synonymous).
By nomination method, that is, by the nature of the connection word meaning with objective reality, there are two types lexical meanings - direct, or basic, and indirect, or portable. Direct meaning named because the word that has it directly, directly reflects the object (phenomenon, action, quality, etc.). Direct meaning, serving as a stable basis for the nomination of the subject in modern period language development, also called primary.
Indirect(or portable) meaning a word is a meaning that arises on the basis of comparisons, associations, etc., combining one object with another. Thus, figurative meaning appears as a result of name transfer direct(main) designations subject to new item. figurative meanings are private, they are also called secondary. figurative meanings, in turn, can be divided into figurative ones with extinct imagery (bow of a ship, wings of an airplane) and artistic-figurative (Pupils painted posters
/V.V. Mayakovsky/, The wind whistles, silver wind, IN silky rustle of snow noise
/S.A. Yesenin/).
According to the degree of semantic motivation, there are two types of lexical meaning of the word: non-derivative(unmotivated, primary) and derivative(that is, motivated by a primary, original meaning, and therefore being secondary). For example, the meaning of the word window“a hole in the wall for light and air” is non-derivative (unmotivated), primary, and the meaning of the word windowsill"situated" under the window"should be considered derivative (motivated), secondary, since it is motivated by the primary meaning of the word window.
According to the degree of lexical compatibility there are free values And unfree. Free meanings include those that reflect the subject-logical relationships of words in a language. For example, to free include meanings of words head, nose, eye; table, petal, spring; fairy tale, dispute, luck and many others. However, the “freedom” of lexical compatibility of such words is a relative concept, since it is limited by their subject-logical relations. So, based on subject-logical connections, you cannot combine the word hand with words like funny, smart, deep etc. And yet, the meanings of these (and many other) words from a lexical-semantic point of view can be called free.
To the group unfree values turn on meanings of words, the lexical compatibility of which is limited not only by subject-logical relations, but also by linguistic ones. Similar values are called unfree. Among lexically unfree two groups stand out values words: phraseologically related And syntactically determined with a variety - constructively limited (or conditional) meanings.
Phraseologically related meaning is one that is realized only in combination with a narrowly limited, stable range of lexical units. The connections of words in these combinations are determined not by subject-logical relations, but by the internal laws of the lexical system of the language. Yes, the word pitch black meaning "complete, absolutely hopeless" appears only in combination with words hell or darkness.
Syntactically conditioned this is called figurative meaning, which appears in a word only in a sentence, for example p figurative meaning of the word crow - “(colloquial) slow, clumsy person, rotten, simpleton”.
A type of syntactically determined meanings are the so-called structurally limited(or conditional) meanings. These include values, which are realized only under certain conditions syntactic construction. For example, the word mirage the main thing is the terminological meaning - "optical phenomenon". In a construction with a noun in genitive case(in the definition function) this word acquires figurative meaning - "a deceptive ghost, an illusion, something created by the imagination": mirage of love.
Based on the nature of the naming functions performed, two types can be distinguished: lexical meanings of the word: actually nominative And expressive-synonymous.
Nominative meanings words can be called those that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities, actions, etc. In the semantic structure of words with a similar meaning, as a rule, additional features (for example, evaluative ones) are not reflected. However, during subsequent use, these signs may appear. Nominative is, for example, meaning of words table, horse, beautiful, stone, be proud, move and many others. Each of the words with a nominative meaning is directly related to the concept and names it.
Expressive-synonymous meanings are called those in which the main one is an emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-evaluative names of already existing nominations (for example, nonsense, ascend, trudgeetc.). These words exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms ( nonsense - stupidity, ascend - rise, trudge - walk slowly).
So, the typology of lexical meanings is based on three main types of relationships: conceptual-subject connection, the relationship of words to each other and the degree of motivation of the meaning. Identifying different types of lexical meanings helps to gain a deeper understanding of the semantic structure of a word, that is, to understand the nature of systemic intra-word connections.
TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD
Parameter name | Meaning |
Article topic: | TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD |
Rubric (thematic category) | Lexicology |
GENERAL CONCEPT OF LEXICOLOGY
LEXICOLOGY
Lexicology(Greek lexikos - related to the word, verbal + logos - teaching) studies vocabulary. Delineate descriptive lexicology, which deals with current state vocabulary of the language, and historical, studying it from a historical perspective. The most important branch of lexicology is semasiology(Greek semasia – meaning + logos), which studies the meaning of a word, explores various types polysemy, as well as antonyms, synonyms, homonyms, paronyms, as well as other phenomena related to the meaning of a word. The word is the “basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, and has a combination of semantic, phonetic and grammatical featuresʼʼ. Words combine lexical and grammatical meanings, the first of which lies in the area of interest of lexicology, and the second of grammar. Lexical meaning is the reflection in a word of one or another phenomenon of reality. By naming an object, process, property, quality, etc., the word fulfills its main, nominative function. The lexical meaning is individual (amblyopia 'weakened vision in the absence of visible damage to the eye'), while the grammatical meaning refers the word to a certain class of words (squirrel 'a small fur-bearing animal...' - noun, nominative case, feminine gender, etc. .d.). As you can see, the lexical meaning of a word lies in its base, and the grammatical meaning lies in its affixes. Example L.V. Shcherby (Glokaya kuzdra shteko budlanula bokra and kurdyachit bokrenka), illustrating the presence of grammatical meaning (bokra - bokr, noun, soul, masculine, wine fall, etc.) and the absence of lexical meaning, has long become a classic and was among the most famous quotes and expressions of the 20th century.
Words with one lexical meaning are classified as unambiguous (monosemantic) (double 'in the amount of two people'), and words with two or more meanings are classified as polysemantic (polysemantic) (stubble - '1) compressed field, stubble, 2) remains of stems compressed cereals on stubble').
Taking into account the aspect of considering a word, three types of lexical meaning are distinguished: a) by correlation with the named object - direct and figurative, b) according to the motivation of the meaning – motivated and unmotivated, c) according to the degree of dependence on the context – free and bound.
The direct (nominative) meaning is the main, closest one and has the original subject-conceptual correlation (Atlas ‘in ancient Greek mythology – a titan holding on his shoulders firmament'). The figurative (secondary, derivative) meaning has a secondary subject-conceptual correlation and arises, as a rule, on the basis of a direct one (atlas 'in architecture - a vertical support in the form of a male figure supporting the ceiling of a building, portico, etc.') or (less commonly ) of another figurative meaning (shortbread cake is baked from shortbread dough). Sometimes the direct meaning is lost, and the original figurative meaning takes its place. So, for example, the oldest meaning of the word eye ‘stone ball(ic), bead’ was supplanted in the 16th-17th centuries. The lexeme belly ‘life’, ‘animal’, ‘property’ has been used since the 11th century, but it acquired its modern meaning much later. The types of secondary nomination are usually distinguished metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) - the use of a word in a figurative meaning, based on the similarity (external or internal) of the designated objects, phenomena, actions or characteristics. In a non-terminological sense, a metaphor is sometimes called any use of a word in a figurative sense. Considering that metaphor is a widespread type of motivation of secondary meaning, and that the similarity should be the most various kinds, let's give just a few examples: similarity in shape (eyeball, needle 'on the spire of a building'), similarity in color (fiery hair, golden autumn), similarity in location (high gust, tail of an electric train), similarity in perception, impression (silk hair, prickly eyes, light character), similarity in the method or result of the action (swallow 'read quickly, a lot, indiscriminately', deaf 'become indifferent, insensitive to something'), similarity in degree of value (pearl of the collection) , similarity in function (to burn 'to be lit, to give light /about modern lighting devices/', to shoot /originally from a bow with arrows/), etc. There are: a) metaphors that have lost their imagery (erased, dry, dead, petrified, without ó
figurative) and therefore do not bear the mark trans., ᴛ.ᴇ in explanatory dictionaries. now the original metaphorical transfer is no longer perceived in them and the dictionary gives their meaning as direct /bow of the boat/; b) figurative (figurative-poetic) metaphors retain figurativeness, and their interpretation in the dictionary is preceded by a translation mark. Above the valley darkness, where the smoky fires, the peaks sleep. K. Balmont; Sleep. …|| Peren. Be in a state of complete peace and immobility; Beads.
Posted on ref.rf
…2. Peren. About small shiny droplets of something; c) the author’s metaphors (individual, individual-stylistic, artistic, speech) are individual and are not fixed by ordinary explanatory dictionaries: Rolls of lanterns, and on the chimney, like an owl drowned in feathers, unsociable smoke (B. Pasternak), the sun of herbs (K. Balmont). Οʜᴎ are an object of study primarily for literary criticism, and not for lexicology.
Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object, phenomenon, action instead of the name of another object, phenomenon, action, based on their contiguity (external or internal). Metonymy can be based on temporal (time), spatial, situational, logical, etc.
Posted on ref.rf
connections. The connection must be: a) between the object and the material from which the object is made /collect porcelain/; b) between the contents and the containing / drink a glass /; c) between the author and his work /to love Pelevin, to read Ulitskaya/; d) between the place and the people in this place /the audience was silent/; e) between the action and the place of action /bus stop/, etc. It is worth saying that for the name, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ has as its source the name of a person, and also the term is used for this person himself eponym. Eponyms include, for example, the words cardan 'a device for suspending a body, ensuring its immobility when the supports swing' (named after the Italian mathematician of the 16th century G. Cardano), pockets 'interfaces at the junction of an aircraft wing and fuselage to prevent air separation swirls' (named after the American scientist T. Carman, cardigan 'a knitted women's or men's woolen jacket with long sleeves without a collar' (named after the Earl of Cardigan: James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan /1797-1868/).
Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche - co-impliation, correlation) - transfer of meaning from one word to another, based on the use of the name of the whole instead of the name of the part, the general instead of the particular and vice versa: beard (about a man with a beard), nut (tree or shrub and its fruit) , murrelet (reindeer up to two months old and its fur). Quite often, synecdoche is considered a type of metonymy.
The grounds due to which the names were transferred may be lost or obscured, which leads to the appearance of homonyms. So, for example, the word rook (chess piece) arose through metaphorical transfer (there was chess, where this figure was made in the form of a boat, ᴛ.ᴇ. boats), and the word leggings (type of clothing) is based on metonymy (material → clothing made from it).
If, from the point of view of modern language, the meaning of the word is non-derivative (why is it customary to call a table /piece of furniture/ a table?), then we have an unmotivated meaning of the word. The motivated word (meaning) has a conscious internal form, a preserved meaning, on the basis of which the word in question arose. The loss of internal form for any reason is usually called de-etymologization. So, for example, the word flattery now has one direct, unmotivated meaning: “obsequious, hypocritical, often selfish praise,” but in the Old Russian language its original meaning was “cunning, deception,” on the basis of which the meaning in question arose. The word week has lost its meaning ‘Sunday’ (cf.
Posted on ref.rf
Belor.
Posted on ref.rf
Nyadzel), and therefore the word Monday lost its motivation.
Implementation free values limited only by the logical foundations of the external world: to close ‘to block, obscure’ - to close the view, to close with oneself, to quickly close, etc. The associated meaning of the word for its implementation requires a certain position, context: in the word close the meaning ‘to close’ is realized only with the words eyelids, lips, eyes. The following are distinguished: types of lexically non-free meanings:
A) syntactically determined meaning, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ the word appears only in a syntactic position unusual for it: wolf ‘about a person who has experienced a lot, accustomed to adversity, danger, experienced in some. business (usually in the function of a predicate)’: Arefiev is an old newspaper wolf (A. Kuprin).
b) structurally limited value, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is realized only in subordinating phrases of a certain model: the lexeme green receives the meaning 'unripe, unripe' only in combination with words denoting fruits, cereals, etc.: Yes green [grapes] – there are no ripe berries (I. Krylov ).
V) phraseologically related meaning manifests itself only when combined with supporting component words fixed by linguistic tradition, which leads to the formation of a stable phrase /vlagit (life, century, days), elderly (years, summers)/: We always persecute, now in exile I drag out my chained days (A. Pushkin ); ... the empress, out of respect for the merits and advanced years of her father, decided to pardon her criminal son... (A. Pushkin)
TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD" 2017, 2018.
Being an element of the general language system, nevertheless, it has sufficient independence. It has actually semantic, that is, specific properties inherent only to it, for example, different ways of nominating objects, concepts, phenomena, features according to the nature of their correlation with reality ( direct- indirect or portable), according to the degree of motivation ( non-derivative - derivative), according to the methods and possibilities of lexical compatibility ( free - unfree), by the nature of the functions performed ( nominative - expressive-synonymous).
By the method of nomination, that is, by the nature of the connection word meaning with the subject of objective reality, there are two types lexical meanings - direct, or basic, and indirect, or portable. Direct meaning named because the word that has it directly indicates an object (phenomenon, action, quality, and so on), that is, it is directly correlated with the concept or its individual characteristics. Main (or main) meaning of the word They usually call the one that is less determined than all other meanings by the properties of its compatibility. Direct meaning, acting as the main, stable nomination of the subject in the modern period of linguistic development, is also called primary.
Indirect (or portable) meaning a word is something whose appearance is due to the emergence of comparisons, associations that unite one object with another. figurative meaning appears as a result of transfer direct(main) designations item to a new item. figurative meanings are private, they are called secondary. figurative meanings, in turn, can be divided into figurative ones with extinct imagery (bow of a ship, wings of an airplane) and portable-shaped (heart of gold, stone face).
According to the degree of semantic motivation, two types are distinguished meaning of the word: non-derivative(unmotivated, primary) and derivative(that is, motivated by a primary, original meaning that is secondary). If you look at it from these positions meaning of the word scale, then all three of its meanings will turn out to be derivative, motivated. But the sequence and degree of their motivation are not the same: the main (direct) meaning motivated by direct, primary meaning of the word boil - “bubble, foam from the steam formed during strong heating”, A figurative meanings are derived from the basic meaning scale and are motivated by secondary figurative meanings of the original verb boil.
According to the degree of lexical compatibility there are free values And unfree. If the compatibility turns out to be relatively broad and independent, then such values are called free. For example, to free include meanings of words head, nose, eye; table, petal, spring; fairy tale, dispute, luck and many others. However, the “freedom” of lexical compatibility of such words is a relative concept, because it is limited by the subject-logical relations of words in the language. So, based on subject-logical connections, you cannot combine the word hand with words like funny, smart, deep and so on. And, nevertheless, the meanings of these (and many other) words from a lexical-semantic point of view can be called free.
To another group values turn on meanings of words, the lexical compatibility of which is limited not only by subject-logical relations, but also by linguistic ones. Similar values are called unfree. Among lexically unfree two groups stand out values words: phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned with a variety - constructively limited (or conditioned).
A phraseologically related meaning is one that is realized only under the conditions of certain combinations of a given word with a narrowly limited, stable range of lexical units. The connections of words in these combinations are no longer determined by subject-logical relations, but by the internal laws of the lexical system of the language. Yes, the word pitch black meaning "complete, absolutely hopeless" appears only when combined with words hell or darkness. The boundaries of phraseologically related meanings are narrower: the range of words in combination with which these meanings are realized is, as a rule, small, often reduced to one combination.
As a result of prolonged use only as part of narrowly limited combinations, some of these words lost their primary direct meaning and ceased to be perceived as nominative units. For them, the phraseologically related meaning became modern language basic, although indirect, but figurative. For example, get into trouble - "to find yourself in an unpleasant position" Where prosak (obsolete) - “spinning machine”, accidentally getting into which was fraught with trouble. Information about the primary direct meaning similar words can only be obtained through special etymological studies.
This is called syntactically conditioned figurative meaning, which appears in a word when it performs an unusual function in a sentence. So, the direct meaning of the word crow - "a bird of prey of the raven or corvid family, average size, with black or gray plumage" implemented when the word is used as a subject or object: Crows should be classified as beneficial birds rather than harmful ones. figurative meaning of the word crow - “(colloquial) slow, clumsy person, rotten, simpleton” developed in the word in the process of its use in a function that is clearly not characteristic of a noun - a predicate. This meaning is syntactically determined.
A variety of syntactic meanings are the so-called structurally limited (or conditional) meanings. These include values, which are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word mirage the main thing is the terminological meaning - "optical phenomenon". In a construction with a noun in the genitive case (in the function of definition), this word acquires figurative meaning - "a deceptive ghost, an illusion, something created by the imagination": mirage of love.
Based on the nature of the naming functions performed, two types can be distinguished: lexical meanings of the word: actually nominative And expressive-synonymous.
Nominative meanings words can be called those that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities, actions, and so on. In the semantic structure of words with a similar meaning, as a rule, additional features (for example, evaluative ones) are not reflected. However, during subsequent use, these signs may appear. Nominative will meaning of words meaninglessness, be proud, move, food, horse, horse, burden, travel, retribution, confusion and many others. Each of them is directly related to the concept and names it.
Expressive-synonymous meaning is called one in which the main element is an emotional-evaluative feature. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-evaluative names of already existing nominations (nonsense, ascend, trudge, voyage). Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.
So, the typology of lexical meanings is based on three main types of relationships: conceptual-subject connection, the relationship of words to each other and the degree of motivation of the meaning. Identifying different types of lexical meanings helps to gain a deeper understanding of the semantic structure of a word, that is, to understand the nature of systemic intra-word connections.
Semantic structure of a word. Types of lexical meanings of a word. Polysemy.
Purpose of the lecture: Consider the semantic structure of a word as a multifaceted phenomenon that combines different types of meanings, as well as the ways of semantic development of the word.
Plan:
1. Semantic structure of the word.
2. Determination of the lexical meaning of a word.
3. Types of lexical meanings of a word.
4. Ambiguity.
Grammar and word formation ( This is the new generalized meaning that appears in a word as a result of a word-formation act. It is inherent in a whole class of words united by a common affix (for example, the words brownish “brownish”, reddish “reddish”, greenish “greenish” are united by the meaning of a small degree of quality) values They oppose the lexical as linguistic meanings inherent in a whole class of words, individual meanings inherent in one specific word.
Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content (i.e., the correlation established by our thinking between the sound complex, the concept and the object denoted by this complex), in which the idea of the subject is revealed, accepted by the language community and consolidated in the process of social communication, i.e. has become a fact of language.
The lexical meaning of a word is central, while the grammatical and word-formative meanings are peripheral (there is, however, another point of view, according to which the relationship between these meanings is exactly the opposite).
The lexical meaning of a word is largely determined by its place in the lexical system of the language, i.e. its connections with other words of the language.
In language, a word is included in four main types of relationships:
1) attitude towards objects and phenomena of the external world;
2) attitude to the concept;
3) attitude towards a person’s feelings and desires;
4) attitude to other words of the language.
In accordance with this, the following types are distinguished in the structure of the lexical meaning of a word:
1) denotative meaning: the object denoted by the word (in the broad sense) in linguistics is called denotation (< лат. denotatum "обозначенное"), поэтому денотативное значение - это значение, которое характеризует соотнесенность слова с обозначаемым предметом (ситуацией), т.е. это отношение phonetic word to a specific designated object, object of speech (table, door)
2) significative meaning: the concept denoted by the word (in the broad sense) in linguistics is called significative (< лат. significatum "обозначаемое", франц. signification "смысл"), поэтому сигнификативное значение - это отношение слова к понятию, обобщенному мысленному представлению о классе объектов (table «род мебели, на которую ставят или кладут что-либо при работе, еде и т.д.»)
3) emotive (or connotative
4) structural meaning is a correlative meaning, indicating the relationship of a word to other words of the language, with which it can enter into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships; in this regard, two subtypes of this meaning are distinguished:
a) syntagmatic structural meaning- this is the meaning that characterizes the linear relationships of the word, i.e. its ability to enter into relationships with other lexical units, for example, the word to drink can only be combined with words denoting liquid (water, tea, milk);
b) paradigmatic structural meaning- this is a meaning that characterizes the relationship of a word included in a certain class (in the synonymous series (to ask, to inquire “to ask”), in the antonymic group (right “correct” - wrong “wrong”)).
The lexical meaning of a word is formed in our consciousness on the basis of direct or associative connections of the sound complex with an object and phenomenon of the external world.
Depending on the nature of the relationship of a word with the object it denotes, a distinction is made between the main (or direct) and derivative (or figurative) meanings of the word.
Basic (or direct) lexical meaning is a meaning directly related to the reflection of phenomena of objective reality. This is the primary, stylistically neutral meaning of the word, which has no imagery, which practically does not depend on the context and which immediately arises in consciousness speaker when pronouncing a word out of context (cf. the meanings of the words a book, a pen, etc.).
In progress historical development language, the lexical meaning of a word can often become more complicated. Along with the designation of a specific object or phenomenon, the word begins to be used as the name of another object of the external world (especially if it has any connections with the first general properties or signs). This is how a figurative or derivative meaning arises.
Derived (figurative) meaning- this is the secondary meaning of the word, acquired by it in the process of historical development of the language and functioning along with the direct one.
The semantic structure of individual words can be quite complex.
It can consist of several types of lexical meaning of a word (the so-called lexical-semantic variants), among which there are basic (or primary, direct) meanings and figurative (secondary) meanings, cf., for example, the meaning of the word Fire: the direct, basic meaning of this word “Flame” is a flame, but there are several figurative ones: “destructive fire” (cf. a forest fire), “burning material in a stove, fireplace” (cf. There is a fire in the next room), “firing from a weapon” (cf. .to open fire) strong feeling, inspiration" (cf. a speech lacking ["læk??] fire "not bright enough, speech"), etc.).
Unlike the main meaning, figurative meaning is always contextual.
/ 4
4) The set of lexical meanings of words, considered from the point of view of their connections and derivation.
The following types of lexical meanings (LM) are distinguished:
1) main LZ;
2) LZ derivative;
3) direct LZ;
4) figurative lexical meaning.
“...A great misconception,” says F. de Saussure, “is the view of the linguistic element simply as the connection of a certain sound with a certain concept. To define it in this way would mean isolating it from the system of which it is part; this would lead to the false idea that it is possible to begin with linguistic elements and from their sum to build a system, whereas in fact it is necessary, starting from the aggregate whole, through analysis to reach the elements contained in it" (31). But in the language system, speech sounds are significant and meaningful. This was also pointed out by W. Humboldt. True, “only in rare cases,” said W. Humboldt, “can one recognize a certain connection between the sounds of a language and its spirit. However, even in adverbs (of the same language), minor changes in vowels, which little change the language in general, can rightfully be attributed to state of mind of the people (Gemutbeschaffenheit)" (32). According to W. Humboldt, the connection between sound form and internal linguistic laws reaches its highest limit in their penetration with each other (33).
The sexual meanings of a word are subsumed under grammatical categories. A word represents an internal, constructive unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. The definition of the lexical meaning of a word already includes indications of the grammatical characteristics of the word. The grammatical forms and meanings of a word either collide or merge with its lexical meanings. This close connection, this deep interaction of lexical and grammatical forms and meanings were emphasized in lately all major linguists, especially persistently Schuchardt (43), N.Ya. Marr (44), L.V. Shcherba (45) and A. Belich (46). The semantic contours of a word, the internal connection of its meanings, its semantic scope are determined by the grammatical structure of the language. Ed. Sapir subtly noted: “In an analytical language, the primary meaning falls to the sentence, while the word is of less interest. In a synthetic language... concepts are grouped more tightly together, words are more richly furnished, but at the same time there is a general tendency to limit the range of specific meaning within narrower limits single word" (47). It is clear that both the semantic scope of the word and the methods of combining meanings are different in words of different grammatical categories. Thus, the semantic structure of a verb is wider than that of a noun, and the range of its meanings is more flexible. The meanings of qualitative adjectives and adverbs are even more flexible. The breadth of phrasal connections of a word also depends on its grammatical structure.
5) Types of lexical meanings of words
1. Types of lexical meanings of words according to the nature of the connection of the word with objects, phenomena of reality (by the method of naming): direct and figurative.
2. Types of lexical meanings of words by origin: motivated and unmotivated.
1. According to the nature of the connection of the word with objects, phenomena of reality (by the method of naming) differentiate direct And portable meanings. Direct the meaning of a word directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as the main meaning in modern language. For example: bread – food product baked from flour.
Portable the meaning of a word is determined by associative connections that unite one object, attribute, process, etc. with another. For example: bread meaning the same as food - figurative meaning in relation to meaning food product baked from flour , but in turn, it is the initial value for another figurative meaning: bread as a means of subsistence, income.
2. Based on their origin, lexical meanings are distinguished between motivated and unmotivated.
Unmotivated (primary) the meaning of the word is non-derivative for the modern Russian language (the word bread literally).
Motivated (secondary) the meaning of a word is derivative in semantic (and/or word-formation) terms. Motivated words have an internal form: they retain the semantic components of the motivating meaning in the motivated one. So, for example, the word bread in two figurative meanings it has common semantic components: food, product, made from flour, baked / baked .
3. Based on the compatibility of words with other words, free and non-free lexical meanings are distinguished.
Free, direct, or nominative, are those meanings that are realized in combination with many words. Words with free meanings can practically be combined with all words that express correlative concepts. So, for example, the word wooden in meaning "made of wood" can be combined with many nouns: wooden house, wooden floor, wooden roof, wooden bed etc. But it cannot be combined with words denoting unrelated concepts. So, combinations are impossible wooden iron, wooden book etc., since such relationships are impossible in reality.
Unlike free non-free lexical meanings appear only under certain conditions. Non-free values are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. TO phraseologically related These include lexical meanings that are combined with strictly defined words. For example, the word has a phraseologically related meaning disgust in meaning “to prevent something from happening, to prevent” realized only in combination with a small number of words, such as danger, trouble, misfortune, suffering, threat (to avert danger, to avert trouble etc.). The implementation of the considered meaning of the word is unacceptable in combinations of the type avert joy, avert events. Words languish, prodigal, pregnant can only be used in stable phrases drag out a miserable existence, a prodigal son, fraught with consequences.
They differ from the types of meanings considered (free and phraseologically related) syntactically determined meanings. The realization of meanings of this type is determined not by the connections of a word with certain words, but by its syntactic function. For example, the word donkey in an abusive sense (about a stupid, stupid, stubborn person) can only be used as a predicate: For example, our head is perfectdonkey ! (I. Turgenev). The meanings of words are also syntactically determined head, light, crow, hat etc., if they express an assessment of a person: Break away, smart one, you are delirious,head ?; Sing, little light , don't be ashamed! (I. Krylov); Oh you,crow ! Etc.
The peculiarity of words with syntactically determined meanings lies in their expressive-emotional coloring, positive or negative character (head, well done– positive assessment and hat, donkey– negative). Syntactically determined meanings are always figurative.
Often the same word can have all three types of meanings. For example: He movedhat on the back of my head, put my hands in my pockets(E. Nikolaeva) – free meaning of the word; What a disaster! We’ll come, send you some article, and that’s it.in a hat (F. Reshetnikov) – phraseologically related meaning; You're even in the gamehat ! (P. Pavlenko) – syntactically determined meaning.
In addition to the indicated main types of lexical meanings, many words in the Russian language have shades of meaning that are closely related to one or another meaning, but still differ from it. For example: word scale has as its main direct meaning – “foam, sediment formed on the surface of a liquid as a result of boiling” and its shade: “solid sediment on the walls of boilers or other vessels in which something boils evaporates”. Despite the apparent semantic identity, these meanings differ from each other, but not enough to be considered independent.
6) The paradigmatics of a language can be defined as a set and system of variants of its units and categories allowed by the structure of the language - variants, from among which the author of speech at each step of speech development makes a choice of only one.
The syntagmatics of a language can be defined as a set and system of combinational capabilities inherent in linguistic units and categories of language and their implementation in the speech process. Like paradigmatics, syntagmatics is characteristic of all levels language structure. But if syntagmatics and paradigmatics are two forms of functioning of all units of language at all its levels, it follows that there are morphological syntagmatics and syntactic paradigmatics.
Between language units there are paradigmatic, syntagmatic and hierarchical
relationship.
Paradigmatic relations - unite language units into groups, categories, categories. On
paradigmatic relations are based on, for example, a consonant system, a declension system,
synonymous series. When using language, paradigmatic relationships allow you to choose
the desired unit, as well as form forms and words by analogy.
Syntagmatic rel. - rel. units, location linearly, for example, in a stream of speech. They are defined as
rel. horizontally. These include the laws of connection of word compatibility. (Syntagma-sequence of two
or more languages units connected by def. type of connection.) Synth. rel. combine linguistic units into
their usual consistent, they appear in three forms: 1) laws of grammar. compatibility - for example, in Russian
you can't say "give me the phone book", adj. must have the same form of the genus number and
case. 2) the law of lexical compatibility - Wrong. say "dark brown eyes." 3) laws
phonetic connections - The ability of a word to connect with other words based on its lexical meanings is called
semantic valency.
Hierarchical relationships - less complex units of lower levels are included in units of higher ones.
Rel. between heterogeneous elements of different levels of language system. their subordination to each other as private
and general, generic and specific, lower and higher.
21. Types of lexical meanings of a word.
1. Types of lexical meanings of words according to the nature of the connection of the word with objects, phenomena of reality (by the method of naming): direct and figurative.
2. Types of lexical meanings of words by origin: motivated and unmotivated.
3. Types of lexical meanings of words according to the compatibility of words with other words: free and non-free
The type of lexical meaning of a word is determined by the aspect of its consideration: 1) how the phenomenon of reality is named; 2) the word is not motivated or motivated in naming (nominating) its meaning; 3) how the word functions in the language - is it free or limited in its compatibility. In accordance with this, three types of lexical meaning of a word are distinguished.
1. on the nature of the connection of a word with objects, phenomena of reality (according to the method of naming), a distinction is made between direct and figurative meanings. The direct meaning of the word directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as the main meaning in modern language. For example: bread is a food product baked from flour.
The figurative meaning of a word is determined by associative connections that unite one object, attribute, process, etc. with another. For example: bread in the meaning is the same as food - a figurative meaning in relation to the meaning of a food product baked from flour, but in turn, it is the initial meaning for another figurative meaning: bread as a means of subsistence, earnings.
2. Based on their origin, lexical meanings are distinguished between motivated and unmotivated.
The unmotivated (primary) meaning of the word is non-derivative for the modern Russian language (the word bread in its literal meaning).
The motivated (secondary) meaning of a word is derivative in semantic (and/or word-formation) terms. Motivated words have an internal form: they retain the semantic components of the motivating meaning in the motivated one. So, for example, the word bread in two figurative meanings has common semantic components: food, product, made from flour, baked / baked.
3. Based on the compatibility of words with other words, free and non-free lexical meanings are distinguished.
Free, direct, or nominative are those meanings that are realized in combination with many words. Words with free meanings can practically be combined with all words that express correlative concepts. So, for example, the word wooden meaning “made of wood” can be combined with many nouns: wooden house, wooden floor, wooden roof, wooden bed, etc. But it cannot be combined with words denoting unrelated concepts. Thus, the combinations wooden iron, wooden book, etc. are impossible, since such relationships are impossible in reality.
Unlike free ones, non-free lexical meanings appear only under certain conditions. Non-free meanings are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined. Phraseologically related lexical meanings include those that are combined with strictly defined words. For example, the phraseologically related meaning of the word avert in the sense of “to prevent something from happening, to prevent” is realized only in combination with a small number of words, such as danger, trouble, misfortune, suffering, threat (to avert danger, to avert trouble, etc. .). The implementation of the considered meaning of the word is unacceptable in combinations such as avert joy, avert events. The words eke out, prodigal, fraught can only be used in stable phrases eke out a miserable existence, prodigal son, fraught with consequences.
Syntactically determined meanings differ from the considered types of meanings (free and phraseologically related). The realization of meanings of this type is determined not by the connections of a word with certain words, but by its syntactic function. For example, the word donkey in an abusive sense (about a stupid, stupid, stubborn person) can only be used as a predicate: For example, our head is a perfect donkey! (I. Turgenev). The meanings of the words head, light, crow, hat, etc. are also syntactically conditioned if they express an assessment of a person: O, smart one, are you delirious, head?; Sing, little light, don’t be ashamed! (I. Krylov); Oh you crow! Etc.
The peculiarity of words with syntactically determined meanings lies in their expressive-emotional connotation of a positive or negative nature (head, well done - positive assessment and hat, donkey - negative). Syntactically determined meanings are always figurative.
Often the same word can have all three types of meanings. For example: He pushed his hat to the back of his head, put his hands in his pockets (E. Nikolaeva) - free meaning of the word; What a disaster! We’ll arrive, send some article, and it’s in the bag (F. Reshetnikov) - phraseologically related meaning; You're even wearing a hat in the game! (P. Pavlenko) – syntactically determined meaning.
In addition to the indicated main types of lexical meanings, many words in the Russian language have shades of meaning that are closely related to one or another meaning, but still differ from it. For example: the word scale has as its main direct meaning - “foam, sediment formed on the surface of a liquid as a result of boiling” and its connotation: “solid sediment on the walls of boilers or other vessels in which something boils, evaporates.” Despite the apparent semantic identity, these meanings differ from each other, but not enough to be considered independent.
Thus, highlighting the types of lexical meanings of words helps to realize the possibility of analyzing the semantics of a word from different points of view, and to study more deeply the role of the word in the language system.
Lexical meaning of the word. Types of lexical meanings
Lexical meaning- correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that highlight this item, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.
All words in the Russian language have meaning. A word can have one lexical meaning (unambiguous words): syntax, tangent, cap, secret, etc. Words that have two, three or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic: sleeve, warm. There are ambiguous words among all independent parts speech, except numerals. Define specific meaning polysemantic word possible only in the context: star - stars lit up in the sky; screen star; starfish.
The lexical meaning can be explained:
descriptively, by characterizing the distinctive features of an object, action, phenomenon;
through a single root word;
selection of synonyms.
The lexical meaning of the word is given in explanatory dictionaries.
The object of reality itself is called a referent (denotation), it is thought by. display is a conceptual meaning.
Under lex. meaning is understood as the implementation of a concept by means of the definitional language system, accompanied by an additional characteristic reflecting accompanying ideas, as well as emotions and stylistic coloring words.
The word appears a necessary condition existent concepts, but not every word is based on a concept, although every word has a meaning. There are no proper concepts at the heart of names, they do not convey concepts, but they have meanings due to correlation with some person, phenomenon, geographer. place, etc. Interjections do not indicate anything at all; they express feelings (fear, despondency).
The problem of direct and figurative meaning: in the direct - the direct name (head - head, part of the body), figurative - head, chief, chapter. Also - situational meaning, depending on the situation (wasp - wasp and sometimes - evil).
Word compatibility. Words are combined with other words. The ability to combine depends on the lexical meaning, as well as on the norms. Any word refers to one or another part of speech, which is defined by the presence of three of its features: 1) the type of concept expressed, 2) its inherent grammatical forms, 3) its syntactic functions. beautiful - expresses a concept/quality, has degrees of comparison (2), function - definition (3).
Context. In connected speech, words appear in connection with other words. It is the context that concretizes and clarifies the meaning of a word. It is in context that a word reveals its meaning and shades of meaning. K. can change the meaning of a word, give new shades of meaning, etc. Thus, the meaning of the word opr-sya is determined by the context.
The core of lexical meaning is in most significant words mental mapping a particular phenomenon of reality, an object (or a class of objects) in a broad sense (including actions, properties, relationships). Denotation(referent) – an object denoted by a word. Denotation display– conceptual meaning of the word ( designat).
Words can be denotated:
Objects, events, properties, actions of the world around us in nature and society;
Feelings, sensations inner world human, moral and logical assessments and concepts developed by the development of spiritual culture, ideology;
Elements of language, processes occurring during the functioning of language in speech, actions carried out in the process of learning a language.
In addition to the core, the lexical meaning of a word includes the so-called connotations(connotations) – emotional, expressive, stylistic “additives” to the main meaning, giving the word a special coloring. In every language there are such significant words for which not an additional, but the main meaning is the expression of certain emotions (interjections) or the transmission of commands - incentives to certain actions (Stop! Sit down! Come in!).
Classification of types of lexical meaning:
1) diachronic(in terms of origin):
Etymological (earliest meaning);
Basic (which laid the foundation for others);
Derivative (separated from basic values);
Archaic (a meaning that has given way to the current meaning, but is still remnantly preserved in oral phrases);
2) synchronous(from a semantic point of view):
+ semantic:
Direct (nominative, nominative meaning, used to name an object even out of context: to run in one's head, mind (to spin in the head), to run the hazard (to be exposed to danger), to run in the blood (to enter flesh and blood), to run idle (run at idle), he had but one eye and the popular prejudice runs in favor of two (he has only one eye, but there is an opinion that it is better to have two)):
Specific;
Abstract (abstract meaning, indicating signs of quality in their abstraction from the subject);
Wide;
Distributive (meaning denoting concepts and being generic in relation to the main one);
Portable:
Metaphorical (transfer based on similarity);
Metonymic (transfer based on adjacency);
Central (the main meaning of a polysemantic word);
Peripheral (other values);
+ stylistic(area of use):
Neutral;
Stylistically colored:
Terminological;
Slang (money – bread, police – pigs, drunk – pissed, a stupid person – jerk, lavatory – loo, drink – a snort, drug-related – a fix, dope, grass, high, stoned, snow (heroin); prison - related – nick, nark, screw (warder)).
Grandma lane: slow lane; donuts: tires; motion lotion: fuel; five finger discount: stolen goods; ankle biters: children; eyeballs:headlights; super cola: beer; affirmative: yes;
Poetic;
Jargons;
Professionalism;
Vernacular;
Colloquial: literary-~; familiarly-~; slang, etc.
Quick – alive, living (basic), mobile (derivative). The quick and the dead (archaic, etymological). Quick silver (mercury), quick sand (quick sand). Quick – quick (concrete, nominative) in S; quick (abstract) in t: quick answer, reaction. Quick ear - good hearing; quick wit - quickly grasping. Head – head, chief (metaphorical, figurative); ship – a ship, any non-rowing (wide) vessel.
^ Spoken speech uses additional non-linguistic means, gestures, facial expressions, pauses, intonation. It is distinguished by an abundance of broad semantics, the presence of a small group of verbs, the use of figurative words, intensive word formation (neologisms), the use of words with diminutive suffixes, onomatopoeia and the presence of native vocabulary.
^ Book vocabulary, as a rule, is monologue, has no contact with a person, is discontinuous in time, is characterized by a variety of vocabulary and a careful selection of synonyms.
Term– word or set phrase, which serves to name a concept specific to a certain field of knowledge. The meaning of a word has clear semantic boundaries. The term may not represent a separate word, but be one of the meanings of a polysemantic word: frame - frame, framework, truss, frame. Term is the highest level of a name. A term acquires a figurative meaning when used in an unusual genre, and in this case there is a new use, not a meaning. If such a transfer is fixed in the language, then the word is no longer a term, but a popular word: antenna, broadcast, receiver, microscope. The transformation of terms makes extensive use of Greek combined elements. A significant part of modern terms are not words that actually exist in Latin or Greek languages, but by new formations created from elements of these languages: auto (self), autointoxication (self-poisoning), micro -> micrometer, microscope; scope (see); ellipses, homophone, semantic, affix, prefix, suffix.
^ Book Words(Bookish Words): many borrowed words, especially adjectives (original English nouns in vocabulary have no other derived adjectives except borrowed ones): mouth – oral, nose – nasal, lip – labial, home – domestic, sun – solar, town – urban.
Poetic vocabulary:use in another environment will look ridiculous. In poetry, poetic vocabulary creates a mood of solemnity. These are native English words, separated in their meanings: to slay - to kill, ere - before, steed - horse. Stylistic demarcation occurs between variants of one word: evening – even, morning – morn, never – ne’er, often – oft; brine (sea), brow (brow), billow (wave), couch (bed), firmament (sky), flood (river), maiden (girl), woe (grief), to behold (see), chant (chant) , deem (to think), don (to dress), fair (beautiful), jocund (cheerful).