Pushkin's era in Russian culture. The greatness of Russia in the images of art of the Pushkin era
Plan
open lesson.
Topic : "The Pushkin era in the novel "Eugene Onegin".
Target : the lesson is informative - research.
BUT) Correspondence excursion to the theater of the times of A.S. Pushkin
(Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg).
B) We attend ballet, drama performance, opera and we get interesting information from the life of artists, get acquainted with the customs of that time, plunge into the era and notice various important historical trifles;
AT ) Enjoy music, singing, dancing .
G) Thinking over the issue.
Equipment : interactive board, computer, audio and video disks, synthesizer.
Note : All presentations are illustrated on an interactive whiteboard. (Presentation attached)
The lesson turns into a kind of project - a visit to the old Russian theater in order to educate the aesthetic worldview. We limit our topic only to visiting the theater, we work strictly according to the text of Pushkin.
During the classes .
Organizing time.
The main part (declaration of the topic and purpose of the lesson).
teacher's word : “We can trace the era of Pushkin by analyzing any episode from the novel “Eugene Onegin”. For example, we can follow the heroes to the province, to the Larin estate. We can take a walk along the Nevsky with Onegin. We can go to the ball. But we decided to make a trip to the Pushkin Theatre. Imagine that, perhaps, the poet himself is also sitting somewhere nearby and also watching the play.
Pay attention on the portrait of A.S. Pushkin by O. Kiprensky and for the years of the poet's life - 1799-1837.
We listen to the recording . I. Smoktunovsky reads an excerpt from the novel, which describes Onegin's visit to the theater. We focus on the intonations of the actor and conclude that Pushkin describes this episode rather ironically. This is very strange in the sense that the theater is a temple of art and, of course, every educated person treats the theater with great respect and great love, including the poet. Why does Pushkin write so sarcastically about the theater? We will try to find an answer to this problematic question during the lesson.
An excerpt from the novel:
Onegin in the theater.
XVII
More glasses of thirst asks
Pour hot fat cutlets,
But the sound of a breguet informs them,
That a new ballet has begun.
The theater is an evil legislator,
Fickle Admirer
charming actresses,
Honorary citizen backstage,
Onegin flew to the theater
Where everyone, breathing freely,
Ready to clap entrechat,
Sheath Phaedra, Cleopatra,
call Moina (in order
Just to be heard).
XVIII
Magic edge! There in the old days
Satyrs bold ruler,
Fonvizin shone, friend of freedom,
And the capricious Knyazhnin;
There Ozerov involuntary tribute
People's tears, applause
I shared with the young Semyonova;
There our Katenin resurrected
Corneille is a majestic genius;
There he brought out the sharp Shakhovskoy
Noisy swarm of their comedies,
There Didlo was crowned with glory,
There, there under the shadow of the wings
My young days flew by.
XIX
My goddesses! What do you? Where are you?
Hear my sad voice:
Are you all the same? Other le maidens,
Replacing, did not replace you?
Will I hear your choruses again?
Will I see the Russian Terpsichore
Soul filled flight?
Or a dull look will not find
Familiar faces on a boring stage
And, aiming at an alien light
Disappointed lorgnette,
Fun indifferent spectator,
Silently I will yawn
And remember the past?
The theater is already full; lodges shine;
Parterre and chairs - everything is in full swing;
In heaven they splash impatiently,
And, having risen, the curtain rustles.
Brilliant, half-air,
obedient to the magic bow,
Surrounded by a crowd of nymphs
Worth Istomin; she is,
One foot touching the floor
Another slowly circles
And suddenly a jump, and suddenly it flies,
It flies like fluff from the mouth of Eol;
Now the camp will soviet, then it will break
And he beats his leg with a quick leg.
XXI
Everything is clapping. Onegin enters,
Walks between the chairs on the legs,
Double lorgnette slanting induces
On the bed of unknown ladies;
I looked at all the tiers,
I saw everything: faces, headwear
He is terribly dissatisfied;
With men from all sides
Bowed, then on stage
I looked in great confusion,
Turned away - and yawned,
And he said: “It’s time for everyone to change;
I endured ballets for a long time,
But I'm tired of Didlo."
XXII
More cupids, devils, snakes
They jump and make noise on the stage;
More tired lackeys
They sleep on fur coats at the entrance;
Haven't stopped stomping yet
Blow your nose, cough, hiss, clap;
Still outside and inside
Lanterns are shining everywhere;
Still, vegetating, the horses are fighting,
Bored with your harness
And the coachmen, around the lights,
They scold the gentlemen and beat them in the palm of their hands, -
And Onegin went out;
He goes home to get dressed.
Heading - "Living Dictionary ". The student worked additionally with explanatory dictionaries and dictionaries of obsolete words. She communicates with her classmates in the form of a lively conversation. It turns out that children find it difficult to answer questions about what a breguet, parterre, harness, coachman, entresha, etc. are. We conclude: the novel should be read using dictionaries and comments, for example, Yu.M. Lotman.
Teacher: “Theatrical genres were at that time, as now, the most diverse, but we will focus on the three main ones: ballet, drama and opera. Note that all these types of theatrical action are called performances.
Moving on to the musical-dramatic genre – ballet . Student, using the encyclopedia, he gives us brief information about the history of ballet (a brief description of the genre).
Teacher: summarizes the biography of Avdotya Istomina, the greatest ballerina of Pushkin's time. (Years of life and photos, see the presentation). A brief exchange of impressions: the image of a ballerina two hundred years ago and today.
Pupil talks about the features of A. Istomina's dance.
9.Speech plan :
1. The path of a ballerina to glory.
2. A story about the features of the dance by A. Istomina.
3. Pointe shoes.
4. Pushkin on the virtuosity of a ballerina.
5. Comments on the slides.
Response text : "Pushkin's Dictionary of the Language" indicates that Terpsichore is "the muse of dances in Greek mythology, a symbol of dance" and that in common usage this word means a ballerina. By "Russian Terpsichore" Pushkin means a certain actress well known to him. The biographer of Istomina writes: “The contemporaries called Istomina the goddess of dance, the Russian Terpsichore. In her flight dance, the best features of the national dance school were expressed. The theatrical audience highly appreciated the ballets of Charles Didelot, who praised the choreographer of Pushkin's time. And it is no coincidence that in connection with Istomina Pushkin mentions the names of Terpsichore and Eol. In 1808, nine-year-old Istomina first appeared on stage in the ballet Zephyr and Flora. Together with other pupils of the Imperial Theatrical School, she made up the painting group at the end of the performance. When the performance was resumed, Istomina danced the part of Flora, and this role became central to her repertoire. Criticism and the audience met her invariably with unanimous delight.
Back to the stanzaXXchapters of the first. Istomina's dance is depicted both very concretely and at the same time in a generalized way. Istomina was famous, among other qualities, for grandiosity and aplomb. Istomina performs a jump and a flight. In addition to flying hallmark Romantic choreography was developed finger technique. The outstanding choreographer notes the organic connection between the flight of the dance, finger technique and soft plie. Romantic dance is characterized by aspiration up, up, towards the sky, away from the earth, it was in this dance that dance on pointe won dominance.
Pointe dance in modern meaning term, i.e. at your fingertips, has become a staple of women's classical dance. Oddly enough, this major reform was not clearly recorded by choreographers or theater critics.
It seems to us that Istomina at the beginning of her career, at the turn of the 10-20s, danced on high half-toes, in moments of the highest inspiration rising to her full toe.
The words "semi-airy", "touching" especially testify to the unusual sophisticated finger technique. It was she who, along with flight, was remembered by the poet and reflected in his poems.
Pushkin's thinking was multilayered and multidirectional. The image of Istomina in his novel absorbed both youthful passion for a young woman, beautiful and talented, and unshakable respect for cultural tradition, and rapture with the artistic perfection of ballet.
10. Conclusion: the ballet of the times of A.S. Pushkin was simply magnificent!
11. Let's move on to drama . The student, using the encyclopedia, summarizes the history of the drama.
12. Pupil tells about the fate of the greatest actress of the time of A.S. Pushkin, Ekaterina Semyonovna Semyonova.
Presentation plan:
1. Origin of E. Semyonova.
2. The manner of the game.
3. Information from the personal life of the actress.
4. Pushkin about Semyonova's talent.
5. Comments on the slides.
Response text:
Ekaterina Semyonovna Semyonova, born a peasant woman, was born on November 7, 1786. Most likely, her father was a high-ranking owner of serfs. How her and her sister Nymphodora's childhood passed and how they ended up in theater school is unknown. It is only obvious that the beautiful sisters were not at all similar to each other. “Nature endowed her with all the means that an artist can shine,” he wrote inXIXcentury biographer A.A. Yartsev. - She represented the perfect type of ancient Greek beauty and for tragic roles was the ideal of female beauty. According to a contemporary, her strict, noble profile resembled ancient cameos: a straight proportional nose with a small hump, brown hair, dark blue eyes bordered by eyelashes, a moderate mouth - all this together had a charming effect on everyone. Many poets were captivated by the beauty and talent of the young Semyonova. Among them was Konstantin Batyushkov, who sent passionate poetic lines to the actress. In love with her without memory, the poet considered her an ideal, a “goddess of beauty”, who somehow descended to earth by some miracle. As for the actress herself, she lived in an atmosphere of love and worship, which seemed to her the norm, a natural tribute to her talent.
The actress was patronized by Prince Ivan Alekseevich Gagarin, a rich man, a connoisseur of arts and horses, a theatergoer and a frequenter of horse races. Being a widower, the prince had four children with the actress, whom he gave the surname Starodubsky. Gagarin, accustomed to patronizing actresses, did not consider it necessary to remain faithful to Ekaterina Semyonovna. True, this high-ranking patron constantly fussed about her. The authors and translators of plays in which his beloved played, as well as actors and directors who helped her learn roles, especially enjoyed his location.
In May 1828, the prince nevertheless married Ekaterina Semyonovna after fifteen years of marriage. Obviously, this was done for the sake of the situation of children. The prince did not recognize the last child, his son, without giving him his last name or title. So the brother of the princesses Gagarins remained forever Starodubsky, an unrecognized stepson in his own family. Even before her marriage, Semenova left the theater, from time to time appearing in amateur secular performances. In 1832 she buried the prince. Since that time, the life of Ekaterina Semyonovna passed in the close circle of her family and close friends.
The great Gagarin inheritance, inherited by Ekaterina Semyonovna, went to dust. Her eldest daughter Nadezhda left her husband for another person. The offended husband started a trial, accusing her of cohabiting with different people. He managed to achieve the imprisonment of an unfaithful wife in a monastery. Ekaterina Semyonovna went through the authorities for a long time, trying to rescue her Nadenka. All her means and last forces were spent on this.
In February 1849, the famous actress, who lived in a rented apartment, fell ill with typhoid fever. She passed away at the age of sixty-two...
13. Conclusion - dramatic action, without a doubt, was also exceptionally high!
14. Student gives the concept of opera.
15 . Teacher : “We have the opportunity to talk about two operas from the time of Pushkin. These are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera The Magic Flute and Mikhail Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar. For patriotic reasons, we naturally choose Glinka's opera.
16. Listening to a fragment from the opera (choir).
17. Conclusion: like the previous genres, the opera was an amazing sight!
18. Teacher: Guys, why does the poet write so ironically about the theater if all the most important theatrical genres were at their best?
Answer:
A.S. Pushkin about the theater.
The greatest transformations in the Russian theater are associated with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799-1837). And although the dramatic work of the great poet goes beyond the first quarterXIXcentury, the work of Pushkin the playwright should be considered in direct connection with the period of the Decembrist movement.
In the history of Russian culture, Pushkin begins a new era. He acts as a bold reformer of Russian literature - in poetry, prose, drama, a transformer of the Russian language itself. His theoretical generalizations define a new degree of Russian aesthetic thought. Pushkin becomes the pioneer of a new direction in Russian literature and art - realism.
Seeing in art a tremendous force capable of influencing the mindset of society, Pushkin both in creativity and in theoretical generalizations affirms the need for a deep ideological saturation of works of art.
Pushkin passionately preaches the ideas of an original theater and opposes imitation of Western models, against the adaptation of “everything Russian to everything European”: “Our tragedy, formed following the example of Rasinova’s tragedy, can we wean ourselves from our aristocratic habits? How can she move from her conversation, measured, important and decent, to the rude frankness of popular passions, to the freedom of judgment of the square?
Pushkin does not limit the nationality of theatrical art only to the general availability of spectacles: he considers drama as a study of the life of the people in the name of its improvement.
The great poet considered the theater the most important part of national culture. According to him, the theater should exist not for "a small limited circle of spectators", but for the broad masses, bringing advanced ideas to them. Gogol, Ostrovsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin and many other Russian writers and playwrights would further develop his view of the theater as a tribune.
Pushkin was a passionate theatre-goer, a sensitive spectator, who was appreciated by the best Russian actors even in his youth. The poet's love for the theater was an active love: together with a group of young lovers of theatrics, he constantly participated in discussions of performances, wrote profound articles.
The poet began to think about the theater in his lyceum years. On leaving the Lyceum, he greedily reached for his magical world backstage, to the secrets of the performing arts. He constantly visited the St. Petersburg Bolshoi Theater, whose extensive repertoire provided food for thought. The poet learned a lot of new things at the evenings with Shakhovsky, where there were discussions about stage skills and where he heard a lot from the lips of the actors themselves and the authors of plays, operas, ballets.
This is confirmed by the article "My remarks on the Russian theater" (1820), intended for reading at one of the meetings of the society. He considers the most valuable and remarkable in the game of Russian actors to be true excitement and inspiration, the ability to freely dispose of voice, gesture, plasticity, the ability to subordinate them to the creation of character. He especially appreciates the skill of E. Semyonova. Speaking of Russian tragedy, you are talking about Semyonova and, perhaps, only about her. Endowed with talent, beauty, a lively and true feeling, she was formed by herself. Semenova never had the original. The game is always free, always clear, the nobility of animated movements, the organ is clean, even, pleasant and often outbursts of true inspiration, all this belongs to her and is not borrowed from anyone. She adorned the imperfect creations of the unfortunate Ozerov and created the role of Antigone and Moina; she animated Lobanov's measured lines; in her lips we liked Katenin's Slavic poems, full of strength and fire, but rejected by taste and harmony. Semyonov has no rival. Biased talk and momentary sacrifices, brought news, ceased, she remained the sovereign queen of the tragic scene ... "
In Pushkin's articles, one can find a description of many Russian actors: A.S. Yakovlev, Ya.G. Bryansky, M.I. Valberkhova, ballerina A.I. Istomina and others.
The poet imagined Russian theatrical art as multi-genre. He did not ignore opera, ballet. Pushkin showed particular attention to the work of the reformer of the Russian stage MS Shchepkin. Shchepkin's art seemed to him so significant that he insisted on passing on the experience of a great artist to future generations. Pushkin wrote the first sentence of Shchepkin's Notes with his own hand.
A huge merit of Pushkin to the national theater is the creation of Russian folk drama. He not only theoretically substantiated the aesthetics of realism, but also created dramatic works based on the principles of this aesthetics.
19. We remember the stanzas , which tells about serfs waiting for their masters on the street at night in winter. It is clear that we are talking about serfdom.
20 . Our lesson comes to an end and we have prepared a surprise. (Performance by students of the song of girls from the opera "Eugene Onegin" by P.I. Tchaikovsky.)
21 . Listening to a fragment of the opera performed by the Turkish Choir.
III. Summarizing.
The end of the 10s-20s of the last century is often called the "Pushkin era". This is the heyday of that noble culture, the symbol of which in our history was Pushkin. Traditional values are being replaced by the influence of European enlightenment, but cannot win. And life goes on in an amazing interweaving and confrontation of the old and the new. The rise of freethinking and the ritual of secular life, dreams of "becoming on a par with the age" - and the patriarchal life of the Russian provinces, the poetry of life and its prose... Duality.
The combination of good and bad in the features of noble life - feature"Pushkin era".
In the novel "Eugene Onegin" we see a panorama of noble Russia, amazing in its expressiveness and accuracy. Detailed descriptions side by side with cursory sketches, full-length portraits are replaced by silhouettes. Characters, morals, way of life, way of thinking - and all this is warmed by the author's lively, interested attitude.
Before us is an era seen through the eyes of a poet, through the eyes of a man of high culture, high demands on life. Therefore, the pictures of Russian reality are imbued with sympathy and hostility,
Warmth and detachment. The author's image of the era, Pushkin's Russia, is created in the novel. There are features in it, endlessly Dear Pushkin, and traits hostile to his understanding of the true values of life.
Petersburg, Moscow and the provinces are three different faces of the Pushkin era in the novel. The main thing that creates the individuality and originality of each of these worlds is the way of life. It seems that even time flows differently in Russia: in St. Petersburg - quickly, and in Moscow - more slowly, in the provinces and completely leisurely. The high society of St. Petersburg, the noble society of Moscow, the provincial landlord "nests" live, as it were, apart from each other. Of course, the lifestyle of the "outback" differs sharply from the capital, but in the novel, the Moscow "roots" still stretch to the village, and Onegin from St. Petersburg turns out to be a neighbor of the Larins. With all the individuality of the capitals and provinces, the novel ultimately creates a single, integral image of the era, because in Moscow, and in St. Petersburg, and in the outback - noble Russia, the life of the educated class of Russian society.
Petersburg life appears before us brilliant and diverse. And her paintings are not limited in the novel to a critique of secular ritual, a secure and meaningless existence. In the life of the capital there is also poetry, the noise and brilliance of “restless youth”, “boiling of passions”, a flight of inspiration… All this is created by the presence of the author, his special sense of the world. Love and friendship are the main values of the author's "Petersburg" youth, the time that he recalls in the novel. “Moscow… how much has merged in this sound for the Russian heart!”
These famous Pushkin lines are probably better than all critical articles capable of conveying the spirit of ancient capital, the special warmth of her image in "Eugene Onegin". Instead of the St. Petersburg classic lines, the splendor of white nights, austere embankments and luxurious palaces, there is a world of churches, semi-rural estates and gardens. Of course, the life of Moscow society is no less monotonous than the life of St. Petersburg society, and even devoid of the splendor of the northern capital. But in Moscow customs there are those homely, patriarchal, primordially Russian features that soften the impression of "living rooms". For the author, Moscow and the city that did not submit to Napoleon are a symbol of Russian glory. In this city, a national feeling involuntarily wakes up in a person, a sense of his involvement in the national destiny.
What about the province? I live there and it's not European at all. The life of the Larin family is a classic example of provincial simplicity. Life is made up of ordinary sorrows and ordinary joys: housekeeping, holidays, mutual visits. Tatyana's name day differs from peasant name days, probably only in the food and the nature of the dances. Of course, even in the provinces, monotony can "capture" a person, turn life into existence. An example of this is the uncle of the protagonist. But still, how much in the rustic simplicity is attractive, how charming! Solitude, peace, nature... It is no coincidence that the author begins to dream of "old times", of new literature dedicated to unpretentious, natural human feelings.
The Pushkin era is now remembered as the "golden age" of Russian culture. The complex, dramatic features of the "Alexander" time seem almost imperceptible, recede before the magic of Pushkin's novel.
Essays on topics:
- During the Great Patriotic War, M. Isakovsky wrote one of his best works - a poem "To a Russian Woman", creating in it ...
The current is strong in the heart and brain
The high order of the past era,
What's with the vulgar modernity
I can't reconcile.
A.M. Zhemchuzhnikov, 1898
In 1926, Ivan Bunin wrote, not without irony: “In general, I have been wondering for a long time: why such an interest in Pushkin in recent decades, what does the “new” Russian literature have in common with Pushkin, is it possible to imagine anything more opposite than it - and Pushkin, that is, the embodiment of simplicity, nobility, freedom, health, intelligence, tact, measure, taste? grandfathers and all their distant days, Pushkin's days ... "(2), he answered himself:" Nothing for my childhood, adolescent dreams could be more beautiful, more poetic than her youth and the world where she grew up, where in the estates it was there are so many wonderful albums with Pushkin's poems, and how could I not adore Pushkin, and adore not just as a poet, but, as it were, my own, ours!
In fact, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, Pushkin's time for the first time occupied the highest step in the national historical and cultural hierarchy and, as a result, turned out to be one of the dominants in the artistic culture of the 1900s - 1910s. There are many reasons for this Then Russian social thought, in fact, for the first time, acquired the necessary temporal perspective in order to take a more detached and unbiased look at the culture and literature of its golden age (this name was born just then), and evaluate their original power and universal significance. In addition to a certain historical perspective, which made it possible to generalize the past and necessary for the birth of any retrospective aspiration, the Pushkin era attracted with its internal stability, which was especially important for an enlightened man of the Silver Age. The surrounding reality gave little reason for confidence in the future - the famine of 1891 and 1898, the Khodyn disaster of 1896, student riots and demonstrations of the 1890-1900s, the bloody and lost Russo-Japanese war of 1904, and finally, the revolutionary unrest of 1905-1906 . with considerable sacrifices, In this tragic sequence of events, Russian self-consciousness inevitably lost the strength of its foundations.
For the further full-fledged life of Russian culture, an antithesis to chaos and destruction was needed - its own timeless reference points, ideals, a certain cultural absolute. The choice was unconditional and impeccable - they were Pushkin and the high culture of his time. In the perception of the generation of I.A. Bunina, Pushkin, his younger contemporaries and the era itself were examples of true harmony, since such was seen only in “what had no direct connection with the historical moment, in which there was no anxiety,“ looking into the future ”, the tension of open struggle, the nakedness of the soul ."(four)
Pushkin's poems and prose, for the most part very far from contemporary political problems, spoke to the Russian heart perhaps about the most necessary - about love, honor, word, death, about the beauty of Russian nature. “We loved according to Pushkin and suffered according to Dostoevsky,” writer Mikhail Osorgin would later write about his youth at the turn of the century.(5)
In the bright genius of the poet, the national consciousness saw the long-awaited and unsuccessfully sought-for compromise of “Great Russian, Russian and Russian” embodied. At the same time, the "openness" of Pushkin's muse, the poet's assimilation of a vast layer of classical Western European culture did not deprive his creations of deep patriotism and national identity. Thanks to these qualities, Pushkin (tolstoy and Dostoevsky followed him) became, in the words of G.P. Fedotov, the true "crown of the Russian people" (7)
The appeal to Pushkin's time, which at first glance affected only literature and fine arts, was the result of global ideological shifts in Russian culture as a whole. Paradoxically, the discovery at the turn of the century of the charm of the Pushkin era was closely associated with the artistic worldview of symbolism (8), which was established in the late 1880s and lasted until the 1910s. It is impossible to explain this fact only by passeist aspirations or by the program cultural polyphony common for the era. In addition, the frankly retrospective Russian neoclassicism of the 1900-1910s, a direct embodiment of the aesthetics of Pushkin's time, had no direct analogues in the art of Western Europe. This means only one thing - this phenomenon had purely Russian roots. Let's try to identify them. Symbolism, which affirmed the primacy of creativity over knowledge, for the first time unconditionally knelt before works of art, and before their creators, created a special image of human art. A lone artist, deep in dialogue with himself, living as if outside the vulgar and boring everyday life, sometimes possessing strange habits, quirks and weaknesses, but soaring above reality in moments of inspiration, appeared before his contemporaries as a new prophet. During these moments, suddenly illuminating the abyss of human consciousness, the era, it would seem, forgave him everything, even seeing the manifestation of his gift in vices. Pushkin did not really fit this demonic image, but he was a genius, and therefore it is no coincidence that it was from the era of symbolism that all the vicissitudes of his life were in the focus of public attention.
The understanding of the world of symbolism was distinguished not only by reverence for the artist and refined poetic dreams, but also by clear apocalyptic motives, forebodings of the death of culture, soon everything. Lena catastrophe. In such emotional coloring the art of the Symbolist era was refracted by the most serious philosophical developments. These years have become a time of radical analytical reassessment of the entire cultural history of mankind, there has been a rejection of the previously unshakable idea of progressive community development, which was previously a source of social optimism but throughout the New Age. By the beginning of the era, the ideas of N.Ya. Danilevsky, the now recognized predecessor of Spengler and Toynbee, who first formulated the concept of the cultural and historical age of peoples, had already been made public; appeared at the turn of the century social philosophy S.L. Frank, the ideas of K. Leontiev, the visionary writings of A. Bogdanov, who painted a picture of the death of civilization due to exhaustion natural resources and degradation of culture.
O. Spengler's famous book "The Decline of Europe" (9) (published in 1918-1922) can be called a peculiar philosophical result of the era of symbolism, which, as you know, determined civilization as the final stage of any culture and thus predicted the end of Western European culture. Interpreting this phase as an obvious decadence and degeneration, he listed its characteristic features - emasculated philosophy, the displacement of religion by atheism, the replacement of spirituality by practical intellect, the transformation of money into a universal value, the transfer of life to a "world city", the loss of a living connection with the earth, the dominance of animal passions and sensibility in art. The philosopher built this quite recognizable series on the example of the Hellenic culture, replaced by the barbaric, in his opinion, Roman civilization. However, it is not difficult to discover its complete identity with the cultural situation in Russia at the turn of the century, which contemporaries themselves unanimously called decadence. Spengler's enumeration could well serve as a characteristic of the main themes of Russian literary and philosophical essays at the turn of the century.
The appearance in Russian culture of apocalyptic motifs similar to Western European ones is symptomatic. According to Spengler, every culture passes into the stage of civilization after a corresponding reassessment of values, the very bitterness about the decline of one's culture is already a clear sign of its decadence. The 19th century turned out to be amazingly capacious for Russia in terms of its historical, cultural, aesthetic and philosophical results - it was then that Russian culture finally managed to master the full range of problems characteristic of Western Europe and from this new worldview turn to its own cultural and historical essence. Somewhat exaggerating the process, D.S. Merezhkovsky wrote: “Eight centuries from the beginning of Russia to Peter we slept; a century from Peter to Pushkin woke up, half a century from Pushkin to L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky woke up, survived three millennia of Western European humanity. The spirit is breathtaking from this speed, similar to the speed of a stone flying into the abyss. ”(10) The relative synchronization with the European cultural process that has taken place (we emphasize - only cultural) has transformed the era of Russian symbolism during the tragic “premonition of civilization”, using O. Spengler’s term.
Russian symbolism is dualistic, externally closely approaching the Western European worldview, it had deep national roots, due to the usual hierarchy of values, traditions of culture, life and language. In this aspect, the emotional feeling of loss, the coming catastrophe, the approaching abyss was not a groundless abstraction. In Russia in those years, for the first time, global changes in the interpretation of the fundamental concepts of the national mentality - space and time - were clearly indicated.
For Russia, classified by A. Toynbee as a type of traditional society, space has always been comparable to the Cosmos. “A person of a traditional society, seeing the world as the Cosmos, experiences not just charm, for him the universe has holiness. In modern society (the author means Western Europe - M.N.), the world is rational (desacralized, devoid of holiness (...) Feeling the world as the Cosmos, a person feels like in a cozy house, for the welfare of which he is responsible. (.. .) It is the holiness of the world and the inclusion of a person in it that gives rise to a common ethics for all in a traditional society. ”(11) The original sacredness of the surrounding world, characteristic of the Russian worldview, actually formed the space of Russia, the Russian landscape, which has always had a powerful attractive force for the heart and mind .
According to D, from Likhachev: “Wide space has always owned the hearts of Russians, It poured into concepts and ideas that do not exist in other languages. What is the difference between will and freedom? The fact that free will is freedom, connected with space, with nothing obstructed by space. (...) Since ancient times, Russian culture has considered freedom and space to be the greatest aesthetic and ethical good for man. ”(12) These words reveal the “blood” connection of Russian man and nature, which he feels at the same time as an incarnation and a grandiose miraculous work of the Creator, full of divine harmony, a connection that Russian culture, including the New Age, reflected in a variety of literary monuments. Such is the nature of Pushkin, who in his own way reflected the infinity of the Russian land, the infinity of the space towering above it, the poetry of the simple. The world before his eyes is a prototype of the universe, subject to the universal laws of life.
The interpretation of time, set by the Sun, the Moon, the changes of the seasons, field work, remained unchanged for centuries in Russia - time was cyclical and not divided into identical segments. ”(13) Life was determined by sunset and sunrise, rains or droughts, harvests or underbirths. These natural cyclic coordinates were incomparably more important than the direct final course of each individual life. It is easy to find analogies for such an understanding in antiquity - as you know, for the ancient world, clocks remained an insignificant detail of everyday life. In the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the main place where the educated part of Russian society spent several months annually (often more than six months) was the estate. Children were usually born here, their childhood passed, here the life path of the older generation of the family, who found the last shelter in family estates, often ended here.
So, in the era of symbolism in Russia, a holistic figurative picture of the world, rooted in ancient times and having a certain ethnic and geographical reference, was irrevocably replaced by a rational, dispersed, mosaic one, composed as a collage of rather random concepts and patterns of different cultures. Signs of these fundamental worldview changes are easy to find both in the literature and in journalism at the turn of the century. In this situation, it was necessary to find one's own starting point, to designate a certain constant of Russian life - it turned out to be the Pushkin era, which attracted ethical and cultural integrity, the loss of which was so painfully felt in the aesthetics of symbolism. Peering into Pushkin's time, attempts to comprehend the secrets of his harmony gave hope for the preservation of national identity.
The inextricable connection between the culture of Pushkin's time (this phrase also developed in those years) with the estate aroused a wide and keen interest in estate monuments. late XVIII-First third of the 19th century The first signs of this interest in various fields of art and literature come at the turn of the century.
Already in 1895, the young artist S.Yu. turned to the estate theme. Zhukovsky, for whom various types of estates later became the content of his entire creative life, By 1897, the picturesque masterpieces of M.V. Yakunchikova-Weber "Covers" and "From the Window of an Old House", which sang the classical harmony of Vvedensky near Moscow. Since 1898, paintings-elegies of one of the largest symbolist artists V.E. Borisov-Musatov, depicting gentlemen and ladies in ancient dresses against the backdrop of Central Russian manor landscapes. In 1902-1903, his famous canvases “Ghosts” and “Reservoir” appeared, inspired by the beauty of the Golitsyn Zubrilovka, by 1905 sketches for the unrealized paintings of the mansion of A.I. Derozhinsky "Dream of a deity", " Autumn evening"," Walk at sunset ", completely built on variations of the manor theme. In 1901-1903. a series of manor landscapes was written by I.E. Grabar; in 1903 K.A. Somov created the painting "Echoes of the Past" - a portrait of a girl in a manor house in an Empire dress. This io?a?aiu, which can certainly be continued, irrefutably testifies to the desire of a person at the turn of the century to penetrate the secrets of the manor harmony of Pushkin's time, its organic fusion with nature and the way of life of grandfathers and great-grandfathers, and finally, try to survive the distant past. It is not for nothing that the current is persistent in Russian painting of the early 20th century. The motif of dressing up, so definitely the desire to peer into one's appearance in an old costume.
Pushkin's time and the images of his heroes create in the mind of an enlightened person criticism of his canvases. Addressing in a letter to Count S.D. The artist introduced his views to Sheremetev in the following way: “Will you find it possible to allow me to paint in your Astafevsky and Kuskovsky houses. I am a great lover of antiquity, especially of Pushkin's time. Here it is so clearly expressed and marvelously carefully preserved. the parks where Eugene Onegin walked - for firewood "(15)) The critic wrote about his painting" Departure "; “Here is an old manor house, plain in appearance, but with a magnificent portico - an entrance on columns; lights are visible in the windows... The times of Tatyana and Onegin are immediately resurrected before us and breathes something chivalrous, the romanticism of antiquity, the poetry of the idle carefree life of the past century. , a manor, but only, apparently, a neglected estate. On a bench, but one of the alleys adjacent to the house, sits something like Onegin. ”(16)
It is natural that the attractive images of the estate of Pushkin's era are also reflected in literature. The hero of Bunin's famous story "Antonevsky Apples", written in 1900 and imbued with deep nostalgia for the outgoing great estate culture of the 19th century, reflects on the happy days that passed in the estate, filled with work and spiritual searches: "... here are the magazines with the names of Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, lyceum student Pushkin. And with sadness you will remember your grandmother, her clavichord polonaises, her languid recitation of poems from Eugene Onegin. And the old dreamy life will stand before you ... "(17)
This "old dreamy life", which was dreamed of at the turn of the century, could not but affect architecture - a kind of mirror of the spiritual aspirations of the era and the most concrete embodiment of its way of life. However, one cannot fail to say that the peculiar manor Renaissance (18) experienced by Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was not only the result of the noted trends in culture, but also the relative social and economic stability that came after 1905. About these years G.P. Fedotov wrote: “The eight years that elapsed between the first revolution and the war will in many respects remain forever the most brilliant moment in the life of old Russia. As if recovering from a serious illness, the country was in a hurry to live, feeling how sparingly its remaining years were numbered. The industry flourished. The fever of construction, engulfing all the cities, promising an upswing in the economy, offering a new outlet for peasant energy. Rich Russia developed tremendous spiritual energy. ”(19)
Under these conditions, it became possible to revive the wide estate construction. The peak of interest in the estate of Pushkin's time just fell on the pre-war 1910s. This phenomenon was accurately recorded by Anna Akhmatova.
“A dark-skinned youth wandered through the alleys,
At the lake shores sad,
And we cherish a century
Barely audible rustle of footsteps. .
Her Swarthy Boy was written in 1911.
The poeticization of the world of the estate of Pushkin's time in architecture has acquired quite specific forms of apology for Russian classicism, previously expressed by members of the capital's association "World of Art". The first manifesto of this kind was an article by A.M. Benois "Picturesque Petersburg" (20), published in 1902. Not without the influence of this publication, already in the next 1903, the first building projects in the still non-existent neoclassical style appeared. Among them, the work of the young architect I.A. Fomin (21), who soon (in 1904) appeared in the journal "World of Art" with a program article "Moscow Classicism" (22), in which for the first time (after several decades of "fatigue" from this style) the architecture of Moscow classicism and empire.
Here is how Fomin described it: “...Empire has found “suitable soil” in Russia. Empire became "Russian", "Moscow". When we say "old Russian manor house" - we are talking about Empire. Since we, having gone through the school of Peter the Great, became Europeans, our Russian style has become somewhat alien to us, and we, lagging behind it, have gradually become accustomed to a number of successive Western styles, but not one responded so well to the warehouse of Russian nature and character. the bar of the time, the Empire style cook - simple, calm and stately, devoid of pretentiousness and antics. ”(23)
Admiration for the noble laconicism and harmony of the chamber Moscow Empire was naturally combined with admiration for the culture of the Pushkin era, because the post-fire city was just that charming manor Pushkin's Moscow. Y. Shamurin wrote: “The melodious Russian soul, with its lyrical light turning everything that is dear to it into beauty and poetry, fell in love with the “noble nest”. Dreamy pavilions among the dark, columns peeking out from behind the trees, gates with lions and muddy park ponds have become cute. The idyll of estates was associated precisely with their romantic dilapidation, their saturation with memories, their contrast with the noise, hustle and bustle of cities. ”(24)
The new ideal declared in the press in the same 1904 found an architectural and artistic embodiment - Fomin created a project of a wooden dacha in the Empire style, in which before a man of the early 20th century. a collective image of an old manor's estate appeared. The white-stone plinth, the smooth surface of the walls sheathed with darkened planed boards, cut through by elongated windows of "Empire" proportions and framed by white columns, a heavy pediment with traditional Empire wreaths and ribbons, and finally, an open semi-rotunda colonnade facing the garden - all these components of the overall composition soon became firmly established. among the popular methods of manor neoclassicism, which added historical process development of the Russian estate internal completeness. One cannot but agree with T.P. Kazhdan; “Neoclassicism completed the line of development of manor architecture of the 19th - early 20th centuries, returning it “to square one”, to the origins of landowner culture, creating a complete illusion of the traditional ideal estate environment in which the diverse modern cultural life of the cook could function organically and fruitfully and develop within the framework of traditions, as well as along the paths determined by new artistic trends. ”(25)
In the process of a kind of "sacralization" of the estate, which took place in Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century, Pushkin theme played very important role. The customers of the new neoclassical manor ensembles (and not only the nobility, for whom Pushkin was “their own”, but also the merchants), trying to make them once again the havens of the muses, sincerely dreamed of Pushkin’s time, of the estates of Onegin and Tatiana, of the once calm and measured aristocratic life . However, the architectural forms of the new estates could be associated with Pushkin's poetry only indirectly. It is amazing, but true - in the poems of the poet we will not find a single one in any way detailed description appearance manor buildings. Architectural delights were of little interest to the poet, much more important for him was the spiritual essence of manor life, its connection with nature, "the legends of sweet antiquity", its non-vanity and solitude, leaving room for reflection on the most important thing - love, life, death. Let's illustrate this with lines of poetry.
“How happy I am when I can leave the annoying noise of the capital and the courtyard And run away to the desert oak forests, To the banks of these silent waters.”
"The Lord's house is secluded,
Protected from the winds by a mountain,
Stood over the river. away
Before him were full of flowers and blossomed
Meadows and fields of gold,
Villages flashed by; here and there
The herds roamed the meadows,
And the canopy expanded thick
Huge neglected garden
Haven of pensive dryads.
The venerable castle was built,
How castles should be built:
Excellently durable and calm
In the taste of smart antiquity.
“Tatyana walked alone for a long time.
Walked, walked. And suddenly in front of you
From the hill the master sees the house,
Village, grove under the hill
And a garden over a bright river.
“What's in them? Now I'm happy to give
All this rags of masquerade
All this brilliance, and noise, and fumes
For a shelf of books, for a wild garden,
For our poor home
Yes, for a humble cemetery,
Where is now the cross and the shadow of the branches
Over my poor nanny ... "
"From boredom, so diverse,
My name is hills, meadows,
shady maple gardens,
Desert river bank
And rural freedom.
It is easy to see that the poet's gaze, quickly gliding over the main house, is always carried away to the picturesque estate surroundings - meadows, fields, hills and copses, which spoke much more to his heart and mind. This is not surprising, because Pushkin perceived life in the village not as a casual passer-by, diligently painting what he saw, but as an integral part of his inner being, and therefore his gaze is most often directed “from within” the estate world outward - it is not for nothing that many of the poet’s poems seem to be sketches from his window houses in Mikhailovsky.
This is how the famous “Again I visited that corner of the earth ...” and the descriptions of estates in prose works. In the “Novel in Letters” we read: “The old house on the mountain, the garden, the lake, the pine groves, all this in autumn and winter, of course, is a little sad, but in spring and summer it should seem like an earthly paradise.” The descriptions of estates in the story "Dubrovsky" are extremely stingy. About Troekurov's estate: "... above the dense greenery of the grove towered the green roof and the belvedere of a huge stone house - on the other, a five-domed church and an old bell tower ..."; about the estate of Dubrovsky: “... to the left but in an open place is a gray house with a red roof.” However, this brevity is also natural, since Pushkin turned to the figurative memory of his contemporaries, for whom such conditional, almost symbolic, definitions were enough to create in the imagination a holistic idea of the described estates.
And yet, despite the lack of detailed verbal descriptions, images of Onegin's estate, the Larins' house and the landscape surrounding them lived in the minds of every Russian person from childhood. Of course, each of them had their own specific appearance, born from their own visual impressions, but they were all united by a commonality that was difficult to convey in words, which made it possible to easily feel the falsity or correspondence to the images of Pushkin's poem, which became in the early 20th century. popular architectural metaphors.
According to the remarkable researcher of Russian estates A.N. Grecha in Petrovsky (Durnev), near Moscow, “to the side of the main building stood an outbuilding with columns - a typical “Larinsky house”, right ready for decoration.” (26) Similar comparisons were born in the imagination of the unsurpassed memoirist of the artist Vladimir Miloshevsky when describing the Kholomki princes Gagarins: “ Oneginolarin landscape! Soft in its quiet but caressing forms! ”(27)
Analogies with Pushkin's images arose among the inhabitants of the Ostashevo estate near Moscow - the son of K.R., Grand Duke Oleg Konstantinovich:
The night has come on.
The estate falls asleep...
A swarm of sweet impressions lulls me,
And the dream was inspired by the shadow of sleepy antiquity,
And I remembered Pushkin's Evgeny In the Larins' estate in the midst of the same silence. Exactly the same house, the same closets, Portraits on the walls, scales in all corners, Sofas, mirrors, porcelain, toys, slides And sleepy flies on the white ceilings. (1912-1913)
Aesthetic adherence to the idealized "Onegino-Larinsk" Russia - not serf-owning, but native, homely, poeticized creative and was a traditional symmetrical three-part composition of the main volume with porticos under the pediment and side wings connected by low transitions. Similar techniques were developed in their estate buildings by F.O. Shekhtel (Gorki), V.D. Adamovich (Islavskoye), A.E. Erichson (Lubvino), I.V., Zholtovsky (Lipki-Alekseisk, Berezhki, Lubenkino), A.E. Belogrud (Parafievko and Kachanovka), I.A. Fomin (Kholomki) and others.
Like all the listed manor buildings, the main house in the estate of Prince A.G. Gagarin Kholomka, Pskov province, built by Fomin in 1912-1913, which had a compact volume of good proportions with a six-column portico on the main facade and an open semi-rotunda on the park, embodied a holistic view of the classical estate of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries The outstanding Soviet art historian M.A. Ilyin wrote about this building: "The genius of Quarenghi hovers over this austere building." (29). Indeed, the Fominsk house, along with the houses of Zholtovsky, Shekhtel, Erichsono, surprisingly accurately corresponded to the stable image of the Russian estate that had developed in the national consciousness.
The laconicism of the harmonious classical compositions of these buildings obviously echoed the manor houses on the canvases of V.E. Borisov-Musatov. Their figurative relationship is symptomatic - it reveals an important feature of the neoclassicism of the 1900-1910s, which is still more inclined towards the embodiment of the modern dream of an old manor, cleared by the imagination of prosaic details, than towards its concrete historical stylization.
In addition to refined ensembles erected by subtle stylists, true professionals who consciously resurrected the spirit of the estates of Pushkin's time, many more modest neoclassical manor houses appeared in Russia in those years. For example, in the Moscow province - in Dubki, Countess Liven, in the Kursk province - in Makarovka A.N. Smetsky, in Lebyazhie G.A. Novosiltsev, in Fitizh the Stremoukhovs30, etc. Their familiar forms expressed the diversity of aesthetic and artistic experiences of their time in the form of the "Onegino-Larinsk" estate - a dream come true and an unattainable ideal of the era - but "retold" in the language of its time and inspired by modern art.
Not isolated and characteristic of the beginning of the 20th century. there were also reconstructions of old Empire buildings. The main house of the old Znamenskoye-Gubailovo near Moscow was rebuilt with the possible preservation of the classical appearance. Adorable classic manor house P.V. Lopukhin in Vvedensky near Zvenigorod was rebuilt, but also with the preservation of the original appearance. ("The old house was wooden - it was broken not so long ago, and in its place the last owner of Vvedensky, Count Gudovich, erected almost the same - stone." (31))
The image of the Empire estate, the estate of Pushkin's time, was transferred to summer cottage construction at the end of the 1900-1910s. Not having the ability to maintain a large estate, the middle class, the intelligentsia created their country cottages in the form of former estates. Here is how Bunin described one of these dachas: “The courtyard of the dacha, which looked like a manor, was large. To the right of the entrance stood an empty stable with a hayloft in the superstructure, then a long outhouse for servants, connected to the kitchen, behind which birches and lindens looked out, to the left, but on firm, bumpy ground, old pines grew spaciously, on the lawns between them gigantic steps were born and a swing, farther, already at the wall of the forest, there was a flat croquet ground. The house is also large, standing just opposite the entrance, behind it a large space was occupied by a mixture of forest and garden with a gloomy majestic avenue of ancient fir trees, which went in the middle of this mixture from the back balcony to the bathhouse and pond. ”(32)
A similar impression, for example, was made by the dacha of the artist Zhukovsky in the Tver province: “Approaching the dacha where Stanislav Yulianovich lived, I saw big house, dyed in yellow.(...) The house made me feel like a landowner's estate. But there was no specific landowner atmosphere. I remember large rooms with canvases and stretchers. ”(33)
In addition to meaningful attractiveness, a craving for emotional and visual "dressing", as real as possible immersion in the world of estates of Pushkin's time - the native world, familiar from childhood from the lines of "Eugene Onegin", their buildings had another advantage that is very important for most dacha owners . Pushkin's estates, whether it was the Larins' house with a "shelf of books and a wild garden", or the house in Mikhailovsky Pushkino itself, were very modest in their architectural forms. Thanks to this quality, it was not difficult to reproduce them in new, most often wooden, country houses of the 1910s.
This kind of construction is successfully illustrated by a charming wooden house in the provincial Empire style in Udelnaya near Moscow - with a simple four-column portico, once an open veranda on columns, white tiled stoves and high ceilings. This is L.A.'s dacha. Tamburer, who knew the family of I.V. Tsvetaeva and his daughters.34 The well-known architect Ivan Vladislavovich Zholtovsky, who built it in 1908-1909 and won wide recognition in pre-revolutionary Russia, according to eyewitnesses, subsequently asked more than once: “How is my “Larinsky” house?”
And soon a chain of Oossian catastrophes, of which, perhaps, the largest, still indelible, was a cultural catastrophe that completely destroyed Onegin-Larin Russia, carried into oblivion the “Lorinsky” houses of the turn of the century and their beautiful prototypes. Only a faint trace remained of them and “selective” due to circumstances, the memory that determined the boundless, orthodox, even sometimes exalted worship of the literature and art of Pushkin’s time”, experienced by us in Soviet period and directly inherited from the pre-revolutionary decade.
NOTES
1 Bunin I.A. Thinking about Pushkin.//Bunin I.A. Sobr. op. T,6. M., 1988, S. 619.
2. Ibid. P.620.
3. Ibid. P.621.
4. Dolgopolov L. But at the turn of the century. On Russian literature of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. L., 1985. P.275.
5. Osorgin M.A. Time. Ekaterinburg, 1992. P. 535.
6. Fedotov G.P. The fate and sins of the Russian people. T.1.SPb., 1991. With. 179
7. Ibid., p. 143.
8. Gorelov M.M. Stanislav Yulianovich Zhukovsky. Life and creation. 1875-1944. M., 1982. S. 150,
9. The introduction in 1886 by the French poet Jean Moreas of the term "symbolism" (in the programmatic work "Manifesto of Symbolism"), in fact, completed the process of self-determination of a new artistic movement, signs of which appeared in the art of Western Europe as early as the 1850s-1860s. Baudelaire's poetic opuses, Wagner's operas, Pre-Raphaelite painting, D. Reskino's philosophical ideas, W. Morriso's varied activities - these are milestones that contributed to the formation of the foundations of symbolism artistic thinking. Constant attention to Western European cultural life, characteristic of the entire Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century, contributed to the rapid rooting of his ideas on Russian soil, led to the "predisposition" to him of many Russian artists, writers, musicians, architects. In Russia, the ideas of symbolism penetrated and mastered, as it were, in several meaningful registers. As a way of artistic thinking, French symbolism was perceived mainly through literature - from Baudelaire to Valery, as the principles of visual-plastic form - through the painting of Puvis de Chauvanno, Moreau, Gauguin, Redono and other artists, and most widely and massively - through applied graphics, in including the poster. In the late 1880s, V.S. Solovyov wrote the works “Beauty in Nature” and “The General Meaning of Art”, which laid the foundations for the theory of Russian symbolism. In 1893, the first manifesto of Russian literary symbolism appeared - it was a brochure by D.S. Merezhkovsky "On the principles of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature", which contained the texts of two lectures of the writer, read in 1892; since 1894 V.Ya. Bryusov is already publishing the collections Russian Symbolists. In the 1890s - 1900s, the theme of symbolism was widely included in Russian painting - in the works of M.V. Nesterovo, A.I. Kuindzhi, V.M. Vasnetsov, M.A. Vrubel, M.V. Yakunchikova, V.E. . Borisov-Musotov and other artists. In 1910, Andrei Bely published his book Symbolism, which most fully and accurately defined the ideological foundations of this artistic movement. Despite the voices already heard at that time about the decline of symbolism, A. Blok in those years still saw prospects for the future. The given dates allow us to orient this direction in historical context culture of Russia.
10. Merezhkovsky D.S. L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky.// Full. Sobr. Op. T.XII. M.1914. P.270.
11. Kara-Murza S. Russia: what does it mean “not to be the West”? // Our contemporary, 1997, No. 9, pp. 125, 127-128.
12. Likhachev D.S. Open spaces and space.// Likhachev D.S. Favorites. SPb., LOGOS, 1997. S. 472, 475.
13. Koro-Murza S. Decree op., p. 128.
14. Nashchokina M.V. Op.cit., p. 2.
15. Romanov N. XXXI Traveling exhibition in Moscow.//Scientific word. Book 5. 1903. S. 153.
16. Erch. Echoes of the day. XXXI Traveling exhibition of paintings.//Moscow sheet, 1903, April 13.
17. Bunin I.A. Antonov apples.// Decree op. T.2. M., 1987. P.168.
18. Nashchokina M.V. Neoclassical estates of Moscow.// Russian estate. Sat. OIRU 3(19). M., 1997. P.73.
19. Fedotov G.P. Decree op. S. 170.
20. Benois A.N. Picturesque Petersburg.// World of Art, 1902, v.7, No. 1-6, Chronicle, p. 1-5.
21. Nashchokina M.V. Ivan Fomin: a turn to neoclassicism.// Architecture of the world. Issue 7. M., 1998. pp.104-105.
22. Fomin I.A. Moscow classicism. (Architecture in Moscow in the era of Catherine II and Alexander I).// World of Art, 1904, No. 7. P. 149-198.
23. Ibid. S. 188.
24. Shamurin Yu.I. Moscow region. M., 1912. P.4.
25. Kazhdon T.P. Artistic world of the Russian estate. M., 1997. P.272.
26. Grech A.N. Wreath of estates.// Monuments Fatherland. Issue 32. M., 1995. C.9.
27. Milashevsky V.A. Yesterday, the day before yesterday... Memoirs of an artist. M., 1980. S.277.
28. Russia in its past and present. M., 1914-1915. R.H. [p.54-55.]. The belonging of the buildings to the work of I.V. Rylsky was established by the author, in the color tab of the Russian Estate. No. 4" named after I.V. Zholtovsky indicated erroneously.
29. Ilyin M.A. Ivan Alexandrovich Fomin. M., 1946. S. 18.
30. Kholodova E. Estates of the Kursk province. Historical and architectural essays. // Library of the "Slavic House" 2 - 1997.
31. Grech A.N. Decree. op. P.18.
32. Bunin I.A. Zoya and Valeria, // Decree. op. T.5. P.321.
33. Op. Quoted from: Gorelov M.M. Decree. op. S. 101.
34. Sineokovo T.L. Specific before and after... Specific, 1994. P.16.
As mentioned above, in the first decade of the century, poetry was the leading genre in Russian literature. In the poems of the Decembrist poets - Ryleev, Odoevsky, Kuchelbeker - the pathos of high citizenship sounds, the themes of the motherland and service to society are raised. After the defeat of the Decembrists (1825), the mood of pessimism intensified in literature, but there was no decline in creativity. It should be recalled that Pushkin was the creator of the Russian literary language. It is legitimate to say that before Pushkin there was no literature in Russia worthy of European attention in terms of depth and diversity, equal to the achievements of European creativity. The poet bequeathed to his descendants: “It is not only possible, but also necessary, to be proud of the glory of your ancestors ... Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery ...”.
Even during the lifetime of A.S. Pushkin became widely known N.V. Gogol
. Gogol's acquaintance with Pushkin took place in 1831, and at the same time, Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, which delighted Pushkin, came out in two parts in St. Petersburg. The first printed form of the Inspector General appeared in 1836. In the writer's works, the reconstruction of the truth and color of life was accompanied by witty satire and exposure of the autocratic order. He took over the creative literary baton from the genius of Pushkin Mikhail Yurjevich Lermontov
. The death of Pushkin in a duel with Dantes revealed Lermontov to the Russian public in all the strength of his poetic talent. The poem "The Death of a Poet", which was circulated in manuscripts, and other poetic works of the poet aroused hatred towards their author from the side of the "crowd standing at the throne", which partly predetermined his early death in a duel with Nikolai Martynov - great poet did not live ten years to Pushkin's age.
It should be remembered that the work of M.Yu. Lermontov flowed during the reign of the emperor Nicholas I
(1825-1855), who are considered "the apogee of autocracy". One of the priorities of the internal political course of Nicholas I was the strengthening of the police-bureaucratic apparatus of government and the strengthening of the personal power of the autocrat. However, as we see from the example of M.Yu. Lermontov, as well as a whole galaxy of patriotic writers - Tyutchev, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov,
and manifested only at the beginning of his writing career Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin
- this century also became the apogee of Russian classical literature. Historical facts testify that already in the middle of the nineteenth century, the growing global importance Russian culture.
"Silver Age" of Russian culture
(late 19th-early 20th century)
The "golden age" of Russian culture was replaced by
"silver Age"
. The "Silver Age" is usually called in the history of Russian culture the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. The "Silver Age" was formed at the turn of the century. This period did not last long, only about twenty years, but it gave the world wonderful examples of philosophical thought, demonstrated the life and melody of poetry, resurrected the ancient Russian icon, gave impetus to new trends in painting, music, theatrical art, became the time of formation
Russian avant-garde
. The feeling of lack of demand, lack of fulfillment, often accompanying avant-garde artists, enhances their characteristic drama, disharmony with the world, which they carry within themselves and express in the intonations of loneliness and tragedy of everything that happens.
In the accepted chronology, the beginning Russian avant-garde scientists
attributed to the years 1900-1910. The main trend characteristic of the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was synthesis of all arts
. In literature, which continued to play an exceptionally important role in the cultural life of the country, this trend was expressed in the transition from realism to symbolism
. Dmitry Merezhkovsky proclaimed three main elements of new art: mystical content, symbols and expansion of artistic impressionability.
“In the life of a symbolist, everything is a symbol. Not symbols - no, ”wrote Marina Tsvetaeva.
In 1900, the younger symbolists - A.A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov
and others began to seek healing from the ills of decadence in spiritual, religious, moral, aesthetic and universal ideals, trying to combine public interests with personal ones. It is in their work that the artistic method of the Symbolists receives an objective-idealistic interpretation. The material world is only a mask, through which another world of the spirit shines. Images of a mask, a masquerade constantly flash in the poetry and prose of the Symbolists. The material world is depicted as something chaotic, illusory, as an inferior reality in comparison with the world of ideas and entities. Russian symbolism took from the Western a number of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, refracting them through the teachings of
Vladimir Solovyov
about the soul of the world. Russian poets experienced with painful tension the problem of personality and history in their "mysterious connection" with eternity, with the essence of the universal "world process". The inner world of the individual for them is an indicator of the general tragic state of the world, including the “terrible world” of Russian reality, doomed to death, a resonator of natural historical elements, a receptacle for prophetic forebodings of imminent renewal.
Russian fiction first decade characterizes not only symbolism. During the years of the first Russian revolution, urban poetry . This is mass poetry, close to the urban “lower classes”: the authors are often their own, workers. The verses are clear and specific, This is a kind of response to real events. Proletarian poetry is permeated with revolutionary appeals, and this also corresponds to the spirit of the Russian proletariat. Poems were published in many magazines, in particular, in the journal of legal Marxism "Life", which became massive and reached thirteen thousand copies. The Sreda Commonwealth and the Literary Department of Zhizn prepared the creation of a broad association of writers around the publishing house of the partnership "Knowledge" headed by Maxim Gorky . Since 1904, collections of the partnership began to appear in huge circulations of up to 80 thousand copies at that time. A literary taste was formed among the mass reader, and the culture of this period carried significant educational potential, an entire system of self-education developed and developed.
The years of post-revolutionary reaction were characterized in the Russian artistic consciousness by moods of pessimism of the so-called "abnegation". The most difficult was creative way Leonida Andreeva who became one of the recognized leaders decadence , but retaining the spirit of protest against capitalist relations that depersonalize a person.
Russian literature found a way out in the emergence of a "neo-realistic" style, which had no clear external signs. Next to the resurgent realism, new forms arose romanticism. This was especially evident in poetry. A new creative upsurge was characteristic of I. Bunina
, became a true masterpiece "Garnet bracelet"
A. Kuprina
. The search for new forms of expression inner world of man were embodied in two new symbolic currents: acmeism and futurism
.
Acmeism
(Greek - the highest step of something, blooming power), received a certain theoretical justification in the articles N. Gumilyova
"The legacy of symbolism is acmeism", S. Gorodetsky
"Some currents in modern Russian poetry", O. Mandelstam
"Morning of acmeism ”, A. Akhmatova,
M. Zenkevich, G. Ivanov E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva.
Having united in the “Poets' Workshop” group, they joined the “Apollo” magazine, opposed the “elements of nature” to the mystical aspirations of symbolism towards the “unknowable”, declared a concrete-sensory perception of the “material world”, a return to the word of its basic, original meaning. Already in the first decade of the twentieth century, there were so many poets in Russia that the nineteenth century. compared to the 20th century, it may seem “deserted”.
By the beginning of the second decade of the twentieth century, new major Russian and future Soviet poets and prose writers:
V.V. Mayakovsky, Boris Pasternak, A.A. Akhmatova, M.V. Tsvetaeva,
A. Tolstoy
and others. Symbolism was replaced by other literary movements during this period. The features of symbolism manifested themselves in such different, competing directions as those mentioned above. futurism, acmeism, as well as new peasant poetry, the best representative of which was the amazing poet Sergei Alexandrovich Yesenin
. A special type of worldview renaissance man The twentieth century manifested itself not only in literature, but also in fine arts. The artists of the circle turned out to be especially closely associated with symbolism. "World of Art".
In the decorative and applied field of research, the World of Art showed two trends: one of them came from Abramtsevo, the estate Savva Mamontov
, where in the 80s many artists worked on the revival of the Russian icon, Russian antiquity. Similar work was carried out on the estate of the princess M. Tenisheva
, in the Smolensk province. Another trend was the search for modern style - Art Nouveau
. Within this style arose constructivism.
In 1906, the circle "World of Art" rallied in the name of the main goal - to glorify Russian art in the West. Famous cultural figure of that era Sergei Diaghilev
finds use for his talent as an organizer - he arranges an exhibition in Paris "Two centuries of Russian painting and sculpture"
. In this exhibition, along with the artists of the 18th century, the most significant masters of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were also widely represented. Thus began the conquest of Paris - the heart of the cultural life of Europe - by Russian art. In 1907, Parisians are introduced to Russian music. The success of the program of five concerts of contemporary Russian music is largely facilitated by the participation of the composers themselves: Sergei Rachmaninov
, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
and others.
It can be argued that "Dyagilev Seasons"
1909-1911 become outstanding events in world artistic life. Russian art influences the formation of a new artistic culture. In the second decade of the twentieth century, many artistic groupings emerged. In 1910 in Moscow, in the premises of the literary and artistic circle on Bolshaya Dmitrovka, an exhibition was opened "Jack of Diamonds"
in which took part
P. Konchalovsky, M. Larionov
, N. Goncharova
, A. Lentulov, R. Falk
- leftists visual arts. They joined futurists
and cubists.
M.F. Larionov organized special exhibitions - "Donkey's Tail", "Target". In 1913, he published the newspaper Luchism, a manifesto for abstract art. In the same years, the first true pioneers of abstractionism worked: V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, V. Tatlin. They created trends that became widespread in the history of foreign art of the 20-30s of the twentieth century: abstractionism (Kandinsky), Suprematism (Malevich), constructivism (Tatlin).
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, new architectural styles appeared: modern, new Russian style, neoclassicism. The architects saw architectural truth in the organic connection between "building material, structure and form." There is also a trend here
to the synthesis of the arts: elements of painting are introduced into architecture,
sculptures. Demonstrate their outstanding innovative abilities
V.M. Vasnetsov, M.A. Vrubel, A.N. Benois, I.E. Grabar, S.V. Milyutin, A.S. Golubkina
and other artists.
Despite the fact that the Russian avant-garde, like the Western one, gravitated towards asociality, towards the absolutization of the creative "I", however, the Russian socio-cultural soil of the Silver Age affected the work of avant-garde artists. This is the tragedy of "muteness" ("Black Square" by K. Malevich) and the metaphysical search for a new religious consciousness. The task of the avant-garde is to express "spiritual absolutes" in forms corresponding to the depths of the psyche of a changing person - an individual who is on the edge of a familiar, somewhat outdated world. Hence, perhaps, the desire for a synthesis of the arts of the future, for their new coexistence. This idea was served by the entire sign system of the artistic culture of the Silver Age.
The Russian cultural history of this period is the result of a complex and long journey. In the development of public consciousness, art and literature of that era, many directions, currents, circles, most of of which proved to be very unstable. This, in particular, confirmed the idea of the collapse of culture, its end.
The feeling of the need for a fundamentally new scientific and artistic interpretation of reality has become universal in the public mind. Here are religious and philosophical searches, and a new type of person, the beginning of the philosophy of non-violence, and the creation a new type of culture
.
The period of "transitional" cultures is always dramatic, and always complex and contradictory. A characteristic feature of this era is cosmologism
. The cosmology of Russian culture is formed as pressing need time, as an expression of a general anxious mood.
In the philosophy of this period, cosmologism takes shape theoretically: it is inherent in V. Solovyov, N. Fedorov, V. Rozanov, N. Lossky
. Cosmic orientation laid the foundation for the search for Russian poetry (V. Bryusov,
A. Bely, A. Blok)
, new trends in Russian painting ( M. Vrubel
) and Russian music ( A. Scriabin
). A new type of culture is formed on the basis of criticism: spiritual culture is built on the foundation of rethought experience of both distant and very close years.
At the junction of cultures, a characteristic feature of Russian psychology finds its ultimate expression - religiosity
, including simultaneously by words
A.P. Krasavina
and militant atheism. The main thing in the formation of a new type of culture is faith, not reason
. Therefore, in Russia they are looking for not just new values, new ideals - they are looking for eternity values, "absolute goodness", "eternal and imperishable beauty", ahistorical wisdom.
The unsurpassed, brilliant intellectualism of the generalizations of the philosophy of the new Renaissance was not adequately appreciated by either compatriots or the general Western public of that period, although it gave a new direction to the culture, philosophy, ethics of Russia and the West, anticipating existentialism, the philosophy of history, and the latest theology.
Let's also say that many Russian writers of the beginning of the century turned to dramaturgy
. This is natural: the theater attracts a huge audience, it is in the prime of life and opportunities.
On the stage of the young Art Theater
plays are staged L. Tolstoy
, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky
. "Children of Vanyushin" enjoy success
S. Naydenova
, drama L. Andreeva
, S. Yushkevich
. The beginning of the revolutionary upsurge was marked by the desire to institutionalize the unity of realist writers. Created in 1899 in Moscow N. Teleshov
literary community "Wednesday"
became one of the centers of such rallying. Members of the Commonwealth were Bunin, Serafimovich, Veresaev, Gorky, Andreev.
Sreda meetings attended Chekhov, Korolenko, Mamin-Sibiryak, Chaliapin, Levitan, Vasnetsov
.
Russian modernism- a natural phenomenon, caused by the deep processes of Russian culture. Ripe questions further development Russian literature, fundamentally focused on three problems: attitude to the traditions of Russian literature, determination of the novelty of content and form, determination of the general aesthetic worldview. A need was forming, in words Valeria Bryusova , "find a guiding star in the fog."
Representatives of the creative intelligentsia, subjecting the pre-existing artistic principles to critical reflection, were looking for other ways of mastering the world. Some believed that they could gain a direct, uncomplicated view of nature. Neglecting the analysis of social relations, they discovered "quiet poetry of everyday life". Others concentrated in the artistic image the intensity of feelings and passions of the people of the new century. Premonition for many was embodied in symbols that generated complex associations. All these were different ways to comprehend the world, to reveal the artistic truth in it, to recognize the essence behind the phenomenon, to see the universal behind the small.
The "Silver Age" is rightly called the time of the "great synthesis", when art was comprehended as a whole. The combination of different artistic languages made it possible to perceive the figurative content of a synthetic work from different sides and from different angles of view. The artist of the universal type becomes the ideal of time, and the theater becomes the ideal of the fusion of art. It was in the theater that it was possible to achieve, according to the ideas of various cultural figures, the long-desired unity, the synthesis of art. Theatricalization permeates all the work of artists of this time. Game, fantasy - all this becomes so close to the work of many artists of this period. Passion for theatrical "harlequinade", mask - a typical phenomenon in music, literature, theater, painting. Images - masks, puppets, puppets - through characters in creativity I. Stravinsky, A. Blok, K. Somov .
To summarize briefly: the artistic culture of the Silver Age is contradictory and multifaceted. The historical reality between the two revolutions (1905-1917) significantly influenced the nature and multidimensionality of poetic searches and artistic culture as a whole. In all types and genres of culture, the rejection of the surrounding reality, bourgeois culture and civilization, a radical denial of the orders modern world and intuitive foreknowledge of the advent of a new time. The sense of time in various versions permeates the entire artistic culture of this period.
It can be said without exaggeration that the achievements of Russian art of the "Silver Age" have global importance. Literature, painting, sculpture, theater and music became a kind of prologue to the art of the 20th century, reflecting the contradictions and complexities of the culture of the new era as if in a mirror.