The events depicted took place in France. History of France (1789-1914)
Brief history of France
The ancestors of the modern French people were Germanic tribes Franks living on the banks of the Rhine in the 3rd century. However, the history of the French territory began much earlier, in the prehistoric period. Studies have shown that Pithecanthropes inhabited the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Over time, they were replaced by homosapiens, that is, the ancestors of modern man. There is practically no information about this period.
The Celtic period in France began around the 10th century BC. and spread over several centuries. In the II century BC. the Roman era began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the country began to be called Gaul. Gaul occupied vast territories, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans, the Latin language and the Roman way of life came into use, but the Celtic culture and art survived.
In the middle of the 5th century, the power of the Roman governors weakened, the Early Middle Ages began. During this period, France broke up into dozens of petty kingdoms. The Burgundians ruled in the Rhine region, the Franks in the north, and Roman dominion still remained in the east. Unity in the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. AT 800 year he was elected emperor of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, after his death, his descendants began to fight for the inheritance, which greatly weakened Western Europe.
From the XII century, the Late Middle Ages began - a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was the heyday of art, poetry, architecture, and on the other hand, serious crises were observed. So, in the XIV century, plague epidemics broke out everywhere, the Hundred Years War with England began. However, the strife in the country after this war did not end. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes began between Catholics and Huguenots, ending with Bartholomew's Night August 24, 1572. On this night, about 30 thousand people died in the massacre of the Huguenots.
After the Valois, the Bourbons came to power. The first king of this dynasty was Henry IV. (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was passed. Cardinal Richelieu, who had actual power during the time of Louis XIII, did a lot for the good of the country. He managed to raise the prestige of France in Europe. The following rulers significantly weakened the country's economy with wars and thoughtless entertainment. As a result, a revolution began in the country, the result of which was a coup. 1799 of the year. From that moment began the period of Napoleon's reign. After several successful and then unsuccessful military campaigns, he was overthrown.
FROM 1814 year began the period of restoration of the monarchy. First, Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis-Philippe d'Orleans. In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution took place, after which power passed to the Provisional Government. Such a change of rulers took place until France for the fifth time received the status of a republic and appointed General de Gaulle as president. (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in the liberation of the country from the German invaders and the restoration of the economic balance.
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History abstracts
Flag of France
Coat of arms of France
France, the official name of the French Republic. France is a country in the west of the Eurasian continent in Western Europe.
The capital of France is the city of Paris. In the west, France is washed by the Atlantic Ocean with its bays and straits. To the west by the Bay of Biscay, to the northwest by the Celtic Sea, to the north by the English Channel. In the south, the French shores are washed by the warm Mediterranean Sea. The territory of France is 547,030 sq. km, with overseas and dependent territories 674,685 sq. km. France ranks 48th in the world by area, 3rd in Europe and 1st in Western Europe. In the south-west, France borders on Spain and Andorra, in the east on Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium.
In the north, France, divided by the English Channel, borders on Great Britain. Administratively, France is divided into the metropolis (the continental part of the state), and overseas possessions and dependent territories belonging to France.
Administrative divisions of France:
- 18 regions with 5 overseas territories
- 101 departments, of which five are overseas
- 336 counties
- 2074 cantons
- 36,658 communes
- The three largest French communes - Paris, Marseille and Lyon, in turn, are divided into 45 municipal or urban districts.
The cities of Paris have 20 arrondissements, Marseille 16, and Lyon 9 arrondissements.
Paris as the capital of France is a separate department and consists of a single commune.
The overseas regions of France (Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Reunion, Mayotte) consist of a single department.
The island of Corsica, which is also a separate region, includes 2 departments and has a special status of an administrative-territorial entity, which differs from other regions of the metropolis (continental France). It has independent governing bodies that are not subordinate to the center.
In 2003, a referendum on the unification of the 2 departments of Corsica failed. All these regions are part of the European Union.
Regions of continental (Metropolis) France:
- New Aquitaine - Bordeaux
- Brittany — Rennes
- Burgundy - Franche-Comte - Dijon
- Normandy - Rouen
- Ile-de-France — Paris
- Corsica - Ajaccio
- Occitania - Toulouse
- Grand Est — Strasbourg
- Hauts-de-France — Lille
- Auvergne - Rhone - Alps - Lyon
- Lands of the Loire - Nantes
- Provence - Alpes - Cote d'Azur - Marseille
- Center - Loire Valley - Orleans
Overseas regions:
- Guadeloupe - Basse-Terre
- Guiana — Cayenne
- Martinique — Fort-de-France
- Reunion - Saint-Denis
- Mayotte - Mamoudzu
France is a highly developed European country with a high standard of living that has succeeded and is one of the world leaders in the economic, scientific, technical, industrial, educational and humanitarian fields of activity.
France is of great political and economic importance both in the world and in Europe. In Europe, France has the second economy after Germany. France is a nuclear power with both a nuclear capability and a means of delivering nuclear weapons. France is a member of the UN and is one of the five permanent members of the UN with veto power. France, with its advanced economy, is also one of the most important members of the EU.
France is also a space power, which has its own spaceport in French Guiana, from which it launches its rockets.
Also in French Guiana, in joint cooperation with Russia, an additional Russian-French launch complex is being built for joint launches of Russian missiles. Along with all the scientific and technical, industrial and political and economic achievements, France has unique cultural, historical values of world significance accumulated over many millennia of the development of European civilization.
France has given the world many great names in all fields of human activity.
Many world-famous museums and libraries in France contain world masterpieces of painting, sculpture, music and literature from all over the world. The Louvre alone is worth something with its priceless collections of world culture. France is also a world tourist power. Hundreds of millions of tourists visit French attractions every year. Probably, there is not a single tourist who would not be photographed against the backdrop of the Eiffel Tower, which is both a national treasure and a hallmark of France.
France is also famous for its Cote d'Azur on the Mediterranean coast with its unique resorts that annually attract tens of millions of tourists from all over the world to pamper their bodies under the warm gentle sun.
Also in France there are many natural attractions both on the coast and in the central and mountainous regions of the country.
Brief history of France
Home / Countries / France / History of France
History of France. France: main historical events
People inhabited the territory of France even, presumably, 1.8 million years ago.
In France, since the Paleolithic era, there are many cave paintings. The first colony in France was founded by the Greeks in 600 BC.
in the city then called Massalia, now called Marseille.
The spread of the Celtic tribes of the Gauls in France took place between the fifth and third centuries BC, during which most of borders of modern France.
This territory was then known as Gaul, and its inhabitants, the Gauls, were at enmity with the Romans until the Romans captured the southern part of their country (Provence) in 125 BC.
The Franks, an ancient German pagan tribe from which the name "France" derives, settled in Gaul and later conquered it, dividing the territory into four regions for the sons of the Frankish king Clovis I. These kingdoms were subsequently united by Charles I the Great.
France played an important role during the Crusades between 1095 and 1291.
Between 1337 and 1453, a series of conflicts took place between France and England, called the "Hundred Years' War", after which there were several civil wars, called the "Fronde", at the same time there was a war with Spain, between 1635 and 1659.
During the time of European exploration, France founded a colony in the New World.
Led by Louis XV Seven Years' War(1756-1763) in the New World ended with the loss of the territories of New France, and their conquest by Britain. As a result, France became the main ally of the American colonists during the American Revolution fighting for independence from Britain, which eventually led to the Peace of Paris in 1783.
Between 1789 and 1799 the Great French revolution, which ended with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, as a result of which the absolute monarchy ended in France and a constitutional monarchy appeared.
The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792, the same year France became a republic. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793 for treason, as was his wife, Marie Antoinette.
In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in the Republic, who later became emperor.
The French Empire began to conquer Europe, under the leadership of Napoleon, until his defeat in 1815.
During the nineteenth century, France became the second largest colonial power of all time, with colonies in North America, Southeast Asia, North, West, and Central Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Islands.
Many of these colonies are still part of the French Republic. France played an important role in both World War I and World War II, and was a founding member of NATO in 1949.
History of France
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What is the informal name of France? Answer options: Principal RepublicFirst RepublicSecond RepublicFifth Republic
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How did France originate?
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To the north of Languedoc stretched the country that the barbarian Franks conquered in ancient times - it was called Francia or France.
In the 8th century, the Franks were the first to create heavy knightly cavalry, and the great emperor Charles subjugated half of Europe - but Charles's weak successors could not restrain the willfulness of the knights.
Cheat Sheet: History of France in Modern Times
The once mighty state broke up into countless duchies, counties, baronies, and each owner of the castle considered himself the master of the district and master over the life and death of his peasants. Castles, formerly log towers, in the 12th century turned into stone fortresses with double walls, moats and drawbridges; over each castle towered an iron weather vane with the coat of arms of the owner - and France had more than ten thousand such owners.
Seniors fought among themselves, burned other people's villages, robbed on the roads; in times of relative peace, according to the old custom, they met in conventions and installed kings on the throne. In 987, they elected Duke Hugh Capet, ruler of the Ile-de-France, a region stretching from Paris to Orleans, as king of the Franks.
Hugo Capet was not the master even in his duchy, and his successors had to start with the subordination of local barons, who considered themselves fully entitled to fight with the “king of the Franks”.
Nevertheless, the Capetians managed to retain the crown: they made it a rule during the life of the king to gather congresses of the nobility for the coronation of the heir - and the nobility did not oppose this, because they did not take the royal title seriously.
By the beginning of the 12th century, the kings had brought order to their "domain", Ile-de-France, destroyed many castles and expelled the recalcitrant barons.
Bishops of neighboring regions began to turn to them for help: the church had long tried to stop private wars and establish "God's peace" - now it has acquired a strong ally, the king. Local councils imposed excommunication on the barons ruining the district and called against them the royal soldiers, who moved siege towers to the walls of the castles and smashed the gates with battering rams.
Cities, seeking to free themselves from the power of the lords, also sought an alliance with the king; with the permission of the king, they proclaimed themselves communes and paid a lot of money for their support. Money, in turn, made it possible to hire soldiers - after all, the word "soldier" comes from a coin - "soldo"; mercenary crossbowmen and mounted "sergeants" were much more disciplined than vassal knights, whose service lasted only forty days a year.
HISTORY OF THE STATE AND THE LAW OF FRANCE IN MODERN TIMES
plan
French state of the early period of the revolution of the 18th century
Gironde republic
Jacobin Republic
Thermal Republic
Legal monarchy
Another republic
Other empires
Rehabilitation of the Republic
The Paris Commune in 1871
Third Republic
The French state of the early period of the revolution of the 18th century.
The beginning of the revolution.
The root, the deep cause of the revolution, was the contradiction between the forces of production and the feudal coefficients of production that prevailed in the country that reached its peak. Feudalism could no longer ensure their further growth and objectively transform into their inhibition. People felt this primarily in connection with the intensification of feudal oppression.
Even the majority of industrialists, merchants and merchants were not satisfied with their situation.
Significant taxes and duties were applied, mainly related to the upkeep of the royal court and privileged possession.
Brief history of France by dates for schoolchildren. For short and only important events
The government repeatedly carried out the so-called "pressed sponges": the entrepreneur grew up without forgery, mostly illegally, thrown into prison and released only after he gave them a large ransom.
The domestic market was extremely narrow for the industry, since the farmer (most of the country's population) hardly bought manufactured goods. A large number of internal customs hindered trade. The production of products was hampered by the rules of trade.
Foreign trade, especially colonial trade, was artificially concentrated in the hands of a small group of privileged merchants who shared their income with the aristocratic nobility.
Most of the nobility and the high priest tried to keep the existing system. The main weapon of its defense, not without reason, can be seen in the feudal absolutist state.
Meanwhile, the country has matured in understanding the need for profound changes. For them, this is also ready for the bourgeoisie, economically and politically the most influential and most organized and, no less important, educated social group in the protefedalističnem movement.
At that time in France, the bourgeoisie began to call bankers, tax tax farmers, manufacturers, merchants and even big businessmen; Before the bourgeoisie, the bourgeois were indigenous peoples. Mainly due to financial and other support of the most famous works of the bourgeoisie by the ideologists of the Enlightenment - the theoretical thinkers of the movement, who were the subject of criticism of the feudal vision in the world of writing - absolutist arbitrariness, class privileges, medieval superstition and obscurantism.
Enlightened people, on the contrary, are a reactionary ideology with a new political perspective, which, they wrote, meets the requirements of a universal and timeless reason and justice. They studied the experience of the revolution in the Netherlands, England, the USA, including the practice of state building in these countries. Their views on a number of issues differed, but were generally united - in the need for serious state and legal reforms on a democratic basis.
In 1788
France was hit by a deep economic crisis. Due to the subsequent sharpening of the harvest, famine was threatened by farmers and poor cities in most countries. Production was limited and thousands of city workers lost their jobs. Rural upheavals began, which soon spread to the cities. What was new about these events was that the soldiers in several places refused to act against the people.
transformation general conditions to the constitutional assembly.
In a situation where, according to one of the ministers, "there is no obedience and cannot be persuaded by the army", the government was forced to refuse concessions. He announced the convocation of the general states, which had not been formed for more than 150 years.
In the opinion of the ruling circles, countries should help the monarchies overcome financial difficulties by accepting new taxes. But other hopes are connected with the "third property" of common states, which offered to carry out important changes in the social and national system of France.
Mandates for their deputies - representatives of the great bourgeoisie - need to limit royal tyranny, introduce the right to approve the budget, supervise its implementation, establish strict laws in the activities of administrative bodies and courts, eliminate guild rules, improve the difficult situation of farmers and others.
Opened in May 1789 General base. The ruling circles, who tried to maintain a pro-government majority, demanded that the old voting order be observed - each class has one vote.
Representatives of the third property did not agree with this. They demanded that meetings not be held separately in the classroom, but that decisions be taken by majority vote. members of the Third Estate. Only in this way can they count on the success of their efforts, since the number is equal to the number of members of the privileged classes, and they hope (later events showed that they do not mind) in support of some members of the privileged classes (the liberal nobility and the lower clergy).
In response to the government's refusal, new order voting members of the "third property" in June 1789, which was adopted by the National Assembly, a month later - in the Constituent Assembly, which, on behalf of the French people, demanded the right to repeal the old laws and adopt a new one.
The king and nobles decided to dissolve the assembly. At Versailles, where the meeting took place, troops were assembled. It seemed that the government did not interfere with finding out what was planned.
The Constitutional Assembly saved the people. When Paris knew about the imminent massacre with the anti-feudal movement, the people in Paris rose to an armed revolt. Most of the soldiers soon went over to their side, and almost all of Paris was in the hands of the rebels.
On July 14, they attacked the royal fortress - a prison in the Bastille. The day the Bastille fell was, in fact, a birthday new France and is now celebrated as a national holiday.
A constitutional monarchy. The revolution that began in Paris soon took over the whole country. The rebels were excommunicated from royal officials, farmers refused to fulfill feudal duties. In many provincial towns the old local authorities were abolished.
The vast majority of the forces were in obedience to the royal generals. The soldiers didn't want to shoot people.
Those at the top of the "third estate" (big bourgeoisie), dominated the Constituent Assembly (i.e., the capital), we used popular movement for the conquest of political power and locally. new local communities were created - municipalities, where leading role played by the richest man from the "third estate".
At the same time, the bourgeoisie began to create their own armed forces.
It was announced the recruitment of the national guard - the territorial militia. Each national guard had to buy expensive weapons and equipment at her own expense, which blocked access to the national guard for all affected citizens.
The great bourgeoisie financed the acquisition of weapons, training, etc. In the National Guard, it appointed its people to command positions. The head of the national guard was Marquez M. J-Lafayette, a participant in the North American Revolutionary War, which supports the moderate reforms that were very popular in the country at the time.
As a result, the country ended up in the hands of a political group that objectively represented the interests of wealthy bourgeois and liberal nobles.
Its leaders - the Marquis Lafayette - Abbé Sieys, the scientist, astronomer Bailey, the sociologist A. Barnave, A. Lamet, and especially Count Mirabeau - a brilliant orator, but an unscrupulous politician - did not demand the complete elimination of the old system. Their ideal was a constitutional monarchy, which is why they were called constitutionalists.
Them political activity was based on attempts to reach agreement with the nobility on the basis of mutual concessions.
"The abolition of feudalism". The "abolition of feudalism" was solemnly proclaimed at the Constitutional Assembly. However, the publication of this Act (August 1789) showed that the basic demands of the farmers had not been met. This is due to the abolition of relatively small so-called personal feudal rights (a favor, the right to a "dead hand", the exclusive right to hunt, etc.). With a free rejection of them, he easily agreed, especially since they were actually lost - the farmers ignored them from the first days of the revolution.
Everything else: land rights and actual payments and benefits associated with agriculture, preserved, the land belongs to the seigneur.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 On August 26, 1789, the founding assembly adopted the most important document of the revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Compiled as a program of the revolution, according to the plan of the creators, they contribute to the world of people, while maintaining "brotherly unity."
At the same time, its content largely depends on the specifics of a particular historical moment that the state is going through.
While political forces in the revolutionary camp they did not run away, and the interest in the victory of the revolution was predetermined by the general direction of its anti-factional struggle. Some revolutionaries and their ideologists still believed in the possibility of an immediate triumph of the ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity. However, many wanted to see the Declaration as a set of abstract principles that society should strive for, but not necessarily for immediate implementation. "The objectives of the Declaration," said one of its leading deputies, DuPont, in his speech before the Constitutional Assembly, to express the truth for all time and people.
Does that mean what if it was contrary to that part of the constitution that would be acceptable to us? “It is important that this statement does not contradict the ruling majority, but at the time of the adoption of the declaration, it gives an exception in case of its most progressive provisions.
The steels will be settled by tribes of Celts (Gauls). It was the Gauls who formed the basis of the French people, and the country in ancient times was called Gaul.
In the 7th-6th centuries BC, the Phoenicians and Greeks founded colonies here, from which the cities of Marseille, Nice, etc. originate. In 58-52 BC, Gaul was conquered by the Romans. The invasion of Germanic tribes in the 5th-7th centuries put an end to Roman domination in Gaul. The most stable power was created in Gaul by the Franks; at the beginning of the 6th century they conquered Gaul, giving their name to the country and people. The territory of modern France became the core of the Frankish state.
By the time France was formed as a state (9th-10th centuries), the country was divided into many feudal principalities, which had stable borders and their own linguistic features.
The largest feudal association in northern France was the Duchy of Normandy. In the extreme northeast, the county of Flanders was strong. In the west, the duchy of Brittany had complete independence. Royal possessions occupied lands along the middle reaches of the Seine and Loire.
In the south of the country, the duchies of Toulouse, Gascony, Aquitaine, the counties of March, Auvergne, Bourbonne were almost completely beyond the control of the king.
Starting from the 30s of the 19th century, France pursued an active aggressive policy in, and by the beginning of World War I became the second colonial empire after Great Britain.
1 World War led to major changes in the French economy. Alsace and Lorraine were returned, the Saar was transferred to the hands of France for 15 years. By the end of the 20s of the 20th century, France turned into an industrial-agrarian country.
During World War II, Paris and 2/3 of the country's territory were occupied. Important role in the fight against fascism played the movement " free france which was led from London by General Charles de Gaulle.
The war had rather severe consequences for France. The population has decreased by 1.1 million people. The country's dependence on the United States has increased. National liberation wars in the colonies led to the collapse of the French colonial empire.
In 1946, a new constitution (the Fourth Republic) was adopted. In 1949, France entered the bloc.
In 1958, General de Gaulle was elected president of France, the parliamentary constitution of 1946 was abolished and a new one was approved, that is, the Fifth Republic appeared. France left the military organization of NATO (but remained in the political one). France has been a member of the European Economic Community (now the EU) since 1958.
Sealine - tours to France
History of France (key dates)
1st century BC – 3rd century ADActive Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman structures still remain today.
4th century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its high school(study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)
5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the Germanic tribes of the Suebi, Burgundians and Franks, the Roman troops withdrew from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.
Around 450
Under the onslaught of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.
451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated Attila's Huns in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.
5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousine and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.
482
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the tribal union of the Franks. The ruler of the Franks Holdwig founded the Frankish state of the Merovingians. The Franks retained the Roman cities and system of government.
496
The Franks converted to Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope of Rome against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.
6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a code of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law are preserved.
511 year
Holdwig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritances of his sons.
6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians was formed. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.
6th century, end - 7th century, beginning
During the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the northwest, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the southwest) and Austrasia (northeastern part of Gaul, settled by the East Franks later became part of Germany).
687
Mayor Pepin II (administrator of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated in his hands the real power in the Frankish state.
732 year
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish Major Karl Martel (nickname means "hammer") defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.
737 year
Charles Martell seized power in the Frankish state.
751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded the new Carolingian dynasty.
768-789 years
Charlemagne (742-814) became the French king. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example, an administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. An active foreign policy was carried out (the creation of border stamps, for example, Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flowering of culture under him was called the "Carolingian Renaissance". Schools were opened at all the monasteries of the Frankish state.
800 year
The state of the Franks turned into a huge "Holy Roman Empire", covering western part Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, led by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Romance culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, assimilating the Gallo-Romance speech and enriching it with Germanic words. Official language Frankish Roman state.
842
Exchange of "Oaths" (the first document on French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
843
Treaty of Verdun - the division of the Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.
9th century, middle
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the duchy of Normandy (911).
X century
France was divided into counties and duchies.
X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.
910
Abbey of Cluny founded.
987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count Hugh Capet of Paris is elected King of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.
1060-1108 years
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of the communes with the lords became a means of strengthening the Royal power. As they joined the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.
1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to "liberate the Holy Sepulcher"
1096-1099
I Crusade. It consisted of two parts - the campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (The Hermit) along the path of pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first Jewish pogroms in the history of medieval Europe took place. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, southern France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the Jerusalem state and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the principality of Antioch.
Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek "pure") spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, submission to the state, demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.
1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which was the reason for the II Crusade, led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Alleonora of Aquetaine, Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou married her.
1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou fell under his rule and cut off access to the sea to the royal domain. There was an instant conflict between England and France.
1209-1228
The kings and knights of northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathars and Waldenses) heresy in the south, subjected the southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living to a terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.
Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.
1226-1270 years
Louis IX Saint.
1248-1254 years
Saint Louis IX led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.
1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but having reached Tunis, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.
1285 - 1314
Philip IV Handsome.
1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was cut out, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Handsome led his knights to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, removed their golden spurs (the distinction of a knighthood and hung them in the church. The States General were convened - a class assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, taxable estate).
1306
Philip IV the Beautiful confiscated the property of the Jews (mainly usurers) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).
1307
The order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the pope dissolved the order.
1328-1350 years
Philip VI the beginning of the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).
1337-1453 years
Hundred Years War with England.
1380-1422 years
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity.
1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - Armagnacs and Burgundians. Revolts in Paris, convocation of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.
1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.
1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.
1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when this succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place for the coronation of French kings.
1430
In the battle with the British at Compiègne, Jeanne with a detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges were dropped from Jeanne, and she became a national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.
1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.
1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions, except for the city of Calais.
1461-1483 years
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: "He who does not know how to pretend, he does not know how to manage." Crafts and trade revived. The embryos of the economic policy of mercantilism, which is based on a positive trade balance, have emerged. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly overshadowed those in Geneva).
1477
Accession of Burgundy to the royal possessions after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.
1483-1498 years
Reign of Charles VIII.
1515-1547
Reign of Francis I.
1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.
1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de Medici became regent under the minor under the minor Francis II, then under Charles IX.
1562-1592
Religious Wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the blurring of regional differences.
1589
A Dominican monk killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.
1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (until 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting "all lands where French is spoken."
1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Established freedom of Protestant worship. Catholics and Protestants are equal in rights.
1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under which religious peace was established, the state of finance and government improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the years of the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the assassination of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Ancor and Marshal of France.
1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luin appropriated their huge fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie Medici.
1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped the Protestants in Germany in the fight against the Habsburgs.
1624-1642
Reign of Richelieu under Louis XIII. Richelieu contributed to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy and actually created centralized state France.
1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" is founded.
1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.
1648
According to the results Thirty Years' War France occupied a dominant position in central Europe.
1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV with the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.
1664
Colbert founded the West Indies and New East Indies Campaigns.
1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert is appointed Comptroller General of France's finances. Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized the financial system and ensured economic growth.
1669
The construction of the Palace of Versailles began.
1685
Cancellation of the Edict of Nantes on the freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.
1701-1714
War of the Spanish Succession: Austria, Holland, the Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson of Louis XIV) became King of Spain. France lost part of the American possessions.
XVIII century of enlightenment
1715
After the death of Louis XIV king became his great-grandson Louis XV (until 1774). The country is heavily devastated: "1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms."
1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.
1774-1793 years
Reign of Louis XVI.
1781
Report of the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.
1788
The Treasury has declared bankruptcy.
1789-1794
The French Revolution.
1789
After a 175-year break, the States General convened. A month and a half later, the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue of the Great French Revolution. The bourgeois demanded equality before the law, the abolition of tax privileges.
1789
Summer. Peasant uprisings, the abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted.
1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.
1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and that a republic be proclaimed.
1791 end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.
1792 August 10
The storming of the royal palace of the Tuileries, the overthrow of the monarchy (the king and his family are imprisoned).
1793 April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins, headed by Danton.
1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: the Dantonists (Danton) and the Héberists (Hébert).
1794 mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).
1794 April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.
1794 July 26
Thermidorian revolution. The Jacobin club is closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just are arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.
1794 October
Ecole Normal is established - educational institution for teacher training.
1795
The Institute of France, the highest science Center countries.
1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian troops.
1798
The Egyptian campaign of Napoleon, the capture of Malta, the victory of Admiral Nelson at Abikur. Napoleon returned to France.
1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. Under the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.
1802
Napoleon appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms started.
1804
Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, the nobility was restored, state power was strengthened, the Civil Code (Napoleon Code) was put into effect.
1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.
1807
Peace of Tilsit - Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. The first meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I.
1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, the capture of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.
1813
French troops expelled from Spain. Strengthened anti-French coalition. Battle of Leipzig - "Battle of the Nations", the defeat of Napoleon.
April 1814
Allied troops (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was left with the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. After the abdication of Napoleon, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) received power. Civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code were preserved in the country. The Treaty of Paris is relatively soft conditions for France, which lost the war.
1815
"Napoleon's Hundred Days": Napoleon's landing on the southern coast of France, march on Paris. Louis XVIII fled. Empire restored. The battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, a link to the island of St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).
1821
Death of Napoleon.
1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.
1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as king. The flag of France became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but swept Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, Switzerland.
1840
The ashes of Napoleon were transported to Paris.
February 1848
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis-Philippe abdicated. Republic proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.
1848
The victory of the Republicans in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.
1848 February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (Napoleon I's nephew) became President of France.
1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. The victory of the monarchists over the republicans.
1850
Transfer Law public education clergy.
1851
Disbanded the National Assembly. Louis Napoloen is endowed with dictatorial powers, censorship has been introduced.
1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).
1870
France declared war on Prussia. Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered, abdicated. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.
1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.
1871, March 18-May 16
Paris Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The Cabinet of Ministers and the army fled to Versailles.
1871
The commune was defeated by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.
1871 August
The National Assembly elected Thiers President of the French Republic.
1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.
1894
President assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.
1895
The Lumiere brothers invented the cinematograph
1789 - The French Revolution puts an end to the royal unlimited monarchy. The Bastille, a state prison and a symbol of the unlimited power of kings, was taken by the people of Paris on July 14, 1789 and destroyed a little later. There are no more subordinates here, but there are citizens. Established civil equality, proclaimed human rights.
1792 - After passing through the crises and cruelties of this period that followed the revolution, and which was called the era of terror, the government - the National Convention - proclaims the first republic in France.
1804 - Having become emperor under the name Napoleon, Bonaparte proclaims an empire and wages wars against England and the countries of Europe. After some famous victories won by the Allied Powers, Napoleon's empire collapses in 1814.
1830 - Revolution of July 1830 ends with accession to the throne french king Louis Philippe. In memory of these events, a bronze column rises in Place de la Bastille in Paris.
1848 – revolutionary movement in February 1848 led to the proclamation of the second republic, which ended the monarchy of Louis Philippe.
1852-1870 - The second republic was followed by the restoration of the empire. After the authoritarian period, the empire becomes more liberal. The years of the second empire of Napoleon III were a period of material prosperity, rapid development industry and trade. The defeat of France in the war of 1870 ended the era of the second empire.
1870 - France declares war on Prussia. French attempts cannot prevent the surrender of Paris. France loses its territories - Alsace and Lorraine.
1871 - The revolutionary government - the Comunne of Paris - is overthrown by the standing army of Thiers, who brutally suppresses the uprising.
1870-1940 - The political regime, which was born after the surrender of France in the Franco-Prussian war (3rd Republic), carries out democratic reforms: freedom and the press, secular education, separation of church and state.
1914-1918 - In 1914, France is drawn into the war declared by Germany. In it, she wins, but with heavy losses.
1939-1944 - France declares war on Germany, but Germany in turn invades in May 1940. Part of France is occupied, the government adopts a policy of cooperation with the Germans. General de Gaulle creates the Resistance, which organizes and expands. In 1944, the Allies landed in Normandy and broke through towards Paris, which was liberated on August 25.
1944 - After the liberation of the country, the constitution, adopted by referendum, proclaims the 4th republic.
1958 - After the political and social crisis, the Constitution of the 5th Republic was adopted, which significantly strengthens the authority of President Charles de Gaulle. 1968 - In May, a deep university and social crisis occurs in France. General de Gaulle resigns. Other presidents of the 5th republic: George Pompidou, Valerie Giscard d Estaing, Francois Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy.
- 1789–1791
- 1791–1793
- 1793–1799
- 1799–1814
Napoleon's coup and the establishment of the empire - 1814–1848
- 1848–1851
- 1851–1870
- 1870–1875
Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic
In 1787, an economic recession began in France, gradually turning into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters, leading to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took loans, the interest on which was unbearable for it. The only way to increase revenues to the treasury was to deprive the tax privileges of the first and second estates Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three classes: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - all the rest. The first two classes had a number of privileges, including being exempted from the need to pay taxes..
Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting the resistance of the noble parliaments. Parliaments- before the revolution, the highest courts of the fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Parlement of Paris existed, then the remaining thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the Estates General Estates General- a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three classes. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters issued orders to deputies: few people wanted a revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, while at the same time counting on limiting its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as their property; among the townspeople, the ideas of the Enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the well-known brochure of Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes “What is the third estate?” was published, containing the following passage: “1. What is the third estate - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something"). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, not the king, should have the highest power in the country, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly defined laws that are the same for all citizens.
The Great French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy
The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Hoehl. 1789Bibliothèque nationale de France
Chronology
Beginning of the Estates General
Proclamation of the National Assembly
Storming of the Bastille
Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Adoption of the first French constitution
On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the Estates General opened at Versailles. By tradition, each class had one vote during the voting. Deputies from the third estate, who were twice as many as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up for discussion only financial reforms. On June 17, the deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new state system in France.
Soon a rumor spread around Paris that the government was gathering troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.
After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the highest authority in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from August 5 to August 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were abolished.
The overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.
Having adopted the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. The laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official who obeyed the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; Church property was nationalized and sold.
Symbols
"Freedom equality Brotherhood ". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected in 1789 to the States General from the third estate.
Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its storming had a symbolic, not pragmatic meaning, although it was taken in the hope of finding weapons there. By decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration of the Rights of Man stated that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and declared natural and inalienable human rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.
The execution of the king and the establishment of the republic
last moments life of Louis XVI. Engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793
Wellcome Library
Chronology
Beginning of the war with Austria
The overthrow of Louis XVI
Start of the National Convention
Execution of Louis XVI
On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm II and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military . Girondins Girondins- a circle that has developed around the deputies from the Gironde department, who advocated further transformations, but held relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the king's execution., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to go to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When the French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.
Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of treason. national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned its powers: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, it was collected new law The legislative body is the elected National Convention, which first of all proclaimed France a republic.
In December, the trial began, which found the king guilty of maliciously against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.
Symbols
Marseillaise. March written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, part-time poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost that status under Napoleon, and finally regained it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of left-wing resistance.
Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate
The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870
Alte Nationalgalerie Berlin
Chronology
By decree of the Convention, an Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established, which in October will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal
Creation of the Committee of Public Safety
Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention
Adoption of the Year I Constitution, or Montañar Constitution
Decree on the introduction of a new calendar
Thermidorian coup
Execution of Robespierre and his supporters
Adoption of the Constitution III year. Formation of the Directory
Coup of 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate
Despite the execution of the king, France continued to suffer setbacks in the war. Monarchist rebellions broke out inside the country. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to try "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the internal and foreign policy countries.
Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship
The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Montagnards competing with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, based, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. sent against the Girondins disaffected urban poor.
On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention demanding the exclusion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.
The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution adopted in 1793 did not enter into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Practically all power was now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissars with great powers to the localities. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotining. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the lands of emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most necessary goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid shortages, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.
By the end of 1793, most of the rebellions were suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the Suspicious Law, which ordered the detention of all people who were not accused of any crime, but could have committed one. From June 1794, interrogations of defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as mandatory interrogations of witnesses, were abolished at the Revolutionary Tribunal; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.
Thermidorian coup
In the spring of 1794, the Robespierreists began to talk about the need for a final wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were in danger. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II of the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention who feared for their lives. On July 28 they were executed.
After the coup, terror quickly declined, the Jacobin Club Jacobin club- a political club formed in 1789 and meeting in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assembly, and later to the Convention; they played a big role in the ongoing policy of terror. was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.
Directory
In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was handed over to the bicameral Legislative Corps, and the executive to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, whom the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) chose from a list submitted by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house). The members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not too successfully: for example, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the results of the elections in The legislative body in many regions of France, since the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition, received the majority.
Coup of 18 Brumaire
A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire, 8th year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also deprived of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. All three conspirators became them.
Symbols
Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To white color Bourbon, which was used on the flag before the revolution, were added blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard.
Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was put into circulation, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar received new names: time from the revolution had to start anew. In 1806 the calendar was abolished.
Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public even before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.
The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of the empire
Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Fragment of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804
Chronology
Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul
The adoption of the Constitution of the X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life
Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor
On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution of Year VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were actually abolished.
In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became for life, and the first consul received the right to appoint his successor.
In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was uncovered, the purpose of which was to assassinate Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary in order to exclude such a thing in the future.
Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "Emperor of the French", who declared Napoleon Bonaparte. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.
In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of landed property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: due to constant recruitment into the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with an excess of workers, which led to an increase in income. He dealt harshly with the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France, became enormous.
Symbols
Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.
Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.
Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called the Napoleon (Napoléon d’or, literally “golden Napoleon”) received circulation: it depicted the profile of Bonaparte.
Legion of Honor. Order founded by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special merits to France.
Restoration of the Bourbons and the July Monarchy
Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830
Musee du Louvre
Chronology
Napoleon's invasion of Russia
Capture of Moscow
Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")
Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of King Louis XVIII
Promulgation of the Charter of 1814
Escape of Napoleon from Elba
Capture of Paris
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon's abdication
Accession to the throne of Charles X
Signing of the July ordinances
Mass unrest
Abdication of Charles X
The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on he became king of the French, Louis Philippe I.
As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries subject to him to trade with England - as a result of the industrial revolution, England forced out French goods from the markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis had affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin a retreat from Moscow, which was occupied in September.
Restoration of the Bourbons
On October 16-19, 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.
Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two chambers of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was again established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of prosperity.
One Hundred Days of Napoleon
Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate with European countries the peace failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated again, and on July 15 he surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.
July Revolution
In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chambers of Deputies were closed, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.
The ordinances of Charles X caused mass indignation. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution ended, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated and left for England.
The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation, became the new king of France. During his coronation, he took an oath on the Charter of 1830 drawn up by deputies and became not "king by the grace of God" like his predecessors, but "king of the French". The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.
Symbols
Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle returned to replace the coat of arms with three lilies, symbolizing royalty already in the Middle Ages.
"Liberty Leading the People". Eugène Delacroix's famous painting, centered on Marianne (since 1792 symbolizing the French Republic) holding the French tricolor as a symbol of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.
Revolution of 1848 and establishment of the Second Republic
Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux
Musee du Petit-Palais, Paris
Chronology
The beginning of the riots
Resignation of the Guizot government
Approval of a new constitution that consolidated the republican form of government
General presidential election, victory for Louis Bonaparte
By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded the expansion of suffrage, others demanded the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. In 1846 and 1847 there was a poor harvest. Hunger has begun. Since rallies were banned, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts to the republic were proclaimed. Political banquets were also banned in February.
Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd was waiting for him to leave the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired, most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. Parliament (returning the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.
On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election took place, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans received only 70 seats.
Symbols
Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.
1851 coup and Second Empire
Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855
Chronology
Dissolution of the National Assembly
Promulgation of the new constitution. By changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year, the Second Empire was created
Napoleon's proclamation III Emperor French
The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of either the President, or the Parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's presidential term was coming to an end. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.
Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, supported by the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The riots that began in Paris and in the provinces were harshly suppressed.
Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, extending the presidential powers for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, with the deputies of its upper house appointed by the president for life.
Empire Restoration
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.
Until the 1860s, the powers of Parliament were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but from the 1860s the course changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon started new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation its own state.
Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was chosen, headed by Adolphe Thiers.
On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections were held for the National Assembly, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many citizens perceived as treason.
In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the National Guard's salaries and tried to disarm it.
Parisian Commune
On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally crushed - a week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".
After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was saved. In 1875, the Constitutional Laws were passed, which approved the post of president and a parliament elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.
Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power passing from one president to another as a result of elections.
Symbols
Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but the members of the commune, among whom were many socialists, preferred a single color red. The paraphernalia of the Paris Commune, one of the key events for the formation of communist ideology, was adopted by Russian revolutionaries as well.
Vendôme column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875 the column was installed again.
Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine style basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and has become one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.
The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material.
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