Vietnam in the Middle Ages. Socialist Republic of Vietnam: sights and history of education
Short story Vietnam, like the history of all ancient countries, is lost in the mists of time, turning into legends. It is clear that in the fertile water meadows of southern China and in the valley of the Red River around Tonkin, the ancestors of the Kinh (as the Vietnamese call themselves) settled 3-4 thousand years ago.
The history of the Vietnamese people and their long struggle for freedom and independence is closely connected with the territorial expansion in a southerly direction. Defending against China in the north, the ancient Viet gradually extended their power over the declining kingdoms of Tyampa and Cambodia in the south.
Legendary Rulers
Vietnamese legend says that Emperor Ze Min, a descendant of the Chinese deity - the patron of agriculture, married the daughter of the fairy Wu, and one of their sons, Kinh Duong-duong, became the ancestor of the Viet. He, in turn, married the daughter of a dragon, the lord of Dongting Lake in China, and their son Lac Long Quan became the first ruler of the Vietnamese state.
To maintain peace with powerful Chinese neighbors - a theme recurring throughout Vietnamese history - Lac Long Quan married the mountain fairy Au Co, who bore him one hundred sons. Subsequently, the eldest of them succeeded Lak Long Quan, marking the beginning of the Hung dynasty.
Instead of viewing the Hung Dynasty as a historical fact, it should be treated as a heroic legend created to glorify ancient history Vietnam. At this time, both the Han Chinese and the Vietnamese had a need to expand their territories to the south, which marked the beginning of their millennial rivalry.
In 258 BC. e. Thuc Phan, one of the leaders of the mountain tribes of the Au Viet, overthrew the 18th king of the Hung dynasty and founded the new Vietnamese state of Au Lak with its capital in Koloa, a little north of modern Hanoi. About half a century later, in 207 BC. BC, the rebellious Chinese commander Zhao Tuo conquered Au Lak and proclaimed his authority over Nam Viet, a state that occupied the territory of modern Guangxi province in South China and the Red River Delta in North Vietnam. Chinese rule over Nam Viet was confirmed in 111 BC. BC, when the heirs of Zhao Tuo formally swore allegiance to the Han emperor Wu Di, which extended the power of China south to the Hai Wang Pass and made Nam Viet the Chinese province of Jiao Shi.
Tran Quoc Pagoda in Hanoi was built during the early Ly dynasty.
Briefly about the history of the millennium of Chinese rule in Vietnam
In the 1st century n. e. the attempts of the Chinese to impose their customs among the population of Jiaoshi caused strong resistance from the Viet. In 40, this led to the first major Vietnamese uprising against the Chinese, led by the Trung sisters, two aristocrats who proclaimed themselves co-rulers of a united Vietnam. The Chung sisters are still regarded as national heroines, but their attempt to free themselves from Chinese rule was short-lived. Three years later, General Ma Yuan regained control over this territory and began to intensively Sinicize the population. And gradually he began to succeed.
For the next 900 years, the Viet remained under the yoke of China, despite a number of major uprisings. In 544, the Viet leader Li Bong led another rebellion, which resulted in partial independence after the accession of the Early Li dynasty, but in 603 it was crushed by Chinese armies. The victorious Chinese renamed the country Annam, or the Pacified South. However, this turned out to be an attempt to wishful thinking. In 938, the Viet, under the leadership of Ngo Cuyen, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Chinese at the Battle of the Bakhdang River and restored their independence, putting an end to the thousand-year Chinese rule. They finally gained freedom, but by this time they had become the most sinicized people in Southeast Asia, in contrast to the neighboring Chams, Thais and Khmers, who fell under the cultural influence of India.
The Vietnamese have learned at least one valuable lesson in their centuries of confrontation with China. The Chinese threat did not disappear, but it was necessary to get along with their northern neighbors. And they succeeded thanks to a combination of desperate resistance to Chinese aggression with humble apologies to the Dragon Throne for each of their victories. This cunning tactic was formalized in 968, when Din Bo Lin, the founder of the Dinh imperial dynasty, confirmed the independence of Vietnam, but agreed to pay tribute to China every three years.
Vietnam expands south
Starting from the XI century. Vietnam found new ways to imitate China, its neighbor, which aroused both fear and admiration. Firstly, Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, and not Theravada, practiced in other countries of Southeast Asia, became the main religion in the country. Confucianism was also enthusiastically accepted by the Chinese and formed the basis of state administration.
Secondly, the Vietnamese people, sandwiched between the more numerous Chinese in the north and the high Annamite Cordillera in the west, began to spread their influence in the only available direction - to the south. From the new capital, Thanglong, or the Soaring Dragon (later renamed Hanoi), began Long story conquest of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Tyampa.
An example of Hindu culture: the Cham carving of Shiva from My Son
The Viet, having repulsed the Mongol invasion in 1279, in the second battle on the Bakhdang River, continued to hold the north of the country. By the XIV century. all of Central Vietnam, up to the Hai Van Pass, was conquered, and the city of Hue came under the control of the Viet. Then the Chinese again took possession of this territory, but in 1428 as a result liberation war under the leadership of Le Loy, the Viet gained independence again. Meanwhile, in the south, Vijaya's Vijaya capital was destroyed by Viet troops, and the Champa kingdom was reduced to a tiny size.
By the beginning of the XVI century. It seemed that nothing threatened the Vietnamese state - Dai Viet, in fact, history presented Vietnam with new tests.
In 1516, the first Europeans (Portuguese sailors) arrived in the country. In addition, in the far south, after the collapse of the Thiampa kingdom, rival claimants to power in Hanoi appeared among the Viet themselves. In 1527, the country was divided into two parts: the Mak dynasty (and later Chin) ruled from Hanoi lands in the Red River Delta, and the Nguyen dynasty, with its capital in Hue, dominated the south of the country.
By the 17th century instead of the Portuguese, the French became the most influential Europeans here, especially in the central and southern regions of the country. They brought with them Catholicism, which gradually spread throughout the country, despite the opposition of the followers of Confucianism and Buddhism. As a result, the Vietnamese Christian community became the second largest in Asia, second only to the Filipino. Finally, the French missionary priest Alexandre de Rode developed the romanized Vietnamese writing system, Quoc Ngy, which is still in use today.
In 1757, Vietnamese settlers bypassed the last fortification of the chams between Phan Rang and Phan Thiet and set about conquering the Mekong Delta, which was under the rule of Cambodia. During this expansion, the Khmer settlement of Preinokor was taken from the Cambodians and renamed Saigon. In the 19th century the last Cham resistance was finally broken, and Vietnam received complete control over the territories that it still controls today.
Hyonnyong Gate in Hue, the capital of the Nguyen Dynasty
Nguyen emperors and French conquest
In 1802, the ruler Nguyen Anh defeated his northern opponents and founded the Nguyen dynasty (1802 - 1945) with its capital in Hue, where he proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long. For the first time in Vietnamese history, the center of power has shifted from the Red River Delta in the south to the center of the country. However, the power of the Nguyen did not remain unchallenged for long. In 1858, France captured Da Nang and Saigon, laying the foundation for its colonies at Annam and Cochin. In 1883, with the support modern weapons and unshakable faith in their civilizing mission, the French declared a colony and Thin, and Vietnam became a French protectorate. In 1887, this provision was legally enshrined; The French, having united Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, formed the Indochinese Union (French Indochina).
It is not difficult to guess that the Vietnamese rejected the imperialist ambitions of France. This proud people, who had resisted Chinese rule for two millennia, could not meekly submit to the French.
In 1890, Ho Chi Minh, the future leader of the Vietnamese struggle for independence, was born in the small Vietnamese village of Kimlien. In 1918 he went to Paris, and three years later joined the French Communist Party. In 1930, Ho Chi Minh visited Moscow, became an agent of the Comintern, and founded the Communist Party of Indochina in Hong Kong. The French did not yet know about this, but the threat was already hanging over them.
Ho Chi Minh continued to work with his compatriots during the war years and the Japanese occupation that ended in 1945. Of course, the communists were not the only force opposed to French imperialism - Vietnamese of all political persuasions strove for freedom - but the communists were undoubtedly better organized the rest.
Ho Chi Minh in field uniform
Three Indochinese Wars
After the Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945, events began to develop with increasing speed. On August 23, Bao Dai, the last emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty, abdicated. And just ten days later, on September 2, 1945, in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam.
The First Indochina War began after the French attempted to restore colonial rule. Things did not go well for them, and in 1954 they suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu from Vo Nguyen Giap, the best commander of Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam, with its capital in Saigon, was ruled by the pro-Western Catholic politician Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1955, Diem refused to hold elections, and the Viet Minh troops, with the support of Hanoi, launched an armed offensive in the south. This led to the outbreak of the Second Indochinese War - the Vietnamese call it the American War - which devastated the country for almost twenty years. In 1960, in a poorly calculated attempt to contain the spread of communism, the US sent advisers to support the southern regime. Five years later, in 1965, the US Air Force began regular bombing in the north, and in the south, in Da Nang, they landed troops. By 1968, the number of American troops in Vietnam had increased to 500,000, but that same year, the Tet, or New Year's, offensive by the Viet Cong troops undermined Washington's resolve to continue the war, and in 1973 the last American soldiers were evacuated from Vietnam. Two years later, in April 1975, the North Vietnamese army captured Saigon, and the country became united again.
French tank abandoned after the First Indochina War
Hanoi's victory led to the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV). There was no major bloodshed, but a strict command economy was established, and for more than a decade the Vietnamese suffered from poverty and political oppression. Added to this was the Third Indochina War (1978-1979), when Vietnam invaded Cambodia to overthrow the deadly Khmer regime, but was itself invaded, as a lesson, by communist China.
History of Vietnam's economic growth
At the 6th Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party, party leaders launched an ambitious social and economic reform program called doi moi (Renewal). Collectivization was revised, more attention was paid to labor productivity and the personal rights of citizens. The pace of agricultural production grew rapidly, as a result, Vietnam became one of the major exporters of rice. For 10 years, the growth of the Vietnamese economy was more than 7% per year, but in 2008 inflation began, and economic development slowed down. Despite these successes, political control remains tight and citizens' personal rights remain limited.
Fisherwoman in Mui Ne
Vietnam War
History of Vietnam briefly
Despite the fact that Vietnam was not in the center of attention of the world political forces throughout history, the first state was formed here a very long time ago. More than three thousand years ago, the kingdom of Vanlang was located here, later it was replaced by the kingdoms of Au Lac and Nam Viet. However, the territory of Vietnam in 221 AD. came under the rule of China, from this date it is customary to count the history of Vietnam. Briefly her further fate can be described as follows: throughout its history, Vietnam has tried to get out of Chinese power. For the first time he was able to achieve independence in 939, in the XIV century he was again captured by China, and again released.
In the 17th century it was divided into southern and northern kingdoms, and after 100 years European expansion began here. The French seized power in the country, "to protect the rights of Christians in Vietnam." During the Second World War, the country was seriously affected by the Japanese troops, and immediately after it was freed from French rule. After several decades of internal strife, supported by American (overtly) and Soviet (covertly) troops, the country was finally united in 1976. Modern Vietnam is a country with a developing economy. Various industries are actively developing here.
Vietnam occupies 331,210 km of territory, and its population exceeds 92 million people. It has its own currency - the Vietnamese dong, and the capital is the city of Hanoi. The Vietnamese are warlike but friendly people. Tourists can personally get acquainted with all the features of the local culture, the puppet theater on the water is especially impressive. This kind of art, characteristic of the Far Eastern world. The artists control the puppets by standing in the water and hiding behind wicker screens. Although Hanoi is the capital of the country, Ho Chi Minh City remains its cultural center - here is the Nha Trang Cathedral, which is the center of the religious life of Catholics in Vietnam. Their number is quite large, and, remarkably, there is no friction in the country due to differences in religious issues.
IN political history Vietnam, the following main trends can be traced: expansion to the south, geographic regionalism (formed on the basis of administrative division or thanks to the informal power that the provincial governors acquired) and the desire of the central government to control the actions of local leaders. It should be noted that there were few peaceful periods in the history of Vietnam. Vanlang was the oldest Vietnamese state. He was replaced by Aulac, who united with another state - Nam Viet (258-111 BC). Its rulers, apparently, managed in the 190-180s BC. unite Tonkin (now the northern part of North Vietnam) with the southern Chinese lands. In 111 BC The army of the Chinese Han Empire overthrew the last monarch of the Vietnamese Chieu dynasty, probably also of Chinese origin. Tonkin then became the Chinese frontier province of Jiaozhi. When the new overlords came into conflict with the feudal structures that existed in Vietnam, there was a rebellion led by the Trung sisters (39–43 AD), which led to a brief end to Chinese rule. The second stage of Chinese dominance began in 44 and was interrupted only after the rebellion of prominent representatives of the Li dynasty (544–602). After 939, when the founder of the Ngo dynasty seized power, Vietnam managed to gain independence, albeit with some elements of Chinese suzerainty, which continued until the period of French colonial rule.
Having achieved independence, the Vietnamese expanded their lands from Tonkin to northern Annam, ousted the Khmers and Chams - farmers, sailors and merchants. Pretenders to the Vietnamese throne often turned to Chinese emperors for help, whose invasions ended, as a rule, in failure. Even the Mongol armies of Khubilai, who undertook campaigns in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, were twice (in 1285 and 1288) defeated by the Vietnamese commander Tran Hung Dao. In 1407, a Chinese invasion temporarily restored the power of the Chan dynasty, which ruled from 1225 to 1400. During the liberation war led by Le Loi, the founder of the Le dynasty, the Chinese imperial troops were finally expelled from Vietnam (1427).
Under the Le dynasty (1428–1789), significant progress was made in administration, improvement of legislation, and development of culture. But since the 16th century Le reigned nominally. Initially, the powerful Mac family appropriated real power. With the move of Nguyen Hoang to the south in 1558, the power of the Nguyen clan was formed, and at the end of the 16th century. in the north of the country, the power of the Chin clan is formalized. Le remained nominally sacred figures until the fall of the dynasty. The Nguyen gradually came to the fore, as they managed to expand their zone of influence, spreading it at the end of the 17th century. to the Mekong valley and then to the whole of Cochin (1757).
The unstable balance of power between the Trinh and Nguyen houses was upset after 1773, when the three Tay Son brothers rebelled against both ruling clans, which led to the split of the country. One of the exiled members of the Nguyen clan, with the support of the French in the 1790s, emerged victorious from internecine battles and subsequently proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long (1802). The Nguyen dynasty gradually weakened due to uprisings in the south and north of Vietnam, which facilitated French expansion in the middle of the 19th century. France subjugated in 1862 three eastern and in 1867 three western provinces of Cochinchina, which in 1874 acquired the status of a colony. Northern (Tonkin) and central (Annam) parts of the country were turned into protectorates. All three regions, together with Laos and Cambodia, formed French Indochina, which the new government sought to consolidate administratively with the help of a common budget and a single program of public works. During the colonial period, a state monopoly on salt, liquor, and opium was introduced, and the construction of bridges, railways, and horse-drawn roads was encouraged.
In 1930, on the initiative of the Vietnamese National Party (Vietnam Quoc Zan Dang), created on the model of the Chinese National Party (Kuomintang), an armed Yenbai uprising broke out in the area northwest of Hanoi. After its suppression, the resistance movement was headed by the Communist Party of Indochina, formed in 1930 by Ho Chi Minh. During the period when the Popular Front was in power in France, the Vietnamese communists, together with the Trotskyists, expanded their influence and even participated in Cochin and Saigon in local government elections. In 1940-1941, the Communists led an unsuccessful uprising in the far south, while the Tai organized unrest in the north.
From July 1941 to August 1945, Japanese troops occupied all of Vietnam. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnam Independence League, known as the Viet Minh.
At the end of World War II, detachments of the Kuomintang Chinese entered the northern part of the country, and the British entered the territory of South Vietnam. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, made Hanoi their base and formed "People's Committees" throughout Vietnam. On September 2, 1945, after the abdication of Emperor Bao Dai (belonging to the Nguyen dynasty), the Viet Minh, which enjoyed the favor of China as a result of the August Revolution, announced the creation Democratic Republic Vietnam (DRV) and formed an interim government, whose chairman was Ho Chi Minh.
In accordance with the Vietnamese-French agreements of 1946, France agreed to recognize the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as a "free state" with an army and a parliament, as part of the Indochinese Confederation and the French Union. The first president of the DRV was Ho Chi Minh, who simultaneously headed the government as prime minister. At the end of 1946, France and the Viet Minh accused each other of violating the agreements, and on December 19, Viet Minh detachments attacked French troops. France sought to win over the local population, placing in 1949 the former emperor Bao Dai in charge of a nominally independent government. However, the Việt Minh refused to recognize the new regime, and after 1949 consolidated its position with the support of China. In turn, since 1951 France has received major military and economic aid from the United States. In the spring of 1954, French troops were surrounded and defeated at Dien Bien Phu. This circumstance and the demand of the international community to stop the aggression hastened the conclusion of a peace agreement at the international conference in Geneva.
The meeting was attended by representatives of the USA, France, Great Britain, the USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia and two Vietnamese governments: Bao Dai (South Vietnam) and Viet Minh (Northern Vietnam). The agreement on the cessation of hostilities between France and the Viet Minh, signed in July 1954, provided for the temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel; the holding in July 1956 of elections necessary for the reunification of North and South Vietnam; the withdrawal of French military units from the North and the prohibition of the buildup of armaments in any of the zones; the formation of an international commission to oversee the implementation of the agreement. Thus, the existence of two independent states was recognized - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Northern Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). North Vietnam retained for subsequent years the basic state structures that began to take shape as early as 1946 and proclaimed a line of building socialism under the leadership of the Communist Party and President Ho Chi Minh. In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem deposed Bao Dai in 1955 and took the presidency. Diem managed to cope with the opposition of the military elite, the Cao Dai and Hoahao sects and the Dai Viet party, and he was re-elected president in 1961. The Saigon authorities tried to discredit the Viet Minh in the eyes of his supporters who remained in the South, but faced active military confrontation in many rural areas, especially in Cochin. In 1960, opponents of the regime created the pro-communist National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF). In the cities, non-communist opposition groups opposed Diem. Buddhists denounced the regime's discriminatory policies, and several Buddhist monks and nuns even set themselves on fire in protest.
On November 1, 1963, the military overthrew Ngo Din Diem, followed by a series of coups. Unrest among Buddhists, Catholics, and students continued until civil rule was restored in late 1964.
In June 1965, General Nguyen Van Thieu took over as head of state, and General Nguyen Cao Kyi as prime minister. In 1966, a specially elected Assembly adopted a constitution approved by the military, which entered into force on April 1, 1967. Presidential elections were held in September. Thieu and Kee were voted president and vice president respectively. Up to a third of the entire population living in the territory under the control of the NLF did not take part in the election campaign. Meanwhile, the scale of hostilities expanded. American military advisers had been in the South since 1960, and yet the NLF was close to victory. In 1965 the United States sent army formations to the aid of the Saigon government, launched the first air strikes on the territory of North Vietnam, and intensified the bombardment of the rebellious regions of South Vietnam. The NLF received military reinforcements from the North, aided by the USSR and China. The American military presence temporarily stabilized the situation, but in early 1968 units of the NLF and North Vietnamese conducted combat operations in almost all major South Vietnamese cities. In April, peace talks began between US and North Vietnamese representatives. Then began a partial evacuation from the South of American troops, whose number at one time reached 536 thousand people. In the summer of 1969, at free democratic elections in the liberated regions of South Vietnam, a people's revolutionary administration was established. On June 6–8, at the Congress of People's Representatives, the Republic of South Vietnam (RSV) was proclaimed and the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) was established. Ho Chi Minh died the same year.
From 1969 to 1971, the South Vietnamese army expanded the area under its control. The United States at that time withdrew its military units from the country, compensating for these steps with air bombardments. In 1971, Thieu was re-elected President of South Vietnam. In the spring and early summer of 1972, the communists organized a major offensive, which proceeded very successfully until it was stopped by the actions of American aircraft and counterattacks by South Vietnamese troops. The United States responded by increasing air raids and carrying out extensive mining of North Vietnamese ports and sea and river routes. At the end of the year, the United States began a massive bombardment of the cities of North Vietnam.
On January 27, 1973, the four parties involved in the war signed a peace agreement in Paris that provided for a ceasefire in the South, the recognition of the 17th parallel as a temporary demarcation line, and the withdrawal of American troops from the country. It was supposed to convene the National Council and elections, which were supposed to decide the fate of the South Vietnamese government.
The last American formations left Vietnam in April 1973, but the political clauses of the treaty were never implemented. The Saigon administration tried to run an election campaign on its own, which was opposed by the PRP, which demanded the creation of a tripartite council. Moreover, they did not interrupt fighting. In March 1975, the Saigon army was forced to leave the region of the central plateau (Teinguen), after which it disintegrated. A few weeks later, the armed forces of the PRG and North Vietnam surrounded the southern capital. Thieu resigned on April 21, and on April 30, 1975, the Saigon military units capitulated.
Initially, it seemed that both parts of the country could exist as independent, albeit closely related, state entities. However, the communists were in a hurry with the unification process. In the summer and autumn of 1975 they nationalized the banks and large enterprises of the South. In April 1976, general elections were held for the National Assembly of a united Vietnam. On July 2, 1976, the official reunification of Vietnam and the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place.
During the war, Vietnam was helped by both the USSR and China. In the late 1970s, Vietnam established close ties with the Soviet Union. The socialist transformation of the economy in the South took its toll primarily on the large Chinese community in Vietnam. Its conflicts with the Vietnamese took the form of ethnic strife and had a negative impact on relations between Vietnam and China. In addition, China took the side of the anti-Vietnamese Pol Pot regime in Cambodia. In December 1978, Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia and by the beginning of 1979 occupied most her territory. In February 1979 there was an armed conflict on the Vietnamese-Chinese border.
Between 1978 and 1980, at least 750,000 people left the country (more than half of them ethnic Chinese). Many returned to their historical homeland by land, and some set off on a journey across the South China Sea by boat.
The desire of the Vietnamese authorities to carry out socialist transformations already in the late 1970s led to negative consequences. The government in Hanoi concentrated all its efforts on military actions and was entirely dependent on the assistance of the USSR. The South Vietnamese economy, based on private enterprise, was artificially fueled by large cash infusions.
In the 1980s, the government took a more pragmatic course, giving more leeway to local planners, lifting trade restrictions, and allowing farmers to sell some of their produce on the market. However, in the middle of the decade, a huge budget deficit and emission gave rise to rapid inflation. In 1989, the country adopted a long-term program of radical reforms, including measures to suppress inflationary trends, liberalize banking and other legislation, and stimulate the private sector in industry. The adopted state policy of “renovation” (“doi mei”) was confirmed and further developed at the VII (1991) and VIII (1996) congresses of the CPV.
As part of the economic reforms, in January 1991 a law was passed on the admission of private enterprises. The new constitution adopted in 1992 provided for a clearer division of functions between the party and the state, the introduction of a market economy, the strengthening of the role of the private sector and the possibility of private land use. Nevertheless, the country's leadership stated that the course towards socialism with the leading role of the Communist Party is preserved and multi-party democracy will not be established. At the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party in June 1991, Do Myoi, who had previously held the post of head of government, was elected the new general secretary (he was replaced in this post by Wo Van Kiet). The new appointments reflected the balance of power in the party leadership. Before Mooi, a member of the communist movement since 1939, was considered a supporter of the orthodox course, Wo Van Kiet was one of the leading advocates of market reforms. In June 1992, the government announced the release of all members, advisers and supporters of the former South Vietnamese regime. In the July 1992 National Assembly elections, for the first time, more candidates were nominated than there were seats in Parliament. 2 independent candidates were also admitted to the elections. In July 1993, the National Assembly passed a law that allowed peasants to purchase land for use (the state remained the supreme owner of the land).
Viet Nam established links with the International Monetary Fund and began to cooperate with it in the implementation of economic policy. In November 1994, the Vietnamese government and the IMF agreed on a medium-term economic program that provided for real growth in 1994–1996 by 8–8.7% and a reduction in inflation from 10.5 to 7%. In November 1995, Vietnam, international organizations and creditor states agreed to provide this country with assistance in 1996 in the amount of 2.3 billion dollars. Negotiations continued on the payment of debts on loans provided in the 1970s by Japanese banks. In 1996, Vietnam and Western creditors reached an agreement to restructure $900 million in debt. In 1997, Hanoi was to receive $2.4 billion in aid again.
Economic liberalization in the country was not accompanied by the refusal of the Communist Party from its monopoly position in the state. In November 1995, the Supreme Court sentenced to 15 and 18 months' imprisonment two former high-ranking party officials for "abusing the rights to freedom and democracy to the detriment of national security". Both advocated reform and democratization of the ruling party. The Eighth Congress of the Communist Party in June - July 1996 called for the continuation of cautious reforms while maintaining state control over the economy and the political system.
In 1997, there was a change of leadership in the country. Due to the National Assembly elections in July, all three leading leaders were replaced: general secretary Communist Party Do Myoi, President Le Duc Anh, and Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet. Communist Party candidates received 85% of the votes and took 384 out of 450 seats, 63 seats went to non-partisans, 3 mandates were received by independents. In September 1997, Tran Duc Luong became the new president, Pham Van Hai became the head of government, Le Kha Fieu became the head of the Communist Party in December 1997, and Nong Duc Manh in 2001.
In the late 1990s, the Vietnamese leadership launched an anti-corruption campaign. Within its framework, some of the country's top officials and politicians, including the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Head of Government, etc., were removed from their posts. The bureaucracy was also blamed for the ongoing economic stagnation. Since 1998, 3,000 members have been expelled from the CPV due to corruption, and penalties have been imposed on 16,000.
In general, during the decade of reforms, Vietnam managed to maintain economic growth at the level of 7.6% per year and double the gross domestic product, from 1985–1986 industrial production increased fivefold and food production doubled. But market reforms led to the growth of social differences and the gap between town and countryside, to the discontent of the poorest sections of the population and national minorities. In February 2001, the party leadership was concerned about major unrest among minorities who protested against the placement of large industrial rubber and coffee plantations on their lands (the program was developed with the participation of the International Monetary Fund).
These problems were discussed at the next IX Congress of the CPV in April 2001. It was stated at it that the country is at the stage of a long and difficult "transition to socialism", which preserves the diversity of economic forms and forms of ownership. The CPV characterizes the economic system during this period as a "socialist-oriented market economy", emphasizing, at the same time, the priority role of the public sector. In an attempt to alleviate social tensions, the congress approved amendments to the party charter, banning members of the CPSU from owning their own private businesses. Corruption in the party and the state, “individualism, opportunism, lust for power, fame and profit, localism” were subjected to sharp and emotional attacks. after a certain age, democratic procedures are expanded.
Nong Duc Manh, 60, former chairman of the National Assembly, became the new general secretary of the CPV. This is the first party leader belonging to a national minority (Tai). His choice is considered a compromise between the "reformist" and more "conservative" wing of the party. In the elections to the National Assembly in May 2002, out of 498 seats, the candidates of the Communist Party won the majority, 51 were non-party, 3 were independent. In 2002 and 2003, despite the ban on strikes, labor conflicts broke out in various sectors of the Vietnamese economy.
Vietnam's relations with the US and China improved in the 1990s. In October 1990, the Vietnamese foreign minister visited Washington for the first time and negotiated the fate of 1,700 missing American soldiers. In March 1992, the United States and Vietnam reached an agreement that the American side would provide humanitarian aid to Vietnam in the amount of $3 million annually in exchange for assistance in searching for missing Americans. In December, the US eased the trade embargo against Hanoi, imposed in 1964. Finally, in August 1994, both countries established diplomatic relations. In April 1997, Vietnam pledged to pay the United States $145 million in debt from the former South Vietnamese government. In June 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright visited Hanoi, and in March 2000, the US Secretary of Defense, who officially apologized for the US role during the Vietnam War, which claimed the lives of almost 3 million Vietnamese and 58,000 American soldiers. In 2000, US President Clinton visited Vietnam, which gave a new impetus to relations between the two states.
In the autumn of 1990, for the first time since the freeze of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China in 1979, both countries signed an agreement on citizens' travel in Beijing. In November 1991, China and Vietnam agreed to formally normalize relations, and in February 1992 the Chinese foreign minister traveled to Hanoi. In November-December of the same year, the visit of Chinese Premier Li Peng followed. He discussed with the Vietnamese leaders disputed territorial issues, the situation in Cambodia, and signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of economy, science, technology and culture. Chinese President Jiang Zemin agreed in November 1994 to expand economic ties between the two countries. In turn, the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party, Do Muoi, visited Beijing at the end of 1995 and continued negotiations on border disputes.
Vietnam's relations with Asian as well as Western countries developed. In 1995 Vietnam was admitted to ASEAN. In February 1993, French President François Mitterrand became the first Western head of state to visit Hanoi since 1954. He signed seven cooperation agreements and promised to double the financial aid to 360 million francs. In July 1995, Vietnam and the European Union entered into an agreement on trade and cooperation.
Laquiet, Vanlang
Vanlang map, 500 BC e.
Wanlang was a matriarchal society, similar to other ancient Southeast Asian societies. At excavations in North Vietnam, metal tools of that time were found. The most famous are bronze drums, possibly used in religious ceremonies, on which images of warriors, houses, birds, and animals were engraved in concentric circles.
The people from Wanlang are known as the La Viet.
Much information about the life of that time can be gleaned from ancient legends. The Story of the Banh Tungs is about a prince who wins a culinary tournament and later the throne by inventing rice cakes; this legend reflects the importance of the main part of the then economy, rice growing. "The Story of Zyong" tells the story of a young man who goes to war to save the country. Zyong and his horse wear iron armor, and Zyong himself takes an iron staff, which indicates the presence of developed metallurgy. The magic weapon from "the story of the magic bow" can shoot thousands of arrows, which proves active use bows at the time.
Appearance of the Auvietes, Aulac
By the third century BC. e. another group of Viet, the Auviet (甌越), came from the south of what is now China to the Red River Delta (Hongha) and mixed with the Vanlang population. In 258 BC. e. a union state of the Auviets and Lakviets appeared - Aulac. King An duong-vyong built around his capital, Koloa (Vietnamese CổLoa ) , many concentric walls. Skilled aulak archers stood on these walls.
An duong-vyong fell victim to espionage: the Chinese commander Zhao Tuo ( Triệu Đà, cheu da) kidnapped his son Chong Thuy ( Trọng Thủy) after he married the daughter of An Duong Vuong.
Chieu Dynasty, Nam Viet
Map of the Sino-Vietnamese state of Nanyue (Nam Viet).
Dynasty Later Le
In 1428 Le Loi himself became emperor of Dai Viet and founded the Later Le dynasty. Relying on a strong army, his authority as a commander and reforming officials in his environment, he carried out major reforms in the country. Le Nyan Tong, who succeeded him, continued the land reform, as a result, by the end of the 1450s, land ownership in Dai Viet stabilized. The next emperor, Le Thanh Thong, is considered the most successful monarch in the country's history. Le's reforms were supplemented and partly reinforced by the creation of the Thanh Tong Code, "Hongduk". The army and the state apparatus received a more harmonious organization, a new administrative reform was carried out, a system educational institutions and competitive examinations for bureaucratic positions, a monetary reform was carried out.
In 1471, a carefully prepared military campaign of Dai Viet against Champa took place, culminating in the capture of part of the Cham territories. In 1479-1480, Dai Viet attacked Lan Xang in a similar way, as a result of which Lan Xang fell into vassal dependence on Dai Viet for some time, and its eastern regions became part of the Vietnamese state. At the same time, all the tribes that lived in the mountains to the west of the Viet valleys became tributaries of Dai Viet, and the mountainous regions in the north, which they had long controlled, received the status of provinces; they already had a significant Viet population, although the population of the new areas had not yet completely merged with the Viet.
After the "golden age" of the "Hong-deuk" era, decline came. The beginning of the 16th century was one of the most disastrous periods in the history of the country. Expensive undertakings, extensive wars and an inefficient administrative apparatus ruined the peasants, tax revenues decreased, and the centralized apparatus itself became increasingly weak. development Agriculture no attention was paid, irrigation facilities were in disrepair; instead of dams, idle rulers built palaces. Driven to complete ruin, the peasants raised uprisings. In 1516, one of the largest uprisings in the history of Vietnam began in the province of Quang Ninh, led by the peasant leader Tran Cao. The rebel army led by Chang Kao captured the capital Thanglaung in two attempts. The Le court was forced to flee to Thanh Hoa. The rebels continued to operate until 1521, until they were defeated as a result of a counteroffensive by the faithful of the Le Force dynasty.
Mak dynasty
In 1521-1522, other uprisings were suppressed, but the central government was never able to recover from their powerful blows. In 1527, the feudal faction of Mak Dang Dung, who for many years was in military service at the court of Le, defeated her rivals and pushed the legitimate contenders for power to the province of Thanh Hoa. Having proclaimed himself emperor in 1527, Mak Dang Zung sent a mission to China in 1529 with rich gifts and the message that "no one from the house of Le is left and the family of Macs temporarily rules the country and people." Having received the recognition of his dynasty from the Minsk court, Mak Dang Zung passed the throne to his son Mak Dang Zoan, who ruled for 10 years (1530-1540).
Reborn Le Dynasty
Supporters of the Le dynasty, trying to restore their protege to power, sent one mission after another by sea to China asking for help in restoring the legitimate dynasty overthrown by the "usurper Mak". Mak Dang Zaung, in order to avoid an unfavorable development of events, declared that he “puts himself at the mercy of the Ming emperor” and sent a request to China “to conduct an investigation”, and in 1540 he personally appeared at the Namkuan border outpost for trial (at that time the country was ruled his other son is Mac Fook Hai). China took advantage of the situation, and in 1541 issued an investiture recognizing the right of the House of Mac to rule Dai Viet, and declaring Le an ambiguous person whose origin has yet to be proven. However, Vietnam was deprived of the status of a state and declared a governorship ( Annam dothong shi ti) provincial (Guangxi) subordination with the need for the traditional payment of tribute to China.
Soon after the accession of the Macs, their rivals rose to fight them, also striving, under the pretext of restoring the legitimate Le dynasty, to seize power. In the end, Nguyen Kim (a military commander who served under Le) united all opposition groups and, having captured the provinces of Thanh Hoa and Nghe An in 1542, established his power there (formally calling it the “reborn Le dynasty”). In 1545, all power in this region passed to Nguyen Kim's son-in-law, Chinh Kiem. Thus, the country was divided into two parts: the clan of Poppies ( Buck Chieu, "Northern Dynasty") continued to dominate the Bakbo region (Northern Vietnam) with its capital in Thanglaung, the Chiney clan under the cover of the Le dynasty ( Nam Chieu listen), "Southern Dynasty") controlled the Nghe An-Thanh Hoa region. The struggle between these two houses lasted for more than half a century, as a result, the Southern dynasty defeated the Northern dynasty and returned Le to the throne in Thanglaughna in 1592. The Makov dynasty ceased to play a role in the domestic political life of the country, but they continued to enjoy the patronage of China, which kept them in reserve for another three generations. Fearing the open intervention of China, the Chini did not dare to openly overthrow the Le dynasty. China, perfectly aware of who holds the real power, played a complex political game in this region. In 1599, Chin Tung received personal courtesies from China. It is from this moment that the mode that went down in history under the name of edit officially begins] War of Chiney and Nguyen
In 1558, Nguyen Kim's son, Nguyen Hoang, obtained permission from the Le court to manage the Thuan Hoa region, and from 1570, Quang Nam as well. Since that time, this area has become a stronghold of the Nguyen princes, who then set a course for secession from the rest of Vietnam. So by the beginning of the 17th century, two "centers of power" - Nguyen and Chini - took shape. After the death of Nguyen Hoang in 1613, his son tua Shai (Nguyen Phuc Nguyen) began to behave as a completely independent ruler. As a result, relations between the feudal houses of Chiney and Nguyen resulted in armed conflict, which lasted a significant part of the 17th century. The wars between Chinh and Nguyen dragged on intermittently until 1672, and the Nghean-Botinh region (Hatinh and Quangbinh provinces) became a constant arena of battles. By 1673, both opponents finally ran out of steam and hostilities ceased. The spontaneously formed truce lasted for about a hundred years. The nation turned out to be split, in the national consciousness such concepts as “southerners” and “northerners” arose and entrenched.
Having divided the country, Chini and Nguyen began to strengthen their positions in the held territories in order to turn each of them into a separate independent state. The appeals of the Nguyens to Qing China in 1702 and later with a request for an investiture that would legalize their rule speak of serious claims to independent statehood. When it became clear that Qing China did not support the Nguyen in their quest to legalize de facto independence from Le and Chin, tua Nguyen Phuc Khoat in 1744 declared himself vyongom and made Fusuan (Hue) the capital without regard to Le and China. However, neither Chini nor Nguyen abandoned the most important task - the unification of the country. Both regimes considered themselves part of a single, temporarily divided Dai Viet.
In 1930, at the initiative of the National Party of Vietnam, modeled on the Chinese National Party (Kuomintang), an armed Yenbai uprising broke out in the area northwest of Hanoi. After its suppression, the resistance movement was led by the Communist Party of Indochina, created in 1930 by Ho Chi Minh. During the period when the Popular Front was in power in France, the Vietnamese communists, together with the Trotskyists, expanded their influence, took part in Cochin and Saigon in local government elections. In -1941, the communists led an unsuccessful uprising in the south and organized unrest in the north.
The mixing of the population of Vanlang with the coming Auviets occurred by the 3rd century BC. Already in 258 BC. Aulac, the state of the Lakviets and Auviets, arises. Coloa became the capital.
King An Duong-vyong became a victim of betrayal by his Chinese commander Zhao Tuo: he stole his son, taking the king's daughter as his wife. The Chinese captured Au Lak, calling himself the king of the new state of Nam Viet.
Chinese era
In 111 BC. The Han Chinese overthrow the last monarch of the Chieu Dynasty. Nam Viet was divided into 3 territories: Gyaoti, Kyuutyan, Nyatnam. The Chinese came to power in Vietnam.
Resistance to the new authorities resulted in a series of uprisings. Warrior women also showed themselves: the sisters Chyng Chak and Chyeng Ni expelled the Chinese from their country for three years. This was not the last female-led uprising in Vietnam. The rebellion under the leadership of Chieu, the national heroine, is also inscribed in the history of the country.
However, all resistance, both men and women, were doomed. By 1-2 centuries AD China has robbed Vietnam of the last vestige of independence. For a long 8 centuries, with interruptions, the Chinese ruled the country. Until the 10th century, the capital was the city of Hoaly. Only in 938 Vietnam gains independence thanks to the uprising that was raised by Ngo Cuyen, a Vietnamese feudal lord.
The Li dynasty is on the throne in the country by the 11th century. The state changes its name to Dai Viet (Great Viet) with the capital Thanglong (Hanoi).
The Chinese were expelled, but their "traces" were visible in Vietnam. In 1017, a temple of Confucius was built in the capital, and the national academy Ham Lam was created. In the 12th century, Confucianism was recognized as the state religion.
In the 13th century, the country was already able to repel the invasion of the Mongols into its territories. From 1257 to 1288, the Mongols encroached on the lands of the Vietnamese three times. Vietnam is joined by areas in the mountains, as well as the territory of the southern Chams. The history of the Cham people can be learned by visiting the Cham Museum, opened in Da Nang.
Emperor Lee Ho Kyui led his country into strife and political crisis. China immediately took advantage of the situation, and since 1407 the Ming dynasty rules in Vietnam. After 20 years, a simple fisherman Le Loy leads an uprising against the invaders. A beautiful legend about the “Lake of the Returned Sword” in Hanoi is associated with it (we talked about Hoan Kiem Lake in one of our articles). The Late Le dynasty (1428-1788) comes to power. The "golden age" of medieval Vietnam begins.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Daviet was shaken by the confrontation between the two clans Chin and Nguyen, although the kings from the Le dynasty formally rule. Clan leaders generously distribute land, spend state money, which leads to an increase in exactions from the population. The result of such a reign was the uprising of the Teyshons (1771), led by three brothers. Nguyen Hue, one of them, proclaims himself emperor in 1788.
A king from the Le dynasty asks his brother for help. And his brother was Qianlongu - the emperor from the Chinese Qing dynasty. The Chinese army attacked Vietnam. The decisive battle near Thang Long (1789) brought victory to the Vietnamese and retained the throne of Nguyen Hue. However, after 3 years, the king suddenly dies. Commander Nguyen Phuc Anh gathers an army and, with the support of France, calms down the rebels. In 1804, he sits on the throne, calling himself Gia Long. The capital is moved to the city of Hue. In the same year, the next name of the state was approved - Vietnam. The dynasty ruled Vietnam until 1945.
Thai Hoa, the Palace of Supreme Harmony, was built in 1805. In the palace, the emperor gathered his subjects for state affairs. The imperial throne made of gold, covered with a veil woven with precious threads, is also kept here.