Historical portrait of Nicholas I. Material for preparing for the Unified State Examination (GIA) in history (Grade 11) on the topic: The reign of Nicholas I
Historical essay: 1825-1855
The era of Nicholas I is one of the controversial eras of the Romanovs. It began with the suppression of the Decembrist uprising and ended with participation in the Crimean War, which showed low combat capability Russian army. During this period - the tightening of the regime, the fight against any manifestation of dissent, the desire to establish a strict order in the country, and even influence politics in Europe. The Russia of Nicholas 1 was called the “gendarme of Europe”, and historians call the emperor himself one of the most reactionary rulers of the Romanov dynasty. During the reign of Nicholas I, laws were codified, His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery was created, an attempt was made to solve peasant question(Decree “On obligated peasants”), reforms were carried out by Kiselyov P.D., Kankrin E.F. and much more. Some events and political phenomena improved the development of Russia, others contributed to slowing down its movement forward along the path of progress. I will focus on two, in my opinion, the most significant events of the era.
1. One of the most important activities of Nicholas 1 was the tightening of the regime, the strengthening of autocratic power, and the restoration of order in the country.
The reasons for this are the Decembrist uprising, which showed the imperfect state development of Russia in comparison with the countries of the West, the emergence of numerous circles in which not only the state of affairs in Russia was discussed, but also revolutionary speeches were planned, for example, by the Petrashevists. Nicholas I was afraid that the revolutionary ideas and sentiments of the West would also appear in the public circles of Russia. Therefore, the creationIIIthe department of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery in 1826, headed by Count Benckendorff A.Kh., and then the gendarme corps - this is the result of the tsar's desire to strengthen his power, to prevent freethinking from spreading in the country.
great role in this process- Benkendorf A.Kh. - the chief head of the III Branch and the chief of the gendarmes. He himself did not strive for knowledge, and saw in its dissemination only a danger to the existing system. Narrowness of thought made him unusually callous and intolerant in matters of politics. The terms of reference of the third department, from the very beginning, covering almost all aspects of the then Russian life, in practice turned out to be even wider; it included censorship and some judicial functions. In addition to the diverse official duties, the emperor assigned A. Kh. Benckendorff censorship of the works of A. S. Pushkin. The whole country was flooded with secret agents and detectives, suspecting everyone who dared to speak out against the system. The defeat of N.P. Sungurov in 1831, Herzen A. and Ogaryov in 1834, the persecution of P.Ya. Chaadaev for his "Philosophical Letters" in 1836, the arrest of the Petrashevists in 1849 - this is a small part of the repressions carried out by the departments headed by Benckendorff A.Kh.
Consequence of activityIIIThe branch became an atmosphere of fear that appeared in society, the suppression of any attempts at freethinking, protest, the tightening of the regime, the strengthening of autocracy in the country.
2. An important event in the domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was the codification of laws under the leadership of Speransky M.M.. The legislative document at that time was the Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649. About two centuries have passed, great changes have taken place in the country, a lot of legislative normative acts have appeared, which not only often duplicated each other, but also contradicted. It was necessary to bring all existing laws into a system, that is, to codify them, and at the same time to single out the existing laws separately in order to facilitate the work of all state institutions.
This work was commissioned to be carried out . , which since 1826 headedIIA branch of the Emperor's Office, specially created to systematize the laws of the country. Speransky M.M. was one of the most educated and legally experienced dignitaries. It was he who proposed a plan for the codification of laws: first, collect all of them, exclude those that have already been canceled, compare those that repeat and contradict each other, revise the laws from the point of view of modern life, to exclude obsolete norms, to include new ones. It was really a great job. The result was the creation in 1830 of 45 volumes of the "Complete collection of laws Russian Empire"(it collected laws from 1649 to 1825), as well as in 1833 -" Code of Laws of the Russian Empire "(came into force in 1835) - current legislation, systematized by branches of law: criminal, civil, commercial, etc. This "Code" was recognized as the only basis for solving administrative and judicial cases. The value of this work is enormous. Not only was the legislation systematized, but also the process of conducting legal practice and control over it was facilitated. In addition, legislation became available for study, which formed the legal culture of society. Speransky M.M. himself was awarded the St. Andrew's Star by the emperor and received the title of count.
The cause-and-effect relationships of these processes are obvious: they were a manifestation ofconservative modernization of the empire, which turned out to be unviable. Instead of the order that Nicholas I sought to restore according to the military model, lawlessness and arbitrariness reigned in the country, drill and corporal punishment reigned in the army; in an exorbitantly bloated bureaucracy - embezzlement and bribery. The consequences of all this were the collapse of the army and the shameful defeat in the Crimean War, as well as the growth of the socio-political movement in response to the brutal persecution of dissent.
Historians call the reign of Nicholas I the apogee of autocracy (A.E. Presnyakov). Russian historiography generally defined the Nikolaev rule as conservative and protective, while noting the tsar's desire for certain reformist activities. The reasons for the failure of all the transformations of Nicholas were seen in the reliance on the bureaucracy (A.A. Kizivetter, A.A. Kornilov, S.F. Platonov).
Soviet historians unequivocally interpreted the Nikolaev regime as the time of the most ferocious and dark reaction, and the tsar as a stupid persecutor of any progress. At the same time, the analysis of the real possibilities of the government of Nicholas I remained outside the scope of the study.
In general, the era of NicholasIwas extremely controversial. Of course, it should be noted that a step forward was made both in the legislative sphere and in the economy, and received further development solution of the peasant question. But at the same time, it was a time of harsh persecution of freedom fighters, and indeed of any freethinking, a period of toughening of the regime. The unresolved nature of many issues led to the fact that Russia was shamefully lagging behind the countries of Europe militarily. Crimean War- proof of that. All this will be the reason for the reform of the country, which will be carried out by the son of Nicholas I - Alexander II.
At a lesson on the topic "Nicholas I. Domestic policy in 1825-1855." lists the factors that influenced the formation of the personality of Nicholas I. Determined the main objective his policy is to prevent an uprising in Russia. Freethinking in Russia is completely banned, Nicholas I dreams of abolishing serfdom, weakening it, but does not dare to cancel it. The reasons for this indecision of the emperor are revealed. The financial reform carried out by Nicholas I is considered. The construction of railways and highways contributes to the economic recovery. The inconsistency of the development of culture and education in the country is emphasized.
Preliminary remarks
It must be said that in historical science for many years, an extremely negative image of Nicholas I himself (Fig. 2) and his thirty-year reign, which, with the light hand of Academician A.E. Presnyakov, called "the apogee of autocracy."
Of course, Nicholas I was not a born reactionary and, being an intelligent person, he perfectly understood the need for changes in the economic and political system of the country. But, being a military man to the marrow of his bones, he tried to solve all problems through the militarization of the state system, rigid political centralization and regulation of all parties. public life countries. It is no coincidence that almost all of its ministers and governors had general and admiral ranks - A.Kh. Benkendorf (Fig. 1), A.N. Chernyshev, P.D. Kiselev, I.I. Dibich, P.I. Paskevich, I.V. Vasilchikov, A.S. Shishkov, N.A. Protasov and many others. In addition, among the numerous cohort of Nikolaev dignitaries special place occupied by the Baltic Germans A.Kh. Benkendorf, V.F. Adlerberg, K.V. Nesselrode, L.V. Dubelt, P.A. Kleinmichel, E.F. Kankrin and others, who, according to Nicholas I himself, unlike the Russian nobles, did not serve the state, but the sovereign.
Rice. 1. Benckendorff()
According to a number of historians (A. Kornilov), in domestic policy, Nicholas I was guided by two fundamental Karamzin ideas, set out in his note “On the Ancient and new Russia»: a) autocracy is the most important element of the stable functioning of the state; b) the main concern of the monarch is selfless service to the interests of the state and society.
A distinctive feature of the Nikolaev rule was the colossal growth of the bureaucratic apparatus in the center and in the field. So, according to a number of historians (P. Zaionchkovsky, L. Shepelev), only in the first half of the 19th century. The number of officials at all levels has increased by more than six times. However, this fact cannot be assessed as negatively as it was done in Soviet historiography, because there were good reasons for this. In particular, according to academician S. Platonov, after the Decembrist uprising, Nicholas I completely lost confidence in the upper strata of the nobility. The emperor now saw the main support of the autocracy only in the bureaucracy, so he sought to rely on just that part of the nobility for which the only source of income was public service. It is no coincidence that it was under Nicholas I that a class of hereditary officials began to form, for whom public service became a profession (Fig. 3).
Rice. 2. Nicholas I ()
In parallel with the strengthening of the state and police apparatuses of power, Nicholas I began to gradually concentrate in his hands the solution of almost all more or less important issues. Quite often, when deciding one or another important issue numerous Secret Committees and Commissions were established, which reported directly to the emperor and constantly replaced many ministries and departments, including the State Council and the Senate. It was these authorities, which included very few top dignitaries of the empire - A. Golitsyn, M. Speransky, P. Kiselev, A. Chernyshev, I. Vasilchikov, M. Korf and others - that were endowed with huge, including legislative, powers and exercised operational management country.
Rice. 3. Officials of "Nikolaev Russia")
But the regime of personal power was most clearly embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, which arose back in the time of Paul I in 1797 G. Then under Alexander I in 1812 it turned into an office for considering petitions addressed to the highest name. In those years, the position of head of the office was occupied by Count A. Arakcheev, and she (the office) even then had considerable powers of authority. Almost immediately after accession to the throne, in January 1826, Nicholas I significantly expanded the functions of the personal office, giving it the value of the highest government agency Russian Empire. Within the framework of the Imperial Chancellery in first half of 1826 Three special departments were created:
I Department, which was headed by the Secretary of State of the Emperor A.S. Taneyev, was in charge of the selection and placement of personnel in the central executive authorities, controlled the activities of all ministries, and was also engaged in the production of ranks, the preparation of all imperial Manifestos and Decrees, and control over their execution.
II Department, headed by another state secretary of the emperor, M.A. Balugyansky, focused entirely on the codification of the dilapidated legislative system and the creation of a new Code of Laws of the Russian Empire.
III Branch, which was headed by a personal friend of the emperor, General A. Benckendorff, and after his death - General A.F. Orlov, completely focused on political investigation within the country and abroad. Initially, the basis of this Department was the Special Chancellery of the Ministry of the Interior, and then, in 1827, the Gendarme Corps was created, headed by General L.V. Dubelt, who formed the armed and operational support of the III Section.
While stating the fact that Nicholas I sought to preserve and strengthen the autocratic-feudal system through the strengthening of the bureaucratic and police apparatus of power, we must admit that in a number of cases he tried to solve the most acute domestic political problems of the country through the mechanism of reforms. That's the kind of look internal politics Nicholas I was characteristic of all major pre-revolutionary historians, in particular V. Klyuchevsky, A. Kiziwetter and S. Platonov. In Soviet historical science, starting with the work of A. Presnyakov "Apogee of autocracy" (1927), special emphasis began to be placed on the reactionary nature of the Nikolaev regime. At the same time, a number of modern historians (N. Troitsky) rightly say that in their meaning and origin, the reforms of Nicholas I differed significantly from previous and upcoming reforms. If Alexander I maneuvered between the new and the old, and Alexander II yielded to the pressure of the new, then Nicholas I strengthened the old in order to more successfully resist the new.
Rice. 4. The first railway in Russia ()
Reforms of Nicholas I
a) The Secret Committee of V.P. Kochubey and his reform projects (1826-1832)
December 6, 1826 Nicholas I formed the First Secret Committee, which was supposed to sort through all the papers of Alexander I and determine which projects of state reforms could be taken by the sovereign as a basis for pursuing a reform policy. The formal head of this Committee was the Chairman of the State Council, Count V.P. Kochubey, and M.M. became the actual leader. Speransky, who long ago shook off the ashes of liberalism from his feet and became a staunch monarchist. During the existence of this Committee (December 1826 - March 1832) 173 official meetings were held, at which only two serious reform projects were born.
The first was the estate reform project, according to which it was supposed to cancel Peter's "Table of Ranks", which gave the right to military and civil ranks to receive nobility in order of length of service. The Committee proposed to establish such an order in which the nobility would be acquired only by birthright, or by "the highest award."
At the same time, in order to somehow encourage government officials and the emerging bourgeois class, the Committee proposed creating new classes for domestic bureaucrats and merchants - "bureaucratic" and "eminent" citizens who, like the nobles, would be exempted from the poll tax, recruitment duty. and corporal punishment.
The second project called for a new administrative reform. According to the project, the State Council was freed from a pile of administrative and judicial cases and retained only legislative functions. The Senate was divided into two independent institutions: the Governing Senate, consisting of all ministers, became the highest body of executive power, and the Judicial Senate - the highest body of state justice.
Both projects did not in the least undermine the autocratic system, and, nevertheless, under the influence of the European revolution and the Polish events of 1830-1831. Nicholas I shelved the first project and buried the second forever.
b) Codification of the laws of M.M. Speransky (1826-1832)
January 31, 1826 within the framework of the Imperial Chancellery, the II Department was created, which was entrusted with the task of reforming all legislation. The official head of the Department was Professor of St. Petersburg University M.A. Balugyansky, who taught the future emperor legal sciences, but all real job on the codification of legislation was carried out by his deputy, M. Speransky.
Summer 1826 M. Speransky sent four memos to the emperor with his proposals for compiling a new Code of Laws. According to this plan, codification was to take place in three stages: 1. At first, it was supposed to be collected and published in chronological order all legislative acts, starting with the "Cathedral Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich until the end of the reign of Alexander I. 2. At the second stage, it was planned to publish a Code of Laws in force, arranged in a subject-systematic order. 3. At the third stage, it was planned to draw up and publish a new Code of Laws systematized by legal branches.
At the first stage of the codification reform (1828-1830) almost 31 thousand legislative acts published in 1649-1825 were published, which were included in the 45-volume first "Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire". At the same time, 6 volumes of the second "Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" were published, which included legislative acts issued under Nicholas I.
At the second stage of the codification reform (1830-1832) A 15-volume Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was prepared and published, which was a systematized (by branches of law) code of current legislation of 40,000 articles. Volumes 1-3 outlined the basic laws that determined the limits of competence and the order of office work of all government agencies and provincial offices. Volumes 4-8 contained laws on state duties, income and property. In the 9th volume, all laws on estates were published, in the 10th volume - civil and boundary laws. Volumes 11-14 contained police (administrative) laws, and volume 15 published criminal legislation.
January 19, 1833 The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was officially approved at a meeting of the State Council and entered into force.
c) Nikolai's estate reformI (1832-1845)
After completing work on the codification of laws, Nicholas I returned to the class projects of the Secret Committee of Count V. Kochubey. Initially, in 1832, an imperial Decree was issued, in accordance with which the middle class of "honorary citizens" of two degrees was established - "hereditary honorary citizens", where the descendants of personal nobles and guild merchants were enrolled, and "personal honorary citizens" for officials IV -X grades and graduates of higher educational institutions.
Then, in 1845 Another Decree was issued, directly related to the project of estate reform of the Secret Committee. Nicholas I did not dare to cancel Peter's "Table of Ranks", but, in accordance with his Decree, the ranks that were required to receive the nobility by seniority were significantly increased. Now the hereditary nobility was granted to civil ranks with the V (state councilor), and not with the VIII (college assessor) class, and the military, respectively, with the VI (colonel), and not with the XIV (ensign) class. Personal nobility for both civil and military ranks was established from the IX (titular adviser, captain), and not from the XIV class, as before.
d) The peasant question and the reform of P.D. Kiseleva (1837-1841)
In the second quarter of the XIX century. the peasant question still remained a headache for the tsarist government. Recognizing that serfdom was the powder magazine of the entire state, Nicholas I believed that its abolition could lead to even more dangerous social cataclysms than those that shook Russia during his reign. Therefore, in the peasant question, the Nikolaev administration limited itself only to palliative measures aimed at somewhat softening the severity of social relations in the village.
To discuss the peasant question in 1828-1849 nine Secret Committees were created, in the depths of which more than 100 legislative acts were discussed and adopted to limit the power of landlords over serfs. For example, in accordance with these Decrees, landowners were forbidden to send their peasants to factories (1827), exile them to Siberia (1828), transfer serfs to the category of domestic servants and pay off their debts (1833), sell peasants to retail (1841) etc. However, the real significance of these Decrees and the specific results of their application turned out to be negligible: the landowners simply ignored these legislative acts, many of which were advisory in nature.
The only attempt at a serious solution to the peasant question was the reform of the state village, carried out by General P.D. Kiselev in 1837-1841
To prepare a draft reform of the state village in April 1836 in the bowels of Own E.I. In the Office, a special V Division was created, which was headed by Adjutant General P. Kiselev. In accordance with the personal instructions of Nicholas I and his own vision of this issue, he considered that in order to heal the ailments of the state-owned village, it was enough to create a good administration that could manage it accurately and prudently. That is why at the first stage of the reform, in 1837, the state village was removed from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance and transferred to the Ministry of State Property, the first head of which was General P. Kiselev himself, who remained in this post until 1856.
Then, in 1838-1839, for the management of the state village on the ground, state chambers were created in the provinces and state district administrations in the counties. And only after that, in 1840-1841, the reform reached the volosts and villages, where several governing bodies were created at once: volost and rural gatherings, boards and reprisals.
After the completion of this reform, the government again dealt with the problem of the owner (landlord) peasants, and soon the Decree "On obligated peasants" was born (April1842), also developed on the initiative of P. Kiselev.
The essence of this Decree was as follows: each landowner, at his own discretion, could grant freedom to his serfs, but without the right to sell them their own allotments of land. All land remained the property of the landlords, and the peasants received only the right to use this land on a lease basis. For the possession of their own allotments of land, they were obliged, as before, to bear corvée and dues. However, according to the agreement that the peasant entered into with the landowner, the latter did not have the right: a) to increase the size of corvée and dues, and b) select or reduce the land allotment agreed upon by mutual agreement.
According to a number of historians (N. Troitsky, V. Fedorov), the Decree "On obligated peasants" was a step backwards compared to the Decree "On free cultivators", since that legislative act broke off feudal relations between landlords and serfs, and new law kept them.
e) Financial reform E.F. Kancrina (1839-1843)
Active foreign policy and the constant growth of public spending on the maintenance of the state apparatus and the army caused an acute financial crisis in the country: the expenditure side of the state budget was almost one and a half times higher than its revenue side. The result of such a policy was the constant devaluation of the banknote ruble in relation to the silver ruble, and to late 1830s its real value was only 25% of the value of the silver ruble.
Rice. 5. Credit note after the Kankrin reform ()
In order to prevent the financial collapse of the state, at the suggestion of the long-term Minister of Finance Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, it was decided to carry out a monetary reform. During the first phase of the reform, 1839, state credit notes were introduced (Fig. 5), which were equated to the silver ruble and could be freely exchanged for it. Then, after the accumulation of the necessary reserves of precious metals, the second stage of the reform was carried out. . From June 1843 the exchange of all banknotes in circulation for state credit notes began at the rate of one credit ruble for three and a half banknote rubles. Thus, the monetary reform of E. Kankrin significantly strengthened the country's financial system, but completely overcome financial crisis failed, as the government continued to pursue the previous budgetary policy.
Bibliography
- Vyskochkov V.L. Emperor Nicholas I: man and sovereign. - St. Petersburg, 2001.
- Druzhinin N.M. State peasants and the reform of P.D. Kiselev. - M., 1958.
- Zayonchkovsky P.K. The government apparatus of autocratic Russia in the 19th century. - M., 1978.
- Eroshkin N.P. Feudal autocracy and its political institutions. - M., 1981.
- Kornilov A.A. The course of the history of Russia in the XIX century. - M., 1993.
- Mironenko S.V. Pages of the secret history of autocracy. - M., 1990.
- Presnyakov A.E. Russian autocrats. - M., 1990.
- Pushkarev S.G. History of Russia in the 19th century. - M., 2003.
- Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century. - M., 1999.
- Shepelev L.E. The apparatus of power in Russia. The era of Alexander I and Nicholas I. - St. Petersburg, 2007.
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Materials for preparing for the exam on the topic "Russian Empire under NicholasI(1825-1855)"
Explanatory text for the block
The black-and-white booth is a traditional symbol of Nicholas's reign. On the sides are the conditional figures of a soldier and an official (the reliance of the Nikolaev regime on the armed forces and the bureaucracy).
Domestic policy. The reign of Nicholas I began with the Decembrist uprising (December 14, 1825), which, however, was defeated (1). Repression fell upon the Decembrists, five leaders were executed, hundreds were exiled to Siberia and the Caucasus (2). After the uprising, the emperor strengthened the repressive bodies, headed by the III Branch Imperial Chancellery with the corps of gendarmes attached to it (3). Censorship was drastically tightened.
The general reactionary nature of Nicholas I's policy did not rule out reforms in certain areas. In the field of management, the most important reform was the codification of legislation, carried out by a group of lawyers led by M.M. Speransky. In 1832, a 15-volume Code of Laws of the Russian Empire appeared, which included all the laws in force (4).
The opposition was represented by liberal and revolutionary circles, which were subjected to repression by the authorities. The most significant was the circle of Petrashevites (named after the leader M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky), in 1849, brutally crushed by the authorities (5). The activities of the opposition were much more significant not in the sphere of practical politics, but in the sphere of ideology (see the Culture section).
Foreign policy. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy under Nicholas I were the southern (the problem of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, which went down in history as the Eastern Question, the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans and the Transcaucasus) and the western (the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe, the desire to prevent the creation of a broad anti-Russian coalition of Western powers).
In 1826-1828. Russia fought with Iran and received Eastern Armenia (the current Republic of Armenia) according to the Turkmenchay peace (6). In 1828-1829. there was a Russian-Turkish war, caused by the desire of Russia to support the Greek uprising against the Turks. By Greece became independent to the world of Adrianople, Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia became autonomous, and Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from Anapa to Poti. These wars have strengthened the authority of Russia in the world.
However, throughout the reign of Nicholas I continued Caucasian war(eight). The confrontation of the highlanders of Russia took a religious form and began to take place under the slogan of ghazavat (holy war between Muslims and infidels). The struggle was led by imams (religious leaders). Imam Shamil created an imamat (theocratic state) in Chechnya and Dagestan and for a long time successfully resisted the tsarist troops. Only in 1859 (that is, after the death of Nicholas I) was he taken prisoner, and hostilities in the western Caucasus continued until 1864.
In Europe, Russia pursued a consistent policy of combating revolutionary movement(the revolutionaries stigmatized tsarism as the "gendarme of Europe"). Nicholas I intended to send troops to suppress the revolution in France in 1830, but they were needed to suppress the national liberation uprising in Poland (9). In 1849, Russian troops, at the request of the Austrians, crushed the revolution in Hungary (10).
In the middle of the XIX century. Nicholas I came up with a program for the division of Turkish possessions ( Ottoman Empire he called "the sick man of Europe"). However, these intentions of Russia opposition to England, France and Austria. As a result, the Crimean War, which began in 1853 as an ordinary Russian-Turkish war, also became a war between Russia and England and France (11). During the war, the military-technical backwardness of Russia affected, and she was defeated.
Economy. The main new phenomenon of economic life began in the 1830s. industrial revolution (transition from manual to machine labor) (12). The revolution manifested itself not only in industry, but also in transport (the construction of the first railways, the appearance of steamboats). The successful financial reform carried out in 1839-1843 also contributed to the development of the economy. Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin (13). However, in general, the economy of Russia during this period developed slowly due to the preservation of serfdom.
Public relations. The main problem is the liberation of the peasants. Nicholas I understood the harm of serfdom and the danger of its further preservation, but, fearing the discontent of the nobles, did not dare to take serious actions. The matter was limited to the creation of secret committees and discussion of the problem in a narrow circle of officials (14).
At the same time, the government, wanting to set an example for resolving the peasant issue, carried out a reform of the management of state peasants (known as the reform of P.D. perversions.
Culture. The main phenomena are the formation of new ideological currents and the transition to critical realism in the sphere of artistic culture.
The ideological justification for the policy of Nicholas I was the so-called theory of official nationality, developed by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov ("Orthodoxy - autocracy - nationality") (16). The theorists of this direction justified the unacceptability of foreign influences for Russia. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev, who sharply questioned the greatness of the past, present and future of Russia (17). In the intellectual environment about letters, fierce disputes broke out and two main points of view were formed - Westernism (the problem of Russia is lagging behind Western countries due to unfavorable circumstances) (18) and Slavophilism (the problem of Russia is a distortion of the natural development of Russia due to immoderate borrowing from the West) (19) . Later, a revolutionary-democratic trend emerged from Westernism, whose leaders (Herzen and others) began to develop the idea of Russia's "leap" into socialism through the peasant community (20).
AT the education sector, increased state control over educational institutions, the autonomy of universities was abolished (21).
The largest Russian scientist of this period is N.N. Lobachevsky, creator of non-Euclidean geometry (22).
In artistic culture, there was a gradual transition from sentimentalism and romanticism to critical realism (Fedotov in painting, Glinka in music, Schepkin and Ostrovsky in the theater, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev and others in literature) (23). Under conditions of censorship, literature and literary criticism (Belinsky) played an important social role and caused heated debate (24).
The development of architecture had its own specifics, where the Russian-Byzantine style was established (K.A. Ton, Cathedral of Christ the Savior) (25).
TRAINING
1. Working with chronology
Fill the table.
No. p / p |
Event |
the date |
Decembrist uprising in St. Petersburg (exact date) | ||
Uprising of the Chernihiv Regiment | ||
The activities of the Petrashevites | ||
Caucasian war | ||
Crimean War | ||
Capture of Shamil (date is out of period) | ||
The suppression of the uprising in Hungary by the Russian army | ||
Polish uprising | ||
Publication of the first "Philosophical Letter" P.Ya. Chaadaeva | ||
Russo-Persian War | ||
Russo-Turkish War | ||
Trial and reprisal against the Decembrists |
2. Work with personalities
Fill the table. (The right column indicates the minimum number of facts you need to know.)
historical figure |
Who is(s)? |
What did you do? What happened to him? |
A.N. Ostrovsky | ||
A.S. Menshikov | ||
OH. Benkendorf | ||
Aksakov, Kireevsky, Khomyakov | ||
Alyabiev, Varlamov, Glinka | ||
Bellingshausen and Lazarev | ||
Bryullov, Kiprensky, Ivanov, Venetsianov, Fedotov | ||
Bulgarin, Grech, Puppeteer | ||
V.G. Belinsky | ||
Voronikhin, Zakharov, Rossi, Montferrand, Beauvais, Tone | ||
Herzen and Ogarev | ||
Granovsky, Botkin, Kavelin | ||
E.F. Kankrin | ||
Karamzin, Solovyov, Pogodin | ||
Kornilov and Istomin | ||
Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky | ||
M.A. Miloradovich | ||
M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky | ||
MM. Speransky | ||
Mochalov, Shchepkin | ||
N.I. Lobachevsky | ||
P.D. Kiselev | ||
P.S. Nakhimov | ||
P.Ya. Chaadaev | ||
Pestel, Ryleev, Muraviev-Apostol, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Kakhovsky | ||
S.P. Trubetskoy | ||
EX. Uvarov | ||
3. Working with the table
Fill in the table “Main currents of social thought under NicholasI».
4. Working with the map
Find on the map:
1) territorial acquisitions of Russia under Nicholas I (Armenia, the mouth of the Danube, the coast from Anapa to Sochi);
2) Chechnya, Dagestan, Circassia;
3) Danubian principalities;
4) Sevastopol, Kars, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
5. Working with concepts
Define the terms.
1. Industrial revolution - ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
2. Bourgeoisie - ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
3. The proletariat - __________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
4. Ghazavat - ______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
5. Muridism - _______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
6. Imamat -_______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
6. Working with sources
What socio-political views did the authors of the documents, from which the excerpts are given, adhere to?
1. “In the midst of the rapid decline of religious and civil institutions in Europe, with the widespread spread of destructive concepts, in view of the sad phenomena that surrounded us on all sides, it was necessary to strengthen the fatherland on solid foundations on which the prosperity, strength and life of the people are based; find the principles that make up the distinctive character of Russia and belong exclusively to her; to gather into one whole the sacred remains of her people and to strengthen the anchor of our salvation on them.
_________________________________________
2. “With the establishment of a representative order in Russia, Europe would know Russia better ... The introduction of representative government, for which the ground is so undoubtedly and so thoroughly prepared, promising Russia new happiness, new life, a new vigor, a new strength for the equally necessary as well as beneficial prosperity - promises for the educated world and a new charm [of Russia], incomparably better than the old one.
___________________________________________
3. “Autocracy is the main condition for the political existence of Russia. The Russian colossus rests on it, as on the cornerstone of its greatness. This truth is felt by the innumerable majority of Your Majesty's subjects: they feel it in full measure, although they are placed on varying degrees civic life and differ in education and in their relationship to government. The saving conviction that Russia lives and is guarded by the spirit of autocracy, strong, philanthropic, enlightened, must permeate public education and develop with it.
4 . “All evil comes primarily from the oppressive system of our government, which is oppressive regarding freedom of opinion, moral freedom, because there are no claims to political freedom and claims in Russia ... May the ancient alliance of the government with the people, the state with the land, be restored on the solid foundation of true indigenous Russians began. The government - unlimited freedom of government, exclusively belonging to it, the people - complete freedom of life, both external and internal, which is guarded by the government. Government - the right to act and, therefore, the law; people - the right of opinion and, consequently, of speech. Here is a Russian civil device! This is the only true civil order!” _______________________________________________
5. “The spirit of the communal system has long penetrated all areas folk life Russia. Each city, in its own way, was a community; it gathered general gatherings that decided the next issues by a majority of votes ... In the face of Europe, whose forces are behind long life exhausted in the struggle, a people comes forward, barely beginning to live. He has retained only one fortress, which has remained impregnable for centuries - his land community, and because of this he is closer to the social revolution ... "
7. Working with the judgment of a historian
Read an excerpt from the work of the historian M. Polievktov and try to explain Why did the author come to this conclusion?
“Just as for Nicholas I the conservative program took on a dynastic character, so society learned to identify this order with the idea of statehood in general and brought up in itself a purely negative attitude towards the state principle. Disconnected from practical activity, society lost its real ground in its programs, but it also lost its real ground and the government, locking itself into bureaucratic paperwork. Both the government and society in the reign of Nicholas lost their sense of life.
CONTROL TASKS
Level A tasks
When completing the tasks of this part for each task, choose the correct answer, the only one of the four proposed, and circle it.
1. Which series of dates reflects Russia's major naval victories?
1) 1827, 1853 3) 1834, 1849
2) 1830, 1844 4) 1849, 1855
2. The domestic policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) decisive action to prepare for the abolition of serfdom
2) censorship oppression, persecution of opponents of the existing system
3) lack of reforms in the public administration system
4) the abolition of the privileges of the Russian Orthodox Church
3. The defeat of the Decembrist uprising led to
1) the temporary decline of the revolutionary movement in Russia
2) the transition of the government to a policy of mass terror
3) mass emigration of figures of Russian culture
4) deprivation of the nobility of part of the privileges
4. The foreign policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) the creation of a strong tripartite alliance of Russia, England and France
2) the desire to divide and subjugate the Austrian Empire
3) the fight against the revolutionary movement in Europe
4) large territorial acquisitions in Central Asia
5. Peace of Adrianople handed over to Russia
1) Moldavia and Wallachia 3) Western Georgia
2) islands at the mouth of the Danube 4) Bessarabia
6. Kireevsky, Aksakov - this is
1) revolutionary democrats 3) Slavophiles
2) Westerners 4) Petrashevists
7. Westernism is characterized
1) a positive attitude towards Russia during the reign of Nicholas I
2) the idea that Russia has its own, original path of development
3) calls for revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy
4) a positive assessment of the reforms of Peter I
8. The main support of Shamil was the territory
1) Circassia
2) Kabardy
3) Dagestan
9. The industrial revolution is
1) the mass exodus of peasants to the cities and their work in industrial enterprises
2) accelerated growth of industry and trade
3) the beginning of the use of machines in production
4) the emergence of large enterprises
10. Read an excerpt from the memoirs and indicate the year to which they refer.
“I heard a drumbeat, the meaning of which I then, as I did not serve in military service, did not accept. “This is the end of everything!” ... But then, I saw that the guns, aimed, were suddenly all raised barrels up. My heart was immediately relieved, as if a stone that had squeezed it tightly fell off! Then they began to untie those tied ... and brought them back to their former places on the scaffold. Some kind of carriage arrived, an officer came out - the adjutant wing - and brought some paper, filed immediately for reading. It proclaimed to us the granting of life by the sovereign emperor and, in return for the death penalty, to each, according to guilt, a special punishment.
1) 1826 3) 1849
2) 1836 4) 1853
11. A.I. Herzen was the first to suggest that (b)
1) the backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western countries
2) the possibilities of Russia's path to socialism through the community
3) the need to convene a new Zemsky Sobor
4) the harmfulness of Peter's reforms
12. Westernism and Slavophilism were united by a similar attitude towards
1) the policy of Nicholas I 3) the countries of the West
2) pre-Petrine Rus' 4) the reforms of Peter I
13. Under Nicholas I, a ministry appeared in Russia
1) on the affairs of serfs 3) internal affairs
2) state property 4) finance
14. The Turkmenchay peace was concluded in
1) 1828 3) 1849
2) 1829 4) 1856
15. Bellingshausen and Lazarev directed
1) the first Russian round-the-world expedition
2) the Russian fleet in the battle of Sinop
3) the expedition that discovered Antarctica
4) the defense of Sevastopol
16. Which of the following countries entered the Crimean War against Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire?
A) Sardinian kingdom
B) Austrian Empire
B) Great Britain
D) Prussia
D) France
Specify the correct answer.
1) ABD 3) AED
2) ADE 4) VGE
17. Read an extract from the diplomatic dispatch of the Russian envoy and indicate the date of the events in question.
“I have just received and communicated to Prince Schwarzenberg a dispatch dated March 25 regarding his request for the concentration of our significant forces in the most threatened points of the Galician border and for permission for these troops to enter Austrian territory and contribute to the rapid suppression of the rebellion.”
18. The reason why Nicholas I did not dare to free the serfs
1) conviction in the inability of the peasants to live without the power of the landlords
2) misunderstanding of the harm of serfdom for the economy and morality
3) unwillingness to carry out any transformations at all
4) fear of the resistance of the nobility
19. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev
1) called for the creation of a secret revolutionary society
2) critically commented on the historical experience of Russia
3) demanded the release of peasants with land
4) spoke in print in defense of the Decembrists
20. He refers to the opposition circles during the reign of Nicholas I
1) circle "Emancipation of labor"
2) a circle of Cretan brothers
3) circle N.V. Stankevich
4) "society number 11"
Level B assignments
These tasks require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers. .
1825 - 1855 - this is the period of the reign of Nicholas I. His accession to the throne is associated with the fateful day in the history of our Fatherland, which is the day of the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825. His reign ended at the end of the Crimean War, in the penultimate year of his life. Nicholas I throughout the entire period of his reign sought to prevent even a hint of an uprising. Therefore, he was severe even to the smallest manifestations of indignation or dissatisfaction of people with the actions of the Government. The emperor forbade the dissemination of any new ideas, controlled public thought. I will name the most important actions of the emperor in this direction.
In 1826, the third branch of the office was created. At the disposal of which was the corps of gendarmes, created to protect state security, fight against secret societies, restore order in the army and within the state. The activities of this body created an atmosphere of distrust and falsehood in the country. Identified "conspirators, rebels, other criminals" were presented to the emperor in the wrong light, their deeds were exaggerated, for which the perpetrators received very severe punishments. Thus, the creation of the third branch contributed to the strengthening of the power of the emperor and the incredible control of the state over all spheres of society.
The central figure in the work of this body was Count A.Kh. Benkendorf. For 20 years he guarded public order. The population was dissatisfied with the actions of this man. No one could tell the boss in the face, but in his circle he was accused of almost all mortal sins. The result of the formation of this body was the provision of state security. During the reign of Nicholas I, there was only one significant conspiracy, and even that was quickly uncovered by the authorities. The initiator of the conspiracy was the circle of M.B. Petrashevsky, whose members wanted to overthrow the monarchy. The emperor treated A.Kh. well. Benckendorff, appointing him to important government positions and raising his ranks. So, in 1826 A.Kh. Benckendorff became a senator, in 1828 a general, in 1831 a member of the State Council, and in 1832 a count.
Another significant event that took place at the initiative of the emperor was the codification of legislation. From the very beginning of his reign, Nicholas I expressed a desire to regulate life in the country with the help of law. During his reign, important legislative acts were printed and sent to all corners of the country - “ complete collection Laws of the Russian Empire” and “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”. The result of this event was the streamlining of laws that have been issued since the time Cathedral Code 1649 This created the stabilization and perpetuation of the autocratic power structure and feudal social relations. The person associated with this event is M.M. Speransky. It was a huge work, for which Speransky was awarded the title of Knight of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. His role is great in this event, of course. He systematized a lot of decrees, orders, so that the courts could be guided by a clear and modern set of laws.
Consider the cause-and-effect relationships of these events during the reign of Nicholas I. Both events - the creation of the III branch, and the codification of laws - were dictated by common reasons: the emperor's interest in order, the creation of clear and clear systematized laws. The result of these events was the preservation of the autocratic monarchy, the strengthening of the power of the emperor and the clear codification of laws, raising the authority of Russia as a whole.
During the reign of Nicholas I, many more events took place. These are the financial reform of Kankrin, and the reform of Kiselyov in the state village, which made it possible to accumulate experience in solving the peasant issue, which was used during the preparation of the peasant reform of 1861. The conservatism of the emperor did not allow this to be done during his reign. Russia fought during this period with Iran from 1826 to 1828 and, under the Turkmenchay Treaty, won the right to have a navy in the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian war also continued. In 1828-1829, the Russian-Turkish war took place, which, according to the Adrianople Treaty, opened the Black Sea straits for Russian ships. In 1853, the Crimean War with Turkey began, exposing the weaknesses of Russia.
The image of Nicholas I in historiography is contradictory. IN. Klyuchevsky saw in the reign of Nicholas I the desire to maintain the existing order with the help of officials, without introducing any special changes. He believed that the emperor suppressed the independence of society. Klyuchevsky characterized the emperor's actions as conservative and bureaucratic. Other historians believe that the accession of Nicholas I brought a clear revival to the life of the country. The Emperor sought to regulate public life, to eliminate abuses, to restore law and order, to carry out reforms.
The era of Nicholas I as a whole became a period of centralization of power; the reforms carried out brought some benefit to the country, but did not change its socio-economic and political system, which increasingly ceased to meet the requirements of the time.
Teacher history of MKOU"Mureginskaya secondary school" Abidova P.G.
Arrange historical events in chronological order. Write down the numbers that indicate historical events in the correct sequence in the table.
1) Decree on obligated peasants
2) publication of a "cast-iron" censorship charter
3) uprising in Poland
2. Establish a correspondence between the reforms of the first half of the 19th century. and their dates.
3. Below is a list of concepts, terms. All of them, with the exception of two, belong to the reign of Nicholas I.
1) Slavophiles 2) Petrashevists 3) the theory of official nationality 4) populism 5) Westerners 6) human rights activists.
Find and write down the serial numbers of terms related to another historical period.
4. Write the missing word. Representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought in the 40-50s. XIX century, speaking with the justification of the original path historical development Russia, fundamentally different from the path of Western Europe - _______________________________.
5. Establish a correspondence between processes (phenomena, events) and facts related to these processes (phenomena, events): for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
6. Establish a correspondence between fragments of historical sources and their brief characteristics: for each fragment, indicated by a letter, select two corresponding characteristics, indicated by numbers.
FRAGMENTS OF SOURCES
A) “A heavy burden has been placed on Me by the will of My Brother, who handed over the Imperial All-Russian Throne to Me in a time of unprecedented war and unrest of the people.
Encouraged by the same thought with all the people that the good of our Motherland is above all, I made a firm decision in the event that I accept the Supreme Power, if such is the will of our people, who should by popular vote, through their representatives in the Constituent Assembly, establish a form of government and new Basic Laws of the Russian State.
Therefore, invoking the blessing of God, I ask all citizens of the Russian State to submit to the Provisional Government, which, at the initiative of the State Duma, has arisen and is invested with all the fullness of power, until it is convened as soon as possible, on the basis of a universal, direct, equal and secret vote, the Constituent Assembly will express the will of the people by his decision on the form of government.
B) “All actions of the emperor were in accordance with my rules and my desires. Liberalism, so uncharacteristic of us, is disarmed and crushed; the words "justice" and "order" replaced the word "freedom". No one dared to call his strictness and did not want to call it cruelty, because it ensured both the personal safety of everyone and, in general, state security. Happy and contented faces were visible everywhere, only relatives and friends of the rebels on December 14 seemed sad ... Then the Supreme Criminal Court was established, composed of all members of the State Council, the Synod and the Senate, to which were added several full generals. Among the judges was Speransky, among the defendants was his soulmate, engineer colonel Batenkov, whom he met in Siberia ... and whom he managed to transfer to St. Petersburg ... In the first days of July ... a court sentence was passed on the guilty. One and a half hundred convicts were brought to the square in front of the fortress, the decision of the court was read to them, swords were broken over them, their uniforms and tailcoats were removed from them, they were dressed in peasant clothes and sent into exile. Five people were hanged. All this happened shortly after sunrise and in a remote part of the city, therefore, there could not be many spectators. Despite the fact that on this day the inhabitants of St. Petersburg were filled with horror and sadness.
CHARACTERISTICS
1) The document tells about the events of the XIX century.
2) The document laid the foundation for the emergence of a new dynasty in Russia.
3) The ruler referred to in the document signed the Paris Peace Treaty.
5) The document was compiled in the 20th century.
6) The ruler referred to in the document subsequently received the nickname "Palkin"
7. Which three of the following are typical for the views of the Slavophiles? Write the corresponding numbers in the answer.
1) adoption of the constitution, introduction of democratic freedoms | 2) the originality of the history of Russia |
3) return to Zemsky Sobors | 4) the abolition of serfdom |
5) the development of Russia according to the laws of world history | 6) the need to establish the bourgeois order |
8. Establish a correspondence between statesmen and historical events.
9. Fill in the empty cells of the table using the data presented in the list below. For each cell marked with a letter, select the number of the required element.
Ruler | Event | |
Ivan the Terrible | ||
church schism | ||
Nicholas I |
Missing items:
10. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of a contemporary.
“All actions of the emperor were in accordance with my rules and my desires. Liberalism, so uncharacteristic of us, is disarmed and crushed; the words "justice" and "order" replaced the word "freedom". No one dared to call his strictness and did not want to call it cruelty, because it ensured both the personal safety of everyone and, in general, state security. Happy and contented faces were visible everywhere, only relatives and friends of the rebels on December 14 seemed sad ... Then the Supreme Criminal Court was established, composed of all members of the State Council, the Synod and the Senate, to which were added several full generals. Among the judges was Speransky, among the defendants was his soulmate, engineer colonel Batenkov, whom he met in Siberia ... and whom he managed to transfer to St. Petersburg ... In the first days of July ... a court sentence was passed on the guilty. One and a half hundred convicts were brought to the square in front of the fortress, the decision of the court was read to them, swords were broken over them, their uniforms and tailcoats were removed from them, they were dressed in peasant clothes and sent into exile. Five people were hanged. All this happened shortly after sunrise and in a remote part of the city, therefore, there could not be many spectators. Despite the fact that on this day the inhabitants of St. Petersburg were filled with horror and sadness.
Using the passage and knowledge of history, select three correct judgments from the list provided. Write down in response the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The emperor referred to in the passage is Nicholas I.
2) Among the five executed mentioned in the passage were S. P. Trubetskoy and N. M. Muravyov.
5) Among those whom, according to this passage, sent into exile, were K. F. Ryleev and P. G. Kakhovsky.
6) The execution referred to in the passage took place in the summer of 1826.
Write the number that indicates the place last battle sailing fleets.
What judgments related to the events indicated in the diagram are correct? Choose three sentences from the six offered. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.
1) Admiral F.F. Ushakov was a participant in the war.
2) The war ended with the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty.
3) Russia's rivals in the war were France and Austria.
4) After the war, an era of reforms began in Russia.
5) Russia received the right to control the Bosphorus.
6) During the war in Russia there was a change of emperors