Uznadze and Experimental Foundations of the Psychology of Set. Installation theory D
Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze (1886-1950) - an outstanding Georgian psychologist and philosopher, creator installation theory which made it possible to take a fresh look at the underlying mechanisms of human behavior, linguistic and cognitive activity.
The author, whom we will consider in this article, became one of the most prominent representatives of psychology, creating the theory of set. Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze was primarily interested in the role of the unconscious in the life of the individual. Nevertheless, he criticized other authors who propose the concept of the unconscious, including Freud, for the theoretical and, more often, empirical groundlessness of their ideas. But he did not stop at criticism, instead offering his own understanding of the unconscious. Determining the quality, which, he designated as installation.
Attitude is a holistic, undifferentiated state that not only anticipates conscious activity, but also predetermines it. As he wrote, D.M. Uznadze, mental activity secondary to installation.
The installation occurs at the moment of contact between the organism and the environment. In this case, there is an interaction between the need and the situation of its satisfaction.
From what has been said, it is clear that the installation arises under two conditions:
- The presence of an urgent need.
- The presence of a situation of realization of a need.
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Installation and its experimental justification
To illustrate the essence of the concept under consideration, we will consider experiments with you in which the installation phenomenon was discovered. Most of the experiments were quite typical for the psychology of that time and boiled down to creating illusions by comparing different objects in different modalities.
So, for example, the subject was asked to weigh two balls and determine which one is lighter. The subject did this without problems. However, if prior to the control weighing the subject was asked to evaluate a certain number of pairs of balls that differ in weight, then two types of illusions almost always appeared during the control weighing. One of them is the illusion of contrast, when a light ball against a heavy one seems even lighter. The other is an assimilative effect, on the contrary, it appears when a light ball seems heavier.
In the same way, you can offer to weigh balls of the same volume, but different in weight. And then the subject can declare that the lighter ball is smaller and volume. Even a child can be deceived by such a riddle by asking what is lighter than a kilogram of down or a kilogram of iron.
Was held great amount modifications of these experiments. Illusions were compared in different modalities, for example, the subjects determined the difference not only by weight, but also visually, sometimes by ear. D. M. Uznadze with his students also looked to see if the illusion would spread from one sense organ to another. And it really happened.
Conclusion from experiments
The experimenter concluded that the main significance in creating illusions was the measurements preceding the control ones. Thus, if there were no preliminary measurements, then the illusions could not be observed.
Hence the conclusion: in the process of control measurement, an individual develops a certain internal state, which changes his perception during further measurements in a given direction. This state, which, although it cannot be called conscious, is a determining factor in the behavior and content of consciousness.
Types of installation
The experimenters found various varieties installation. It could be noted that the setting at the beginning of the experiment was of a different nature than in the control measurement. From this came the description of two types of installations.
- diffuse setting. Occurs upon first contact with the situation. It is characterized by vagueness and is not able to direct the activity of the individual.
- Fixed (differentiated) installation. With repeated encounters with similar situations, the attitude begins to differentiate and take on more concrete forms. Such an attitude is already capable of directly determining activity.
Installation decay process
D. M. Uznadze in his experiments tried not only to form the installation, but also to eliminate it. In this regard, he discovered a number of patterns and described the stages of attenuation of the installation
- Phase of contrast illusions. On it you can observe the presence of the installation and the manifestation of the corresponding illusions.
- Phase of assimilation illusions. At this phase, the process of attenuation of the installation begins. This can be seen in the fact that, along with contrasting illusions, assimilative illusions also begin to appear.
- Reality Statement Phase. Finally, we observe the phase of ascertaining reality, when the subject ascertains the real ratio of objects during the control measurement.
Although the scheme is quite simple, it allowed us to highlight certain types of attitudes characteristic of different types of people.
Setting depending on a variety of personal characteristics
Depending on the characteristics of the plant extinction process, a number of possible phenomena and types of the installation were identified.
- Static installation (rough and plastic). Static implies that once an individual's attitude is formed, it no longer changes. In a rough version, it does not change in principle. In the plastic, the individual still adjusts the attitude to reality, but does not reach its values.
- Dynamic Installation characterizes the ability of the individual to rebuild his worldview in accordance with reality. In the plastic version, restructuring occurs gradually, going through all the stages. In the rough it happens immediately.
- Non-fixed installation. During the experiments, it also turned out that there are a number of individuals who are not capable of forming any kind of attitude.
Characteristics of an individual installation
We have already noted that in the course of experiments with the installation, the fact individual differences. Representatives of the theory under consideration decided to study and classify possible differences in attitudes and their parameters in different personalities. This work helped to raise new questions within the framework of differential psychology. So, the installation may have the following properties.
- Differentiation. Differentiation is made up of the experience of the individual and means the accuracy, the certainty with which the attitude redefines future behavior.
- Excitability. This property suggests that different people may need different amount repetitions of the situation of experience until the formation of the installation.
- Strength. This is the opposite of the previous one. It determines how many experiments are needed to eliminate the installation.
- Dynamism, determines the fundamental possibility to change the setting.
- Inertness and plasticity, determines the extent to which the real situation and external factors may affect the current state of the installation.
- Irradiation and generalization. Irradiation implies the spread of the attitude to other areas of mental activity, in addition to the one in which it was originally formed.
- Fixed installation constancy and variability. The parameter denotes the specificity for a given individual of one particular type of attitude. For example, a variable attitude suggests that in one situation an individual can demonstrate a dynamic attitude, and in another, a static one.
- Stability and lability of a fixed installation. This parameter characterizes the ability of the installation to be maintained over time (as opposed to strength, which is determined by the number of control measurements).
- Intermodal installation. This is the preservation of the parameters of the installation formation using different sense organs.
The value of installation in the psychology of the individual
Of particular importance for D. M. Uznadze was the property of generalization of the attitude. Proceeding from it, the scientist began to consider the installation as a general psychological phenomenon. Any behavior is the realization of pre-formed readiness. The installation acts as the preparedness of the individual for the appropriate perception of events and the implementation of predetermined actions.
The phenomenon under consideration is also presented as a mediating link between environmental influences and the psyche, which explains the behavior of the individual, his emotional and volitional manifestations, thus constituting the determining factor of any activity.
Two types of body behavior
Although D. M. Uznadze assigned a serious importance to the individual's behavior to the attitude, he did not claim that it completely determines him. From here, he deduced two types of behavior.
- impulsive characteristic of both animals and human beings. Here the direction of behavior is completely predetermined by the setting.
- Volitional, mind-controlled behavior characteristic only of man. It is realized through the so-called objectification. This mechanism manifests itself when an individual enters into a confrontation with the external environment, when he begins to see reality as it really is, and, accordingly, objectify his behavior.
Objectification as a mechanism of volitional behavior
Thinking, as well as other functions that separate the human race from animals, arises when there are obstacles to the behavior determined by the installation. When an individual finds himself in a position where the attitude does not allow him to realize an adaptive, in relation to external influence, response, then human consciousness arises, which, however, leads to the re-development of readiness for action (attitude).
The act of activation of consciousness was called objectification by the scientist.
Objectification is the act of separating the action from the organism, the experience of reality regardless of the organism.
A characteristic feature of the human personality is the implementation of delayed motivation, i.e. implementation of such actions that will bring benefits only in the future. The installation shows itself only in the current moment, although it is itself a kind of anticipation.
Having studied the abilities different people to objectification, the scientist also identified a number of options personality types.
- Dynamic. A person who has a good ability to objectify and has the ability to easily switch in relation to objectified goals.
- Static. A person who exhibits excessive objectification, which is expressed in the constant inhibition of his attitudes and the selection of methods of activity only based on volitional efforts.
- Variable. A person who has the ease of objectification, but does not have the necessary volitional potential for its implementation.
Installation in hypnosis
Understanding the theory of installation has great importance and during hypnotherapy. The suggestibility attitude determines the effectiveness of the hypnotherapy process. Until a positive attitude towards the hypnotherapy process turns off the motives of the patient's behavior that oppose the act of suggestion, the results of therapy will not be observed.
A positive attitude eliminates the motive for controlling one's behavior, leading to a hypnotic state, implying an uncritical perception of the hypnotist's speech.
It is interesting that the attitude towards the process of hypnosis is, as it were, the highest hierarchical level of the attitude, i.e. it reorganizes the individual's other attitudes.
Let's consider with you the components of the installation to accept the suggestion. As you and I understood, the attitude is formed on the basis of past experience (as in the experiments of D.M. Uznadze, on the basis of a series of measurements). Thus, for the effectiveness of a therapeutic session, a person either must already have ideas about the interaction with the hypnotist and his figure, or they are created directly by the hypnotist himself. It is for this, for example, in hypnotherapy that a preliminary conversation is held. It allows you to form an attitude in the individual, which will help in the process of the session.
Conclusion
Thus, it is worth saying that, regardless of the avalanche of criticism that once rushed towards D.M. Uznadze, he made a breakthrough in psychology. He introduced an experimental and empirical basis into the doctrine of the unconscious, and demonstrated the presence of unconscious processes in real experiences, in contrast to the same Freud and other representatives of the theory of the unconscious, whose statements remained unfounded. The installation theory is striking in its scope. Introducing the concept under consideration, D.M. Uznadze, in fact, anticipated the concept of schemas from cognitive psychology.
Briefly summarizing what has been written, installation is all our experience, which we do not operate purposefully, but use automatically. If you saw your friend somewhere on the street, this already triggers one or another stereotype of behavior and perception in you, simply because you have previous experience of communicating with this person. If a doctor tells you to take certain medicines, you take them because you trust him, because, in accordance with your beliefs, a doctor is a person who knows and knows how to cure. And for someone such a person is a gypsy fortuneteller, which determines his further behavior.
Feedback on hypnosis treatment from an IT specialist: request for irrational emotions in communication
, Unconscious , Behavior
Years of life: 1886 -1950
Homeland: Sakara (village) (Russian Empire)
Uznadze Dmitry Nikolaevich (1886-1950) - Georgian psychologist and philosopher, one of the founders in Georgia, creator psychological school installation. PhD(1909), professor. D. ch. Academy of Sciences of the GSSR from the day of its foundation (1941), member. Presidium social sciences Academy. Organizer and director of the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the GSSR (1941-1950), named after him in 1950. Honored scientist of Georgia (1946).
For participation in the revolutionary movement, he was expelled from the last class of the gymnasium.
He was educated in philosophy at the University of Leipzig (1909), where he studied with W. Wundt, J. Volkelt, and P. Barth. Here in 1907 he received a perm for his work on the philosophy of G. Leibniz, in 1909 he defended his doctorate. dis. on the topic "Metaphysical worldview of V. Solovyov". In 1913, he graduated from the Historical and Philological Faculty of Kharkov University as an external student. He began his professional scientific and teaching activities in 1910. He created the first women's school in Georgia with teaching in the Georgian language (1915).
He was one of the organizers of the Tbilisi State University (1918), where he was in charge of the Department of Psychology and the psychological laboratory created by him (1918-1950).
In 1927, on his initiative, the Society of Psychologists of Georgia was organized. Created the departments of psychology and led them in pedagogical institutes the city of Kutaisi (1932-1940) and the city of Sukhumi (1938-1940).
During the Second World War, he worked at a hospital in a rehabilitation pathopsychological room. In 1943, he headed the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the GSSR organized by him, which he led until last days own life. U. is the author of a well-known general psychological theory of attitude, which explains the characteristics of unconscious processes, expedient activity, and the patterns of human social behavior. The premise of his analysis of the works of V. Solovyov, A. Bergson, G. Leibniz. At the same time, he interpreted psychology as a science of a holistic spiritual personality, whose motives and actions can be of an unconscious nature.
3 pages, 1283 words
Sociology as a science, political science as a science, social psychology as a science, philosophy. To what topic studied in the first quarter ... . S. Solovyov (1853-1900) on the significance of philosophy. Philosophy has existed in mankind for more than two and a half millennia. What... O. Spengler. E. "Philosophy of history and social philosophy... - these are the main themes of Russian philosophy. The most significant and original created by...
In the 1920s developed the foundations of a general psychological doctrine of attitude (the phenomenon of attitude was discovered by the German psychologist L. Lange in 1888 while studying errors of perception), which was partly opposed to the psychoanalytic concept of the unconscious mind. The attitude was understood by him as an integral mental state of the subject's readiness to carry out a certain behavior. It arises on the basis of motivational and situational factors, due to which it acquires the ability to regulate the implementation of expedient behavior. By developing a simple and effective experimental model studying the set (fixed set method), U., together with his colleagues, revealed a number of significant general psychological and differential psychological properties of the set (integrity, excitability, strength, dynamism, plasticity, irradiation, etc.).
On this basis, he built an attitudinal typology of personality. In W.'s works, the integral-personal nature of the attitude, its unconscious nature, and the laws of its formation and course are revealed and substantiated. U. - the author of numerous studies in various fields of psychology. He carried out theoretical and experimental studies on the issues of thinking, speech, attention, will. He paid special attention to the study of language, the formation of concepts, names, comprehension of meanings. In the sphere of his interests were also the problems of methodology and the history of psychology. He developed questions of psychotechnics, pedology, age and educational psychology, zoopsychology. He made a significant contribution to the development of philosophical and pedagogical thought in Georgia. W. author of works: "Henri Bergson", 1920; "Fundamentals of experimental psychology", 1934; "On the Psychology of Installation", 1938; "General psychology", 1940; "Psychology of the child", 1947; "Experimental Foundations of the Psychology of Set", 1949; " Psychological research”, M., 1966; Trudy, vols 1-6, Tb., 1966-67 (in Georgian).
10 pages, 4627 words
The predominance of hypomanic and schizoid personality traits Conclusion according to the data of an experimental psychological study Full name girl *** Age 13 years Education Grade 7 Date ... , low resistance to stressful situations, a tendency to compensatory fantasizing; rigidity of attitudes (excessive demands on others), anxiety, high dissatisfaction with the need for communication ...
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The history of psychology in faces. Personalities / under. ed. L.A. Karpenko // Psychological Lexicon. encyclopedic Dictionary: In 6 volumes / ed. L.A. Karpenko. under total ed. A.V. Petrovsky. — M.: PER SE, 2005.
Uznadze Dmitry Nikolaevich (1886-1950) - Georgian psychologist and philosopher, author of the general psychological theory of attitude and head of the Georgian psychological school, director of the Institute of Psychology of the Georgian Academy of Sciences.
Personality concept Uznadze built on the concept installations, which he considered the main psychological education. Installation is considered the main regulatory mechanism behavior person by defining orientation and electoral activity. However, the essence of the personality is not reduced to the functioning of the installation, but is determined by the presence of such fundamental manifestations as consciousness and ability to objectification, according to which a person opposes himself to the external environment, begins to recognize reality as it is, and objectifies his behavior. Depending on the ability of To objectification, Uznadze describes three types of personalities: 1) dynamic; 2) static; 3) variable.
characteristic feature personality is a far-reaching exercise motivation committing action and deeds whose purpose is to satisfy needs for the future life. Higher needs - intellectual, moral and aesthetic - correspond to I-concepts person. The setting is manifested in the present tense.
The behavior of a person can proceed at two levels - as impulsive and regulated by consciousness. In the first case, the direction of behavior is determined by the attitude that arises from the interaction of human needs and situations where they are updated. At a higher level of behavior, a person does not obey the impulse, but finds a kind of behavior for which he can take over a responsibility.
One of the most important characteristics of personality in the theory of attitude is responsibility, thanks to which a person can rise above his needs, acting as a subject. will. Meaning motivation consists in finding activities that correspond to the main, fixed in the process of life setting of the personality. The goal preparation period is divided into two stages: 1) choice; 2) motivation. Volitional behavior is the ability of a person to subordinate his activity not only to personal values but also of objective necessity.
Many students of the Uznadze school studied personality from the standpoint of the theory of attitude: Sh. A. Nadirashvili, V. G. Norakidze, A. S. Prangishvili, N. I. Sarjveladze, G. I. Tsintsadze, Sh. E. Sherozia and others.
62. Neuropsychology A.pluriya
Luriev's neuropsychology originates in psychology, its source is general psychological ideas about the structure and structure of mental functions. While Western neuropsychology in to a large extent"grew" out of medicine and is still a kind of part of medicine - "higher neurology", which studies the psychological symptoms of brain damage in the same way as neurological symptoms and directly compares them with foci of brain damage.
Another tradition is the direct transfer of methods to the clinic pilot study developed for the study of a healthy person (mainly psychometric), and a fascination with quantitative rather than qualitative aspects of the defects studied (i.e., the use of mathematical, statistical methods over the qualitative analysis, which A.R. Luria).
As you know, neuropsychology is one of the brain sciences, so the central problem in it is the problem of brain organization (localization) of mental functions. Its solution depends on the understanding of the following questions:
what is mental function as a psychological phenomenon?
what is the brain as a substratum of mental functions, i.e. what are the principles of its organization?
how exactly do mental functions correlate with brain structures, i.e. What exactly is “subject to” localization, and what exactly should be understood by the brain mechanisms of mental functions?
Brain structures responsible for the implementation of mental functions are highly differentiated formations, united in various systems interacting with each other. In addition, the systems unite both cortical and subcortical levels of the brain. The brain as a substrate of mental processes is organized according to many systemic principles: projection, associative, regulatory, etc. Certain brain structures should be correlated not with the mental function as a whole, but with its individual links, parameters (aspects), the implementation of which is carried out with the help of appropriate physiological processes. .
General and local physiological processes (patterns of work of the corresponding neurons) are "responsible" for various aspects mental functions and various forms of their disorders in local brain lesions. They are the specific brain mechanisms of higher mental functions.
The brain as a substrate of mental processes is involved in the implementation of mental functions as a complex whole, consisting of highly differentiated components organized according to system principle, where various brain structures and physiological processes specific to them are "responsible" for various links (aspects) of the function.
These and other provisions were included in the formulated by A.R. Luria "the theory of systemic dynamic localization (brain organization) of higher human mental functions."
Like any good theory, it is successfully applied in practice (for diagnosing the state of the brain and its individual structures and restoring impaired functions). Proposed by A.R. Luria's methods of neuropsychological diagnostics and restoration of mental functions are based on this theory. They are very popular all over the world as one of the most effective.
63. L.S. Vygotsky: cultural-historical concept in psychology
L.S. Vygotsky(1896-1934) for the first time moved from asserting the importance of the environment for development to identifying the specific mechanism of this influence of the environment, which actually changes the child's psyche, leading to the emergence of higher mental functions specific to a person. Vygotsky considered such a mechanism interiorization, first of all, the internalization of signs - stimuli-means artificially created by mankind, designed to control one's own and others' behavior.
The first version of their theoretical generalizations concerning the patterns of development of the psyche in ontogenesis, Vygotsky outlined in the work “The Development of Higher Mental Functions”, written by him in 1931. In this work, a scheme was presented for the formation of the human psyche in the process of using signs as means of regulating mental activity.
Unlike a stimulus-means that can be invented by the child himself (for example, a knot on a handkerchief or a stick instead of a thermometer), signs are not invented by children, but acquired by them in communication with adults. Thus, the sign first appears on the external plane, on the plane of communication, and then passes into inner plan, plane of consciousness. Vygotsky wrote that each higher mental function appears on the scene twice: once as external, interpsychic, and the second time as internal, intrapsychic.
Based on your view of mental development, in which higher and natural mental processes are distinguished, Vygotsky developed a new periodization. He also formulated the principles that scientific psychological periodization must meet. Its criterion, Vygotsky emphasized, must be internal, and not external in relation to development, must be objective and not lose its significance throughout the entire period of childhood. Vygotsky himself, in his periodization, sought to move from a purely symptomatic and descriptive principle to highlighting the essential features of development.
The periodization he proposed was based on two criteria - dynamic and meaningful. In terms of developmental dynamics, he divided childhood into critical and lytic periods, giving a qualitative description of crises. From the point of view of content, he divides childhood into periods, based on the neoplasms of each of them, i.e. of those mental and social changes that determine the consciousness and activity of children of a certain age.
Exploring the relationship between development and learning, Vygotsky introduced the concept of zone of proximal development which is located between the level of actual and potential development of the psyche. He emphasized that education can be developmental, i.e., activate the development of the intellect of children, only if it is adequate to the given child in form and content.
Vygotsky attached particular importance to the symbolic nature of the word, understanding it as a special socio-cultural mediator between the individual and the world. Interpreting signs (or stimuli-means) as mental tools that, unlike labor tools, do not change the physical world, but the consciousness of the subject operating with them, Vygotsky proposed an experimental program for studying how a system of higher mental functions develops thanks to these structures.
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The theory of installation D.N.Uznadze
- Introduction
- 1. The doctrine of the installation of D. N. Uznadze
- 1.1 Research on the problem of social attitude in psychology
- 1.2 The concept of “installation” in the theory of D. Uznadze
- 2. Statement of the installation problem in the concept of D. Uznadze
- 2.1 Uznadze's research and his theory of set
- 2.2 Installation as the basis of illusions
- Conclusion
- List of used literature
- Introduction
- uznadze social illusion psychology
- The relevance of the research problem: Social attitude - the orientation of the individual to a specific social object, expressing a predisposition to act in a certain way in relation to this object. A social attitude turns into an active activity under the influence of a motive. The social attitude includes three aspects: cognitive - awareness of the object; affective - emotional evaluation of the object; behavioral - consistent behavior in relation to the object, as well as their functions of adaptation, cognition, self-regulation, protection.
- can be assessed in different ways this definition attitudes, but one conclusion must be made clear: the attitude remains largely an unexplored object in psychology. To understand this, we will consider the stages of formation of the basic ideas about social attitude.
- Uznadze D.N. - Georgian psychologist and philosopher, author of the general psychological theory of attitude. In the theory of Uznadze, it is important, first of all, the position that the consciousness of a person is fragmented, and the attitude covers the entire psyche of the person as a whole, while remaining unconscious. At the same time, the installation is the most important in determining human activity. Human activity "grows out of an attitude." Set is not a private mental phenomenon, as in Western theories. It determines the integral mode of personality, preceding conscious activity, directing it. The installation does not manifest itself in consciousness, but directs the activity of consciousness associated with the satisfaction of certain human needs.
- Defining human activity, the attitude is the source of many characteristics of activity, which outwardly appear to be disparate, random, but which are all integrated by a single attitude and are inextricably interconnected. The attitude structures both the internal psychological sphere and the external environment as it is perceived by a person. At the same time, the external environment is presented as the field of activity of the individual, and the individual himself, as the subject of activity.
- The works of V.G. Alekseeva, B.G. Ananyeva, G.M. Andreeva, L.I. Antsyferova, M.M. Bakhtin, A.V. Bituyeva, S.S. Bubnova, A.G. Zdravomyslova, D.A. Leontiev, V.A. Petrovsky, S.L. Rubenstein, D.N. Uznadze, A. Yadova
- To study the problem of social psychological attitude studies of attitudes (attitudes) - the works of E. Katz P. Lazarsfeld, R. Merton, G. Allport K. Hovland and others - had a great influence. Nadirashvili, V.G. Norakidze, A.S. Prangishvili, N.I. Sarjveladze, G.I. Tsintsadze, Sh.N. Chkhartishvili, A.E. Sherozia, P.P. Ermine.
- aim Our work is to analyze the theory of installation D.N.Uznadze.
- In the course of our research, we came up with the following tasks:
- 1) consider the problem of social attitude in psychology;
- 2) to analyze the concept of "installation" in the theory of D.N. Uznadze;
- 3) to study Uznadze's research and his theory about attitude;
- 4) determine the role of the attitude as the basis of illusions in Uznadze's concept.
- Object of study: installation theory in psychology.
- Subjectresearch: installation theory D.N. Uznadze.
- Research methods:
- - processing and analysis of scientific sources;
- - analysis scientific literature, textbooks and manuals on psychology, psychoanalysis, pedagogy, social psychology and etc.
- 1 . The doctrine of the installation of D. N. Uznadze
1.1 Research Problems social attitude in psychology
In the study of personality in psychology, the most important place is occupied by the problem of social attitude. If the process of socialization explains how a person assimilates social experience and at the same time actively reproduces it, then the formation of a person's social attitudes answers the question: how is the learned social experience refracted by a person and concretely manifests itself in his actions and deeds?
Only if this mechanism is studied, it is possible to solve the question of what specifically regulates human behavior and activities. In order to understand what precedes the deployment of a real action, it is necessary first of all to analyze the needs and motives that induce a person to act. AT general theory personality, it is precisely the correlation of needs and motives that is considered in order to understand the internal mechanism that prompts action. However, it remains unclear what determines the very choice of motive. This question has two sides: why do people in certain situations act one way or another? And what are they guided by when they choose this particular motive?
The concept that to a certain extent explains the choice of motive is the concept of social attitude. At the everyday level, the concept of social attitude is used in a sense close to the concept of "attitude". However, in psychology, the term "attitude" has its own meaning, its own tradition of research, and it is necessary to correlate the concept of "social attitude" with this tradition Andreeva G.M., Bogomolova N.N., Petrovskaya L.A. Modern social psychology in the West. Theoretical Orientations. - M., 1978. .
The installation problem was special subject research at the school of D.N. Uznadze. The external coincidence of the terms "attitude" and "social attitude" leads to the fact that sometimes the content of these concepts is considered as identical. Moreover, the set of definitions that reveal the content of these two concepts is really similar: “inclination”, “orientation”, “readiness”. At the same time, it is necessary to accurately separate the scope of the installations, as D.N. Uznadze, and the scope of "social attitudes". It is appropriate to recall the definition of the installation given by D.N. Uznadze: “Attitude is an integral dynamic state of the subject, a state of readiness for a certain activity, a state that is determined by two factors: the need of the subject and the corresponding objective situation” Uznadze D.N. General doctrine of installation. Psychological research. - M.: Nauka, 1966. .
Attunement to behavior to meet a given need and in a given situation can be fixed in the event of a repetition of the situation, then a fixed attitude arises, in contrast to a situational one. At first glance, it seems we are talking it is about explaining the direction of the individual's actions under certain conditions. However, a closer examination of the problem reveals that such a formulation of the question in itself cannot be applied in social psychology. The proposed understanding of the attitude is not connected with the analysis of social factors that determine the behavior of the individual, with the assimilation of social experience by the individual, with a complex hierarchy of determinants that determine the very nature of the social situation in which the individual acts.
Installation in the context of the concept of D.N. Uznadze most of all concerns the question of the realization of the simplest physiological needs of man. It is interpreted as the unconscious, which excludes the application of this concept to the study of the most complex, higher forms. human activity. This in no way belittles the importance of developing problems at the general psychological level, as well as the possibility of developing these ideas in relation to social psychology. Such attempts were made repeatedly by Asmolov A.G. Kovalchuk M.A. On the relationship between the concept of attitude in general and social psychology // Theoretical and methodological problems of social psychology. - M., 1977. .
The very idea of identifying special states of a personality that precedes its actual behavior is present in many researchers. First of all, this range of questions was discussed by I.N. Myasishchev in his concept of human relations. Attitude, understood "as a system of temporary connections of a person as a personality-subject with the whole reality or with its separate sides" Myasishchev VN Personality and neuroses. - L., Leningrad State University, 1960., explains just the direction of the future behavior of the individual. Attitude is a kind of predisposition, a predisposition to some objects, which allows one to expect to reveal oneself in real acts of action. The difference from the installation here is that it assumes various, including social facilities to which this attitude applies, and the most diverse, very complex situations from a socio-psychological point of view. The sphere of action of a person based on relationships is practically unlimited.
In a specific theoretical scheme, these processes are also analyzed in the works of L.I. Bozovic. In the study of personality formation in childhood she found that the orientation develops as an internal position of the individual in relation to the social environment, to individual objects of the social environment Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. - M., 1969. . Although these positions may be different in relation to diverse situations and objects, it is possible to fix in them some general tendency that dominates, which makes it possible to predict behavior in a certain way in previously unknown situations in relation to previously unknown objects.
The orientation of the personality itself can also be considered as a special predisposition - the predisposition of the personality to act in a certain way, covering the entire sphere of its life, up to the most complex social objects and situations. Such an interpretation of the orientation of the personality allows us to consider this concept as a single-order concept with the concept of a social attitude.
The ideas of A.N. Leontiev on Personal Sense Leontiev AN Activity. Consciousness. Personality - M., Politizdat, 1975. . When personality theory emphasizes the personal significance of objective knowledge of the external circumstances of activity, this also raises the question of the direction of the expected behavior (or activity of the individual) in accordance with the personal meaning that the object of his activity acquires for a given person. Without going into a detailed discussion of the issue of the place of the attitude problem in the theory of activity, we will only say that an attempt was made to interpret the social attitude in this context as a personal meaning “generated by the relationship of motive and goal” Andreeva G.M., Bogomolova N.N., Petrovskaya L.A. Modern social psychology in the West. Theoretical Orientations. - M., 1978. .
Such a formulation of the problem does not exclude the concept of a social attitude from the mainstream of general psychology, as well as the concepts of "attitude" and "orientation of the personality." On the contrary, all the ideas considered here assert the right to exist for the concept of “social attitude” in general psychology, where it now coexists with the concept of “attitude” in the sense in which it was developed in the school of D.N. Uznadze.
Therefore, further clarification of the specifics of the social attitude in the system of socio-psychological knowledge can be carried out only by considering a completely different tradition, namely: the tradition of the formation of this concept not in the system of general psychology, but in the system of social psychology.
1 . 2 The concept of “installation” in theoryD. Uznadze
There is almost no more or less significant sphere of the subject's relationship to reality, in which the participation of attitudes would be completely excluded. The attitude, relating to the material received by the object with the help of all its receiving organs, should be understood not as their special function, but as the general state of the individual ... It should rather be a certain general state that does not concern any individual organs of the subject, and its activity as a whole - this is how D.N. Uznadze Uznadze D.N. Psychology of installation. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. .
The installation, Uznadze believes, lies outside the sphere of consciousness. “In addition to conscious mental processes, there are in a certain sense “extra-conscious”, which, however, does not prevent them from playing a very significant role. In our case, this role is played by the attitude, which we previously, in the state of hypnotic sleep, fixed in our subjects. It, this attitude, in our experiments has never been the content of consciousness. Nevertheless, she was undoubtedly able to act on him: objectively equal balls experienced as definitely unequal. Thus, we can argue that our conscious experiences can be under a certain influence of our attitudes, which, for their part, are not at all the contents of our consciousness” Uznadze D.N. Psychology of installation. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. .
Uznadze does not say that the attitude is unconscious, although such a conclusion suggests itself. Freud's Interpretation of the Unconscious Freud Z. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. - M.: Contemporary Issues, 1925. Uznadze is fundamentally not satisfied, for the reason that, as Uznadze believes, in Freud, the difference between conscious and unconscious processes basically boils down to the fact that these processes, being essentially the same, differ only in that the first of them accompanied by consciousness, while the second has no such accompaniment.
As for them, their inner nature and structure remain the same in both cases. In this light, it becomes clear that the unconscious processes that play such a significant role, for example, in mental illness, can become conscious first for the psychoanalyst, and then, under certain conditions, for the patient himself. But according to the teachings of psychoanalysts, the patient’s experiences do not happen in content, nothing new, nothing significant: some content was not illuminated by the rays of consciousness, now it is illuminated by these rays, and this is basically enough for the patient to become a completely healthy person ”Uznadze D.N. The main provisions of the theory of installation. Proceedings. - Tbilisi, Metsniereba, 1977, V.6, S. 263-326. .
Uznadze's consciousness is fragmentary, and the attitude covers the entire personality. Installation is the most important moment in human activity, the most basic on which it - this activity - grows Uznadze D.N. Installation theory. - Moscow-Voronezh, 1997. . The installation is essentially dependent on the conditions in which it arises, is determined and fixed in them, then in this case it will have to be recognized that it does not in any way belong to the category of once-for-all given, immutable categories. If we judge the attitude by the nature of the conditions necessary for its occurrence, then there is no doubt that it cannot belong to the category of innate, once and for all given entities, because both the concept of need and the environment belong to a group of phenomena dependent on constant changing conditions of the organism. Consequently, already one analysis of the conditions for the emergence of an attitude is enough to see that once and for all, delimited, fatalistically predetermined attitudes do not exist. Uznadze D.N. Installation theory. - Moscow-Voronezh, 1997. . The expansion of the field of human attitudes, in principle, has no limit.
The starting point of psychology, according to Uznadze, is not mental phenomena, but the living individuals themselves. “The subject himself enters into active relations with reality, but not individual acts of his mental activity, and if we take this undoubted fact as a starting point, then it is indisputable that psychology, as a science, should proceed not from the concept of individual mental processes, but from the concept of the subject itself, as a whole, which, entering into a relationship with reality, becomes forced to resort to the help of individual mental processes. Of course, the primary in this case is the subject himself, and his mental activity is something derivative” Uznadze D. N. Fundamentals of experimental psychology // Izvestiya Tifl. University. - 1925, T. XVI. .
The task of psychology is, first of all, to study the “living reality of human activity”, on the basis of which the whole structure of our mental contents rises further - our knowledge, our feelings, our will. Having taken this necessary position, psychology must, first of all, raise the question - what is this activity, what is its specific content, which can be revealed and investigated by our usual scientific methods. The mental activity of a person - the phenomena of his consciousness, studied until now in a certain sense as independent, independent entities, is nothing more than further specifications, as definitions of the subject, definitions of this personal whole. In this case, psychology will be presented to us as the science of the concrete mental life of the subject, but not as the science of abstract, so-called mental phenomena.
In cases where there is a need and a situation of its satisfaction, a specific state arises in the subject, which can be characterized as an inclination, as an orientation, as his readiness to commit an act that can satisfy this need. We can conclude that a person's activity can be activated in addition to the participation of his individual, conscious mental functions, in addition to his cognitive, emotional and volitional acts - it can be activated on the basis of his attitude, which expresses not some of the individual mental functions, but the state of everything. subject as such Asmolov A.G. Activity and installation. - M., 1979. .
There are few grounds that justify, moreover, make it obligatory to identify precisely the concept of an integral subject, the concept of personality, as the initial concept in the analysis of mental life. In the study of living whole person, of himself, but not of individual facts of his activity, we find that in each individual case of the presence of a need in the subject and the situation of its satisfaction, he has a readiness, a tendency, or - even better - an attitude towards a certain activity that can give him satisfaction . An attitude is a mode of the subject at every given moment of his activity, an integral state fundamentally different from all his differentiated, psychic powers and abilities.
Turning to scientific study attitudes, we, first of all, in the analysis of any behavior must emphasize the fact of the obligatory presence of some qualitatively original, specific change in the attitude state of the acting subject; we must keep in mind that in any situation of solving a problem, first of all, the subject reacts as such, reacts as a whole, but not only as a carrier of individual psychophysical forces that are means, tools in resolving the tasks facing him.
Therefore, there is no doubt that the analysis of mental activity should begin, first of all, with the study of the modification of the active subject as a whole, with the study of his attitude. Thus, the fact that activity appears is immediately preceded by the attitude of the acting personality as its integral state, and all its activity in the future proceeds under the sign of the guiding influence of this attitude. The activity of the personality, its activity to solve this problem is, in essence, nothing more than the process of realizing its installation.
The setting precedes the conscious mental processes of a person, it is a fact from the field of that sphere of human activity, which is still called the sphere of the unconscious psyche of Chkhartishvili Sh.N. On the question of the ontological nature of the unconscious. In: Unconscious: nature: functions, research methods. - Tbilisi, Metsniereba. - 1978, Vol.1. . An attitude is a state of a personality, its mode at any given moment, but not any of its particular mental functions that have a local distribution and a corresponding meaning.
We can conclude that the attitude is not a particular mental phenomenon among other similar phenomena, but something integral, characterizing, so to speak, the personal state of the subject. In addition to the usual mental facts, in addition to individual conscious mental experiences, one should undoubtedly admit the presence of one or another mode of the state of the subject of these experiences, one or another attitude of him as a personality. It goes without saying that the holistic state is not reflected in the consciousness of the subject in the form of his separate independent experiences - it plays its role, determining the work of the subject in the direction of activity, leading him to satisfy his needs. It, this state, of the subject as a whole, cannot be experienced by him in the form of a series of separate contents that characterize the situation in which his activity takes place. An attitude cannot be a separate act of the subject's consciousness, it is only a mode of his state as a whole. Therefore, it is quite natural to consider that if anything really flows unconsciously in us, it is, of course, our attitude in the first place. We see that the unconscious really exists with us, but this unconscious is nothing but the attitude of the subject. Consequently, Uznadze believes, the concept of the unconscious ceases to be only a negative concept from now on (according to Uznadze, this takes place in Freud's teaching), it acquires an entirely positive meaning and should be developed in science on the basis of conventional research methods.
The results of the experiments carried out at the school of Uznadze clearly indicate that unconscious mental activity "participates" in a hidden way as a prerequisite and a regulating factor in the formation of any form of activity of consciousness Prangishvili A.S. Installation as an intangible basis of mental reflection. In: The Unconscious. Nature, functions, research methods. // Ed. A.S. Prangishvili, A.E. Sheroziya, F.V. Bassina. - Tbilisi: "Metsniereba" Publishing House, 1985. Volume 4. .
The concept of D.N. Uznadze enriches the analysis of behavior by the fact that the attitude as a variable is considered intermediate precisely in the sense of a specific level and form of reflection of reality. The concept of D. Uznadze comes from the postulate underlying the three-term scheme of activity analysis, according to which any behavior, no matter how and wherever it occurs, is determined by the impact of the surrounding reality not directly, but, above all, indirectly, through a holistic reflection of this latter in subject of activity. A chain is built: stimulus - installation - reaction. The reactions of the individual, along with the acting stimuli, are also determined by an intermediate variable - the attitude, understood as a constitutive factor - the internal mental organization of the individual - located between the stimulus and the reaction.
The formulation of the problem of an integral subject of mental activity raises the question of the method of mental organization of an individual as a well-coordinated system in a certain way, a coherent sequence of his experience and behavior, his relative structural stability in conditions of constant change in the circumstances of activity. Representing a disposition to a certain form of response - the psychological organization of the individual's internal environment, the attitude acts as a characteristic of the integral state of the subject of mental activity at each discrete moment of his activity. This means that attitudes, motives, personality traits, concepts and similar factors of activity do not determine the emerging behavior in isolation and "piece by piece", but are subject to the regulatory function of the set - top level organization of the processes of experiences and actions that take place during the implementation of activities.
Set - the concept of a unit of integral-personal measurement, to which the acting subject is reduced at each discrete moment of his activity. At each discrete moment of an individual's activity, selective-directed processes of his perception, memory, imagination, problem solving, etc., showing a certain internal coherence and consistency, act as processes controlled by a single intermediate variable - readiness for a certain form of response - installation, t .e. act as processes occurring in a certain integral form of mental organization.
G. Allport correctly noted: without such a guiding installation, the individual would be confused and confused. No activity can be actualized without readiness for a certain form of response, prompting him to act in this way, and not in some other way Nadiraishvili L.A. The concept of attitude in general and social psychology. - Tbilisi, 1974. . An individual is a subject of activity insofar as he is organized not at the very moment of activity, but is prepared for it. This means that the reaction is carried out not according to the stimulus-response principle, but as refracted through the entire system of the individual's mental organization, i.e. the reaction is carried out as a "generalized response".
At the same time, the "system of mental organization", the "system-individual" is not given to the subject directly as a fact of conscious experiences. As its subject, we never directly experience this guiding activity of the attitude. Only by observing the emergence, flow and extinction of the "effect" of the installation, we judge its patterns and dynamics. The attitude acts as a factor of negentropic order. Expressing the order, organization, it is the basis for the certainty of behavior, therefore, if the installation is not implemented, the order in the organization of the experiences and actions of the subject that takes place during the implementation of activities is violated, disorganization and conflicts arise in them Uznadze D.N. Psychology of installation. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. .
A setting is a factor that is always initially oriented negentropically, i.e. to minimize the likelihood of "disorder" both in relations between people and the world, and in the spiritual life of the person himself. Many examples can be given that "regular changes in attitudes are simultaneous changes in the values determined by attitudes ... transformations of the significance for the subject of certain aspects of the world around" Iosebadze T.T., Iosebadze T.Sh.. The problem of the unconscious and the theory of the school's attitude Uznadze. In book. Unconscious. Nature, functions, research methods. // Ed. A.S. Prangishvili, A.E. Sheroziya, F.V. Bassina. - Tbilisi: "Metsniereba" Publishing House, 1985. Volume 4. .
In the responses of the individual, for example, to the occurrence of circumstances unfavorable for her, patterns of "psychological defense" are captured as various forms of specific restructuring of personal attitudes that change the significance for the subject ("personal meaning") of what surrounds him. In Uznadze's theory, the concepts of “need” and “situation” are of particular importance. These concepts are considered as forming factors of installation. The need and the situation, as prerequisites for the attitude, precede it in a logical sense, and not really, in time. The very fact of being in a particular environment, by virtue of its biological essence, necessarily implies the existence of a constant connection, interaction of an individual with the environment.
This interaction under specific conditions transforms the individual into the subject of a certain behavior, i.e. forms an appropriate attitude, which means that, on the one hand, the environment is transformed, structured (both in the physical and psychological sense) in the form of a situation (something stands out, is clearly perceived, becomes more important for the subject, something pushed aside, distorted, not perceived, etc., but in general, the environment, depending on the specific state of the subject, is endowed with a certain meaning); on the other hand, simultaneously with the structuring of the external environment, the structuring of the internal, mental sphere takes place (certain needs, certain mental contents are actualized, certain mental functions, cognitive and dispositional formations are activated, etc.) Uznadze D. N. To the question of the main the law of change of attitude // Psychology. - M., 1930. T. III, Issue. 3. .
In other words, just as the attitude is determined by external and internal factors, these factors themselves do not exist on their own, but are distinguished on the basis of the interaction of internal and external determinants simultaneously in the very process of attitude formation.
2. Statement of the installation problem in the concept of D. Uznadze
2.1 Research by Uznadze and his t Installation theory
Uznadze conducted a whole series of experimental studies in order to study the stability of the installation, its irreversibility over a certain period of time. Consider these studies by Uznadze D.N. Experimental Foundations of the Psychology of Set. Tbilisi, 1961. .
Illusion of volume. Let us take two objects different in weight, but absolutely identical in other respects - say, two balls, which would be distinctly different from each other in weight, but would be exactly the same in volume and other properties. If you offer these balls to the subject with the task to compare them with each other in terms of volume, then, as a rule, the answer will follow: a heavier ball is smaller in volume than a lighter one. Moreover, this illusion usually appears the more often, the greater the difference in weight between the balls. It must be assumed that the illusion here is due to the fact that with an increase in the weight of an object, its volume usually also increases, and its variation in weight naturally inspires the subject with a corresponding variation in its volume.
But experimentally, it would be more productive to replace the difference in weight of objects with their difference in volume, i.e., offer the re-tested two objects that differ from each other in volume, with one (for example, smaller) in the right, and the other (larger) in left hand. After a certain number of repeated exposures (usually after 10-15 exposures), the subject receives a pair of balls of equal volume with the task of comparing them with each other.
And it turns out that the subject, as a rule, does not notice the equality of these objects: on the contrary, it seems to him that one of them is clearly larger than the other, and in the vast majority of cases in the direction of contrast, i.e., the ball in that hand seems to him larger into which, in preliminary experiments, he received a smaller ball.
At the same time, it should be noted that this phenomenon appears in this case much stronger and more often than when offering objects of unequal weight. It also happens that the object seems large in the other hand, i.e., in the one in which the subject received a larger ball.
In these cases, we are talking about an assimilative phenomenon. This creates the illusion of volume. But the volume is perceived not only haptically, as in this case; it is also assessed by sight. The question is how things stand in this case.
We gave the subjects this time tachistoscopy a pair of circles, of which one was clearly larger than the other, and the subjects, comparing them with each other, had to indicate which of them was larger. After a sufficient number (10-15) of such homogeneous exposures, we proceeded to critical experiments - we exposed two equally large circles tachistoscopically, and the subject, comparing them with each other, had to indicate which of them was larger. The results of these experiments were as follows: the subjects perceived them as illusory; moreover, illusions, as a rule, arose almost always in contrast. Cases of a direct, assimilative nature were much less common. We do not present here the data of these experiments. We only note that the number of illusions reaches almost 100% of all cases.
Illusion of pressure force. But, along with the illusion of volume, Uznadze discovered a number of other phenomena similar to it, and above all, the illusion of pressure.
With the help of a baresthesiometer, the subject receives two stimuli one after the other - first strong, then relatively weak. This is repeated 10-15 times. The experiments are designed to strengthen the impression of a given sequence of stimuli in the subject. This is followed by the so-called critical experience, which consists in the fact that the subject receives for comparison, instead of different, two equally intense pressure stimuli. The results of these experiments show that these impressions, as a rule, seem to the subject not the same, but different, namely: the pressure for the first time seems to him weaker than for the second time. The table, which includes the results of these experiments, shows that the number of such perceptions is much higher than the number of adequate perceptions.
It should be noted that in these experiments, as in the previous ones, we are dealing with illusions of both the opposite and symmetrical nature: most often there are illusions that boil down to the fact that the subject evaluates the objects of critical experience, i.e. equal experimental stimuli as unequal, namely: stimulation from the side from which in the preliminary experiments he received a stronger impression of pressure, he regards as weaker (illusion of contrast). But it also happens under certain conditions that instead of a contrast, the phenomenon of assimilation appears, i.e., the pressure seems to be stronger precisely in the direction in which the more intense stimulation acted in the preliminary experiments.
+ number of cases of contrast; -- number of assimilations; = number of adequate estimates; ? number of uncertain answers. These signs have the same meaning in all the following tables.
More than 60% of cases of evaluation of equal pressure stimuli acting in critical experiments by the subjects are perceived as illusory. Therefore, there is no doubt that phenomena similar to volume illusions also took place in the sphere of pressure perception, which differs significantly in the structure of the receptor from the perception of volume.
Hearing illusion. Uznadze's further experiments concerned auditory impressions. They proceed in the following order: in preliminary experiments, with the help of the so-called "falling apparatus", auditory impressions are received in pairs: the first member of the pair is much stronger than the second member of the same pair. After 10-15 repetitions of these experiments, critical experiments follow, in which the subjects receive pairs of equal auditory stimuli with the task of comparing them with each other.
The results of these experiments are summarized in the table, which shows that in this case the number of illusions reaches 76%. It should be noted that here, as, indeed, in experiments on the illusion of pressure, the number of assimilative illusions is higher than is usually the case; on the other hand, of course, the number of cases of contrast is much lower, which in other cases often rises to 100%.
It must be assumed that the role here is played by the fact that in both these cases we are dealing with a sequential order of the proposal of stimuli, i.e., the subjects receive stimuli one after another, but not simultaneously, with the task to compare them with each other, and we noticed that the number of assimilations increases significantly due to the number of contrast phenomena. Below we will try to explain why this is so. The figures obtained in these experiments leave no doubt that cases of phenomena analogous to the phenomenon of volume illusions also occur in the field of auditory perceptions.
Lighting illusion. As early as 1930, Uznadze suggested that the phenomena of the initial overestimation of the degree of illumination or darkening during light adaptation may belong to the same category of phenomena as the illusions of perception we have described above. Subsequently, this assumption was tested in the laboratory by the following experiments: the subject receives two circles to compare them with each other in terms of their degree of illumination, and one of them is much lighter than the other. In preliminary experiments (10-15 exposures), these circles are exposed to the subjects in a certain order: first a dark circle, and then a light one. In critical experiments, two equally bright circles are shown, which the subject compares with each other according to their illumination. The results of the experiments show that in critical experiments, under the influence of preliminary ones, the circles do not seem to us equally illuminated: in more than 73% of all cases, they appear to our subjects to be significantly different. So, our phenomenon also appears in these conditions.
Illusion of quantity. It should be noted that under appropriate conditions, similar phenomena occur when compared with each other. quantitative relations. In preliminary experiments, the subject receives two circles, of which we have a significantly larger number of points in one than in the other. The number of exposures fluctuates here in the range of 10-15. In critical experiments, the subject again receives two circles, but this time the number of points in them is the same. The subject, however, as a rule, does not notice this, and in most cases it seems to him that there are noticeably more points in one of these circles than in the other, namely, more in the circle in which in preliminary experiments he saw a smaller number of these points. .
Thus, the phenomenon of the same illusion takes place under these conditions Uznadze D.N. Psychological research. - M. 1966. .
Illusion of weight. Fechner in 1860, and then G. Müller and Schumann in 1889 drew attention to another phenomenon similar to ours, which later became known as the illusion of weight. It consists in the following: if the subject is given a task, repeatedly, several times in a row, to lift a pair of objects of noticeably unequal weight, moreover, heavier with the right hand, and less heavy with the left hand, then as a result of performing this task, he develops a state in which objects of the same weights begin to seem to him unequally heavy, and the load in the hand in which he previously received a lighter object begins to seem to him more often heavier than in the other hand.
We see that essentially the same phenomenon that we indicated in a number of previous experiments also takes place in the field of weight perception.
Muller's theory. If we look through all these experiments, we will see that, in essence, everywhere in them we are dealing with the same phenomenon: all the illusions indicated here have the same character - they arise in completely analogous conditions and, therefore, must be varieties the same phenomenon. Therefore, Muller's theory, constructed specifically for the purpose of explaining one of these phenomena, namely the illusion of weight, cannot currently be considered satisfactory. She has in mind the specific features of the perception of weight and, of course, to explain the illusions of other sensory modalities should be untenable. University. - 1925, T. XVI. .
In fact, Müller argues as follows: when we give the subject several times a pair of unequally heavy objects in his hands, then, in the end, he develops the habit of lifting the first, i.e., the heavier member of the pair, to mobilize a stronger muscular impulse than for lifting the second member of the pair. If now, after repeating these experiments a sufficient number of times (10-15 times), the same subject is given an object of the same weight in each hand, then these objects will again seem to him unequally heavy. In view of the fact that he has developed the habit of lifting a heavier object with his right hand, he mobilizes a stronger impulse when lifting a weight with this hand than when lifting it with the other hand. But since in this case, in fact, it is necessary to lift objects of the same weight, then, of course, the impulse mobilized in the right hand to a heavier one “takes off” the weight from the stand faster and easier than it does on the left side, and the weight on the right “flies up” more easily. than the gravity on the left.
The psychological basis of the illusion, therefore, should be assumed, according to this theory, in the experience of the speed of lifting weight: when it seems to “fly up”, it seems light, when, on the contrary, it rises slowly, then it seems to “stick to the stand and is experienced as a heavier object. This is Muller's theory.
We see that, according to this theory, the impression of "lifting up" or "sticking" of gravity to the stand is of decisive importance: without these impressions, we would not feel the difference between both weights - the illusion would not take place.
But after all, we can experience phenomena of this kind only in cases of lifting weights, i.e., where it makes sense to talk about the impressions of "flying up" or "sticking to the stand." Meanwhile, as we have seen, essentially the same phenomenon also takes place in a number of cases where impressions of this kind are out of the question. Thus, we are dealing with illusions of volume, force of pressure, hearing, illumination, quantity, in a word, with illusions that, in essence, must be interpreted as varieties of the same phenomenon, which has no essential or no connection at all with any specific peripheral processes. .
Remaining one and the same phenomenon, in the tactile sphere it becomes an illusion of pressure, in the visual to taptic - an illusion of volume, in the muscular - an illusion of weight, etc. In essence, it remains one and the same phenomenon, for understanding the essence of which the features of individual sensual modalities in which it manifests itself do not play a significant role. Therefore, it is quite clear that in order to explain this phenomenon, we must digress from Muller's theory and look for it in a different direction.
And here, first of all, the question arises: what do we find in common, in the conditions of our experiments, in the activity of individual sensory modalities, what could be recognized as the general basis on which the phenomena of illusion that we have ascertained similar to each other grow?
The theory of "deceived expectations". In the psychological literature we come across a theory which, it would seem, fully answers the question we have posed here. This is the theory of "deceived expectation" Prangishvili A. S. Studies in the psychology of attitude. - Tbilisi, Metsniereba, 1967. . True, during its development, the analogues of the illusion of weight mentioned by us were still unknown: they were first published by us in connection with the problem of the foundations of this illusion later. This theory deserves all the more attention now, when the presence of these analogues definitely indicates that the phenomena we are interested in here must be based on something that has essentially only a formal meaning and therefore may be suitable for explaining those cases that, touching on the material of various sensory modalities, very different from each other in terms of content.
The theory of “deluded expectation” attempts to explain the illusion of weight in the following way: as a result of repeated lifting of weights (or to explain our phenomena, we could now add - repeated exposure to visual, auditory, or some other impression) the subject develops the expectation that at a certain he will always be given a heavier object in his hand than in the other, and when in a critical experiment he does not receive a heavier object in this hand than in the other, his expectation is deceived, and he, underestimating the weight of the object he received, considers it lighter Uznadze D.N. Installation theory. - Moscow-Voronezh, 1997. . Thus, according to this theory, the impression of a contrast of weight arises, and, under appropriate conditions, other analogues of this phenomenon that we have discovered.
There is no doubt that this theory has a certain advantage over Müller's, since it basically recognizes the possibility of the manifestation of our phenomena wherever there can be a question of "deceived expectation", therefore, not only in one, but in all our sensory spheres. Our experiments show precisely that the illusion that interests us here is not limited to the sphere of any one sensory modality, but has a much wider distribution.
However, this theory cannot be accepted. First of all, it is not very satisfactory, since it does not give any answer to the essential question in our problem - the question of why, in fact, in some cases there is an impression of contrast, and in others - of assimilation. There is no reason to believe that the subject really "expects" that he will continue to receive the same ratio of stimuli that he received in the preliminary experiments. In fact, he cannot have such an “expectation”, at least after it turns out after one or two exposures that he receives completely different irritations that he, perhaps, really “expected” to receive. After all, in Uznadze's experiments on illusion, they arise not only after one or two exposures, but even further.
But regardless of this consideration, the theory of "deluded expectations" must still be tested and, moreover, verified, if possible, experimentally; only in this case it will be possible to judge finally about its acceptability. Uznadze conducted special experiments that were supposed to resolve the issue of interest to us here about the theoretical significance of the experience of “deceived expectation” Uznadze DN Psychological research. - M. 1966. . In this case, he used the state of hypnotic sleep, since it provided him with favorable conditions for resolving the question posed. The fact is that the fact of reporting, the possibility of which is presented in a state of hypnotic sleep, creates these conditions. D. Uznadze hypnotized the subjects and in this state conducted preliminary experiments on them.
He gave them ordinary balls in their hands - one large, the other small - and forced them to compare these balls in volume with each other. At the end of the experiments, despite the facts of ordinary post-hypnotic amnesia, he nevertheless specifically inspired the subjects that they should thoroughly forget everything that was done to them in the state of sleep. Then he took the subject to another room, where they woke him up and after a while, in a waking state, carried out critical experiments with him, that is, he gave balls of equal volume in his hands so that the subject compared them with each other.
In almost all cases, the subjects found that these balls were unequal, that the ball on the left (i.e., in the hand in which in the preliminary experiments during hypnotic sleep they received a larger ball) was noticeably smaller than the ball on the right.
Thus, there is no doubt that the illusion may also appear under the influence of preliminary experiments carried out in a state of hypnotic sleep, i.e., in a state in which there can be no question of any "waiting." After all, it is absolutely indisputable that the subjects had absolutely no idea what happened to them during hypnotic sleep, when critical experiments were carried out on them, and, of course, they could not “expect” anything. Undoubtedly, the theory of "deluded expectation" turns out to be untenable for explaining the phenomena of our phenomena.
2.2 Installation as the basis of illusions
What, if not "expectation", then determines the behavior of a person in the experiments discussed above? We see that everywhere, in all these experiments, the decisive role is played not by what is specific to the conditions of each of them, not by the sensory material that arises under the special conditions of these tasks, or by something else characteristic of them, not by the circumstance that in one case we are talking about, say, volume, haptic or visual, and in the other, about weight, pressure, degree of illumination or quantity. No, the decisive role in these tasks is played precisely by what is common to all of them, what unites, and does not separate them Uznadze D.N. Psychology of installation. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. .
Of course, on the basis of problems so heterogeneous in content, one and the same solution could arise only if all of them basically concerned the same issue, something common, presented in a peculiar form in each individual case. And indeed, in all these problems the question is reduced to the definition of quantitative relations: in one case it is asked about the mutual ratio of the volumes of two balls, in the other - about the force of pressure, weight, quantity. In a word, in all cases the question is raised as if about one and the same side of different phenomena - about their quantitative relations.
But these relations are not abstract categories in our tasks. In each individual case, they are quite specific givens, and the task of the subject is to determine precisely these givens. In order to resolve, say, the question of the size of the circles, we first offer the subject several times two unequal circles, and then, in a critical experiment, two equal circles. In other problems, in preliminary experiments, he receives completely different things: two unequally strong impressions of pressure, two unequal quantitative impressions, and in a critical experiment - two identical stimuli.
In spite of all the difference in material, the question remains essentially the same in all cases: it is everywhere about the nature of the relationship that is conceived within each problem. But the relationship here is not experienced in any generalized way. Despite the fact that it has a general character, it is always given in some specific expression. But how does it happen? Crucial in this process must be assumed to have preliminary exposures. In the process of re-offering them, the subject develops some kind of internal state that prepares him for the perception of further exposures. That this inner state really exists, and that it really has been prepared by the repeated offering of preliminary exposures, of this there can be no doubt: it is worth making a critical exposure immediately, without preliminary experiments, i.e. offer the subject immediately equal objects instead of unequal ones in order to see that he perceives them adequately. Therefore, there is no doubt that in our experiments he perceives these equal objects according to the type of preliminary exposures, namely, as unequal.
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The general basis of foreign psychology in all its diversity of directions and schools was first revealed in Soviet psychology by D.N. Uznadze (1886-1950), creator in Georgia of one of the centers of Soviet psychological science, founder of the Georgian school in psychology - the psychology of attitude.
He was one of the founders of the Tbilisi University (1918) and the founder of the department and department of psychology, the laboratory of experimental psychology. On his initiative, the Society of Psychologists in Georgia was established (1927), the first psychological society in the Soviet Union, and the Institute of Psychology was founded within the system of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (1943).
Together with other psychological centers that were created in our country from the first years Soviet power in Moscow, Leningrad, Ukraine and other regions, Georgian psychologists under the leadership of Uznadze, relying on the achievements of all previous world psychological and philosophical thought, created psychological science on the foundations of Marxism-Leninism.
In various concepts of foreign psychology - introspectionism, the Würzburg school, behaviorism, psychoanalysis, W. Stern's personalism, Gestalt psychology, etc. Uznadze saw one common basis, which he designated by the term "postulate of immediacy"; calling it "the dogmatic premise of traditional psychology".
So, analyzing the concepts of associationism, W. Wundt, Gestalt theory, D.N. Uznadze reveals as their common feature the explanation of the psyche as a set of interconnected phenomena and differing only in points of view on understanding the mechanisms of these connections - respectively, association, mental causality, which determines the role of complex integral experiences.
All these theories preserve the principle of immediacy in explaining mental phenomena. Other direction modern psychology, which "allows the possibility of interaction between physical and mental phenomena", also remains on the positions of the point of view of immediacy, since it considers "as if objective reality directly and immediately affects the conscious psyche and in this direct connection determines its activity."
The origins of this "dogmatic premise" D.N. Uznadze sees in the false orientation of psychology to natural science, which is based on the recognition of the fact of a direct connection between physical phenomena.
An analogy with this principle D.N. Uznadze also sees in Wundt's "principle of closed causality", which he criticizes as an unscientific and unproductive attempt, and in the explanations of Gestalt psychology, in behaviorism.
Uznadze reveals the profound consequences that psychological reliance on the postulate of immediacy leads to. This is idealism and mechanism, expressed in ignoring the subject of activity and personality as a specific integrity, as a result of which behavior is presented as “interaction with the reality of individual mental and motor processes, primarily determined by the direct interaction ... motor or mental processes and their stimuli or stimuli, and, therefore , for its understanding, in addition to taking into account these two points, nothing else is required.
This appeal to foreign psychology and its deep criticism were apparently caused by the circumstances of Uznadze's scientific biography, to which R.T. Sakvarelidze.
This analysis of foreign psychology turned out to be consonant with its analyzes in the works of L.S. Vygotsky (primarily in his work “The Historical Meaning of the Psychological Crisis”), S.L. Rubinshtein and was shared by Soviet psychology as a whole. A.N. Leontiev repeatedly used the term "postulate of immediacy" introduced by Uznadze, and just like him, he saw the task of psychology in overcoming this postulate.
Criticism of the postulate of immediacy is an important integral part to work on the creation of the methodological foundations of D.N. Uznadze. From it follows the task of overcoming this postulate. The answer to this problem was the theory of installation.
The theory of set, according to Uznadze's own assessment, is an attempt to explain the activity of a living organism as a whole, its relationship with reality by introducing a special internal formation, designated by the concept of "set". The installation occurs when there are two conditions at the same time: the need that is currently acting, and objective situation satisfy this need. Thus, internal and external factors are taken into account in its formation.
An attitude is a primary holistic undifferentiated state that precedes conscious mental activity and underlies behavior. "Individual acts of behavior, all mental activity are phenomena of secondary origin."
A method of experimental study of the installation was developed, the types of installations, the process of their formation were studied, and their properties were described. From the point of view of the installation, the characteristics of mental processes are given, an original classification of the forms of human behavior and activity is made, and hierarchical levels of mental activity are revealed - an individual, a subject, a personality.
In contrast to the attitude in foreign psychology, in which this phenomenon acts as a private psychological formation, Uznadze gives the concept of attitude the status of a general psychological category, and the theory of this phenomenon turns into a general psychological theory of attitude and extends to the study of pathopsychological phenomena, finds application in pedagogy, on its Based on the developed system of methods of psychotherapy - set therapy.
The attitude was described as that mediating formation between the influence of the environment and mental processes, which explains the behavior of a person, his emotional and volitional processes, i.e. acts as a determinant of any activity of the organism. Thus, thinking (as well as creative fantasy, work, etc.) arises in a situation of difficulty in acts of behavior caused by a certain attitude, when the complication of the situation makes it necessary to make this difficulty a special object of study.
“This specific act, which turns an object or phenomenon included in the chain of human activity into a special independent object of its observation, could be called an act of objectification.”
The identification of objectivation leads Uznadze to the conclusion that there are two levels of mental life - the level of attitude inherent in every living being (and only in particular for a person), and the level of objectification, which is "a special property only for a person as a thinking being, building the foundations cultural life as a creator of cultural values”.
The psychology of attitude sharply posed the problem of the active subject in psychology as opposed to the mechanism and idealism of all previous psychology. It included an analysis of behavior and activity from the position of attitude: "... there is no doubt that for the study of the true subject of psychology - mental life - the concept (behavior) is of absolutely exceptional importance ...".
The focus on identifying the internal determination of activity is the essence and pathos of D.N. Uznadze, aimed at overcoming the postulate of immediacy in psychology. Since the attitude (and the need) are in the "subject space" and, therefore, are internal formations, the role of behavior and activity in psychology remains unclear.