All books about: “Biomechanics Dubrovsky. All books about: "Biomechanics Dubrovsky Hand-to-Hand Combat for Beginners Aleksey Kadochnikov
The loving brother of India, Casimir, did not think of anything better than to invite his sister to ... a cemetery - one of his mistresses was buried, and the ladies' man was afraid of the revenge of a deceived husband. There, the hairdresser of the late Nina Sigurkina approached him and shared her suspicions: Masha was replaced, a completely different woman was in the coffin! Kazimir did not believe this nonsense, and in vain - the next day Nina was found in the nearest forest belt, and now she could well keep her client company ... Was the hairdresser right?
Chabua Amirejibi
Chabua Amirejibi is a famous contemporary Georgian writer. Ch. Amirejibi's novel Data Tutashkhia, which has already gone through several editions in Tbilisi and Moscow, and translated into a number of European languages, brought particular popularity. Each spiritual movement of the hero of the novel Date Tutashkhia, a rebel hiding from the royal gendarmes, testifies to a sincere desire to eradicate evil, to help people. With its romanticism, Date resembles famous literary heroes - Robin Hood, Karl Moor, Dubrovsky. However, it is a complex dynamic image…
Rainy season Ilya Shtemler
One morning, during a walk, a neighbor's dog found the corpse of a baby in the courtyard of the house where the famous journalist Yevsey Dubrovsky lived. An investigation begins, a police investigator turns to the journalist. However, in an unexpected way along the way, Dubrovsky from a witness becomes a suspect ... About this, as well as about the passions of bibliophiles, about love and hatred, about duty and honor, about eternal themes Russian literature, read in the new novel by Ilya Shtemler "The Season of Rains".
Nobody but President Lev Gursky
While investigating the kidnapping of a prominent businessman, FSB captain Maxim Laptev suddenly finds himself drawn into the cycle of an incredible case of an unprecedented scale. The goal of the conspirators is the President of Russia himself, and the villains are not shy about means. The fate of the country again hangs in the balance, but ... In the course of the plot of this ironic thriller, the interests of the former editor of an influential newspaper, the former billionaire, former minister culture and many others, past and present, including the new UN Secretary General, and the writer Ferdinand Izyumov, who returned ...
Black Queen's Lawyer Natalya Borohova
The young lawyer Liza Dubrovskaya was initially jealous of her fiancé Andrei for his childhood friend. But Alina quickly convinced her that there was nothing between them, and even offered Liza help in her work - an easy arbitration case for debt collection. Lisa quickly won this case, although she did not see her client in the eye, Alina simply handed over a power of attorney from him. But a few days later, the defendant was found murdered, and the client, it turns out, does not exist at all in nature, the power of attorney is fake! Dubrovskaya was accused of these crimes, she ended up in a remand…
Casanova's lawyer Natalya Borokhova
Nothing foreshadowed surprises in the case that fell to the young lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya. Everything pointed to the fact that the famous businesswoman Inga Serebrov was killed by her young husband Dmitry, her former fitness trainer. Elizabeth was trying to find new evidence when the unforeseen happened: Dmitry escaped from custody, and on the same day, the manicurist Serebrova, who spoke out against him in court, died. It would seem that everything is clear - the killer got rid of the witness. But from some small details, Lisa began to guess: someone is trying to accuse her client ...
Lawyer for an hour Natalya Borohova
It was a hopeless, obviously losing business. Lisa Dubrovskaya's client, Anastasia Drozdova, behaved very strangely - she nullified all the efforts of the lawyer, as if resigning herself to the verdict in advance. But she shone no less than fifteen years! Nastya was accused of murdering the well-known businesswoman Dvoretskaya, the owner of the prosperous Zhemchuzhina holding, where Drozdova headed the legal service. The butler brought Nastya so close to her that she settled her in her luxurious mansion, making her almost a member of the family. And during the celebration of the anniversary of a business lady ...
Lawyer - invisible Natalia Borokhova
The young lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya admired her venerable colleague Vladimir Leshchinsky and could not even imagine that she would soon see him in the dock! A strangled girl was found in the bed of the famous womanizer Leshchinsky, and all the evidence indicated that it was he who did it. Only Dubrovskaya had no doubts: her client had been framed, although Leshchinsky was not at all interested in Lisa's opinion, considering his lawyer only an extra in this trial. But soon the girl unearthed something in the lawyer's past that made her doubt his innocence ...
Business card of the predator Natalia Borohova
The head of the criminal group, Alexander Suvorov, planned to go into politics, but ended up behind bars. So the young lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya got another unpleasant job: to defend Ivan Zverev, Suvorov's closest assistant. The main lawyer of the process, the influential and powerful Granovsky, despite the many evidence of his client's guilt, is confidently leading the case to collapse. But how else, if all the witnesses are either bribed or intimidated and retracted their previous testimony? In this situation, Dubrovskaya is required ...
Dossier on lawyer Natalya Borokhova
The gentle tone of the boss did not bode well. And premonitions did not deceive Elizaveta Dubrovskaya: she was appointed defender in the case of a maniac-strangler named Stockinger. Lisa was in a panic. She was little tempted by the prospect of appearing on the pages of newspapers and on television as a maniac's lawyer. "The Stocker" - that's what they might call her! Relatives of the dead girls throw a young lawyer rotten eggs. And the killer himself, staring at her with a crazy look, will repeatedly choke her in his dreams with white lace stockings ... The hosiery turned out to be young ...
Prediction for a lawyer Natalia Borokhova
The young lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya has so far encountered crimes only on the pages of criminal cases. And now she herself became a witness to a crime that, no doubt, will fall on the front pages of newspapers! Emma, a friend of Lisa's husband, invited them to a Halloween party, arranged an exotic fortune-telling and hinted at the unseemly deeds of each of those present. That same night, Emma was found murdered. So, some of her words hit the target? .. To the young investigator of the prosecutor's office Maikov, this annoying lawyer ...
Temptation for the Nutcracker Natalya Borohova
The young lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya vegetated in a provincial legal advice office and only dreamed of high-profile cases and brilliant victories. In her work, Liza had one lawsuit - from an old woman bogged down in the tar. Therefore, when the director of the successful security agency Polich approached her, the girl could not believe - would she finally have a real serious business? Polich needed a lawyer for Sergei Petrenko, an employee of his agency, who is accused of murdering a major businessman. No one doubts that her client is guilty, ...
Finest hour of the lawyer Natalya Borokhova
Diana and Olga have been friends all their lives, since childhood. But the friendship ended tragically: Olga Krapivina, an experienced climber, died - she was thrown off a cliff. And they accused of murder ... Diana Danilevskaya, who became a famous writer. There were persistent rumors that a man stood between bosom friends ... Lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya did her best to free Diana, but she was clearly hiding something from her defender. While under investigation, Danilevskaya began new book- an autobiographical story in which she promised to reveal all the secrets. ...
Lawyer under hypnosis Natalia Borohova
The young lawyer Lisa Dubrovskaya got a civil inheritance case: Kristina Kameneva tried to protest the will of her father, who left all his fortune to her stepmother. The marriage lasted only six months, the wife was three times younger than her husband, and Christina immediately suspected that her father had left this world not without outside help. Dubrovskaya tried to find evidence, and Kristina decided to help her lawyer: she enrolled in a psychoanalysis group, which her father attended under an assumed name right on the eve of his death ...
Russian hand-to-hand combat in 10 lessons Aleksey Kadochnikov
The training program offered to the reader on the pages of the book is based on modern scientific research in the field of anatomy, physics, physiology and biomechanics in terms of the technical development of techniques and in the theory of activity in terms of their tactical application in different situations. The tutorial can be used for both self-study, and to improve the basic technique of hand-to-hand combat.
Lawyer incognito Natalya Borokhova
Lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya has never had such an unusual client before! A well-known scientist, respected university professor Arkady Sobolev is accused of… rape and attempted murder of a laboratory assistant! But after all, he is faithful to his wife Victoria, they have two charming children and, in general, just an ideal family ... What then happened after the celebration of his wife's birthday, when she flew away on an urgent business trip, and Arkady was left alone in the banquet hall with Sofia Kislova? The next morning he woke up alone in a hotel room, absolutely nothing ...
Heart Lawyer Natalya Borohova
The well-established, measured life of Evgenia Shvets, editor-in-chief of the Sofia magazine, went downhill: she hit a man on a snowy slippery road and cowardly fled the scene. Eugene was tormented by remorse and fear, because she was threatened with an investigation, and then a trial! Completely desperate, Shvets turned to the lawyer Elizaveta Dubrovskaya for help. Dubrovskaya advised to conclude settlement agreement with the victim - she turned out to be young Maria, who ran away from home because of an unbearably difficult life. Evgenia invited Masha to live with her in order to ...
Hand-to-hand fighting for beginners Alexey Kadochnikov
The training program offered to the reader on the pages of the book is based on modern scientific research in the field of anatomy, physics, physiology and biomechanics in terms of the technical mastery of techniques and on the theory of activity in terms of their tactical application in various situations. The training program can be used both for self-study and for improving the basic technique of hand-to-hand combat.
The basics of kettlebell lifting: training in motor ... Vladimir Tikhonov
The textbook reveals the history of the development of kettlebell lifting in Russia, actual problems this sport. For the first time, the basics of kettlebell lifting technique are considered from the point of view of the biomechanics of motor actions in competitive exercises. Particular importance is attached to the coordination of motor actions and breathing, which, from the point of view of the authors, is the basis for increasing the effectiveness in kettlebell lifting. Both general and specific methods of teaching and training in kettlebell lifting are given, corresponding to the basics of theory and methodology ...
"The ABC of Self-Massage" (a pocket trainer for those who practice on their own) by Vladimir Dubrovsky is an illustrated mini-book from the series "Library of the Physical Culture and Sport" magazine, which contains recommendations on the technique of self-massage and its use for recreational purposes.
Biomechanics
The textbook was written in accordance with the new program for the study of biomechanics in higher educational institutions.
Much attention is paid to the biomechanical substantiation of the use of funds physical education and sports on the example of various sports. Reflected modern approaches to assess the impact on the athlete's technique of various physical and climatic factors, given the biomechanical characteristics of various sports.
For the first time, sections on medical biomechanics, biomechanics of disabled athletes, biomechanical control of locomotion, etc. are presented.
Healing Fitness
The textbook was written in accordance with the new program for the study of physiotherapy exercises and massage in higher educational institutions. Much attention is paid to the systematization of physical culture means used for preventive and therapeutic purposes, as well as to issues of hydrokinesitherapy, occupational therapy, various types of massage, physiotherapy, manual therapy and many other methods of restorative medicine.
For the first time, the issues of complex rehabilitation for many diseases and syndromes are covered. The textbook is intended for students of physical culture departments of universities and institutes of physical culture, as well as students of medical universities, methodologists of physical therapy, rehabilitation therapists, physiotherapists, exercise therapy doctors and other specialists.
Massotherapy
Description: This book is one of many written by this author, but, nevertheless, it is full of interesting and important information. The work contains twenty chapters, which summarize many years of both theoretical and practical experience in the use of many types of massage for different purposes and under different conditions.
The information described here will serve and be useful to both beginners and professionals of various medical and health practices, in particular massage and complex rehabilitation.
A practical guide to massage
Massage is one of effective methods prevention and treatment of various injuries and diseases.
The massage techniques proposed in the book will help relieve pain, psycho-emotional stress and physical fatigue, improve well-being, increase efficiency and sexual function.
Designed for doctors, massage therapists and a wide range of readers interested in practical medicine.
Rehabilitation in sports
Modern sport makes very high demands on the athlete's body.
Frequent physical overload is fraught with overstrain of the musculoskeletal system and pre-pathological conditions. Therefore, the problem of recovery in sports is extremely important.
The author of the book talks about the causes and mechanism of fatigue, its diagnosis, and means of dealing with it. The book deals with the issues of nutrition, pharmacology, massage, sports tape, physio- and hydrotherapy and other means of rehabilitation, the complex use of which is the key to the effectiveness of the training process.
sports medicine
The textbook is written in accordance with the new program of study of sports medicine in higher education.
Much attention is paid to the anatomical and physiological substantiation of the use of physical culture and sports in the prevention and treatment of various injuries and diseases, methods of control and diagnosis, as well as the basics of general pathology, first aid, environmental hygiene of physical culture and sports, etc. Significantly differs from earlier published content, illustrations and style of presentation of the material.
The textbook is designed for students of the faculty of physical culture of universities and institutes of physical culture, medical universities, as well as sports doctors, trainers, massage therapists and other specialists.
Acupressure
From ancient times, a description of the so-called "vital points" came to us, through which it is possible to influence the activity of certain organs.
The book gives the topography of these points on the human body, describes the methods of their massage and self-massage in a number of diseases. An independent section is devoted to methods of influencing biologically active points (BAP) with ointments, copper, pepper plaster, etc. Designed for the general reader.
Physiology of physical education and sports
The textbook was written in accordance with the new study program "Physiology of Physical Education and Sports" in various educational institutions. Much attention is paid to the physiology of the central nervous system and the neuromuscular system, thermoregulation and acclimatization, biorhythms, hormonal regulation during physical activity, other issues related to physical work, physiological changes in functional systems and organs under the influence of physical activity; the characteristics of the state of the body during various sports and health-improving physical education are given.
The textbook is designed for students of colleges, faculties of physical culture of universities and institutes of physical culture, medical universities, as well as coaches, sports doctors and other professionals.
Healing touch. The path to longevity
The increased interest of people in massage and self-massage is not accidental: due to the impact on the human body, special techniques stimulate the body's defenses, which helps to maintain and strengthen health, prevent various ailments, and in case of illness, restore health.
Especially popular is the so-called acupressure, which came to us from ancient times. The book gives the topography of "vital points" on the human body, describes the methods of their massage and self-massage in a number of diseases, as well as to increase the vitality of the body.
Biomechanics… Spelling Dictionary
BIOMECHANICS- (from the Greek bios life and mechane machine, tool; synonym: animal mechanics, biotechnology, physiological mechanics), department general physiology studying the development, structure and activity of the motor apparatus of animals and humans. According to these... Big Medical Encyclopedia
- (from bio ... and mechanics) studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the origin of a mechanical phenomenon in them (during movements, breathing, etc.) ... Big encyclopedic Dictionary
BIOMECHANICS, biomechanics, pl. no, female (from the Greek. bios life and the words of mechanics). 1. The science of the movement of animals and humans. 2. The system of acting art based on the data of this science (neol. theatre). Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935… … Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
A branch of biology (biophysics and physiology) that studies the mechanics. properties of tissues, organs and the organism as a whole and the mechanical processes occurring in them. phenomena (the movement of humans and animals, the work of the respiratory apparatus, blood circulation, the elastic properties of blood vessels ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary
Exist., number of synonyms: 2 biology (73) nanobiomechanics (1) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary
BIOMECHANICS- a section (see), studying the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes and phenomena occurring in them. The term is used in relation to the doctrine of the movements of man and animals ... Great Polytechnic Encyclopedia
This term has other meanings, see Biomechanics (theatrical). Biomechanics is a branch of the natural sciences that studies, on the basis of models and methods of mechanics, the mechanical properties of living tissues, individual organs and systems, or an organism in ... ... Wikipedia
I Biomechanics is a branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical aspects of the structure and functioning of biological systems and their interaction with environment. Biomechanical research covers various levels of organization of living matter: ... ... Medical Encyclopedia
- (from Bio ... and Mechanics) a section of biophysics (See Biophysics), which studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the organism as a whole, as well as the mechanical phenomena occurring in them. The term "B." formerly also called the branch of embryology ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
AND; and. 1. A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole and the mechanical processes occurring in them (during movement, respiration, blood circulation, etc.). Biomechanics Laboratory. 2. Structure, development and ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
(Abstract)
n1.doc
TEXTBOOK FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS.
IN AND. DUBROVSKII, V.N. FEDOROV
BIOMECHANICS
Reviewers:
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor A.G. Maxine; doctor of technical sciences, professor V.D. Kovalev;
Candidate of Medical Sciences, Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR
I.L. Badnin
The drawings are made by the artist N.M. Zameshaeva
Dubrovsky V.I., Fedorova V.N.
Biomechanics: Proc. for environments, and higher. education, institutions. - M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2003. - 672 p.: ill. ISBN 5-305-00101-3.
The textbook was written in accordance with the new program for the study of biomechanics in higher educational institutions. Much attention is paid to the biomechanical substantiation of the use of means of physical culture and sports on the example of various sports. Modern approaches to assessing the impact of various physical and climatic factors on an athlete's technique are reflected, and a biomechanical characteristic of various sports is given. For the first time, sections on medical biomechanics, biomechanics of disabled athletes, biomechanical control of locomotion, etc. are presented.
The textbook is addressed to students of the faculties of physical culture of universities, institutes of physical culture and medical universities, as well as coaches, sports doctors, rehabilitation specialists involved in the development and prediction of training, treatment and rehabilitation of athletes and other specialists.
© Dubrovsky V.I., Fedorova V.N., 2003 © VLADOS-PRESS Publishing House, 2003 © Serial design of the cover. ISBN 5-305-00101-3 "Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS", 2003
FOREWORD
Any branch of human knowledge, including such a discipline as biomechanics, operates with a certain set of initial definitions, concepts and hypotheses. On the one hand, fundamental definitions from mathematics, physics, and general mechanics are used. On the other hand, biomechanics is based on data experimental studies, the most important of which are the assessment of various types of human motor activity, their management; determination of the properties of biomechanical systems with various methods of deformation; results obtained in solving biomedical problems.
Biomechanics is located at the intersection of different sciences: medicine, physics, mathematics, physiology, biophysics, involving various specialists in its field, such as engineers, designers, technologists, programmers, etc.
The biomechanics of sports as an academic discipline studies how a person moves in the process of performing exercise, during competitions, and the movement of individual sports equipment.
Significant importance in modern sports and physical culture is given to mechanical strength, resistance of tissues of the musculoskeletal system, organs, tissues to repeated physical exertion, especially when training in extreme conditions (middle mountains, high humidity, low and high temperatures, hypothermia, changes in biorhythms) with taking into account the physique, age, gender, functional state of a person. All these data can be used to improve the methodology and technique for performing certain exercises and training systems, as well as to improve inventory, equipment and other factors.
Physical culture and sports in our country have lost their influence in the last decade. It does nothing to improve human health. It also affects in the form of a decrease in the ability to withstand negative environmental factors.
The value of sports at all times has been significant in preventing premature aging, in restoring the functionality of the body after illness and injury.
With the development of science, medicine is actively introducing its achievements, developing new methods of treatment, evaluating their effectiveness, and new diagnostic methods. This, in turn, enriches sports medicine and physical culture. This textbook offers knowledge of the physical foundations of many issues of sports medicine, which are necessary for a physical education teacher, coach, sports doctor, massage therapist. This knowledge is no less important than the knowledge of the basics of the training process. Depending on how the physical essence of one or another area of sports medicine is understood, in conjunction with medical aspects, it is possible to predict, dose the health-improving (therapeutic) effect, as well as the level of sports achievements.
In therapeutic physical culture, various physical exercises are used, implemented in a particular sport.
In this textbook, in comparison with previously published ones, for the first time for the biomechanics of sports, material is presented that shows the application of the laws of fundamental physics to many specific areas of this discipline. The following questions are considered: kinematics, dynamics of a material point, dynamics of translational motion, types of forces in nature, dynamics of rotational motion, non-inertial frames of reference, conservation laws, mechanical oscillations, mechanical properties. There is a large section showing physical foundations impact various factors(mechanical, sound, electromagnetic, radiation, thermal), the understanding of the physical essence of which is absolutely necessary for the rational solution of many problems of sports medicine.
Professor V.I. Dubrovsky and Professor V.N. Fedorova, in addition to biomechanical methods for monitoring people involved in physical education and sports, presented biomechanical indicators in normal and pathological conditions (injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system, with fatigue, etc.), as well as during training in extreme conditions, in disabled athletes, etc. .
Many issues are covered by the authors, taking into account the development of elite sports, wheelchair sports, the biomechanics of sports injuries, various age periods of development, taking into account the physique and technique of performing certain exercises in various types sports.
The book shows the main directions in the development of biomechanics using modern methods control: stationary and remote control of locomotion; development modern technologies inventory, equipment; techniques for performing physical exercises in various sports; control over the performance of exercises by disabled athletes; biomechanical control in injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system, etc.
In essence, in each chapter of the textbook, the authors emphasize that in order to successfully compete, an athlete must have a rational technique for performing an exercise, understanding its medical and physical essence, must be equipped with modern equipment, sports equipment, must be well prepared functionally and healthy.
Special place the textbook deals with the influence of intense physical activity on structural (morphological) changes in the tissues of the musculoskeletal system, especially if the technique of performing physical exercises and methods of its correction are imperfect. It was noted that the reaction of ODA tissues to physical exercise largely depends on the technique of performing exercises, physique, age, functional state, climatic and geographical factors, etc.
The authors pay great attention to the possibilities of using mathematical and physical models both for various exercises, and for individual sections and systems of the human body, in particular, the athlete, as well as the body as a whole, to predict the reactions of the body to physical activity and various adverse impact factors external environment. Physique, age are important for the calculation and model assessment of the tolerance limits of these effects, taking into account a variety of additional factors.
We still do not have a textbook in our country and abroad, where materials would be systematized both on the theoretical physical and mathematical foundations of the biomechanics of sports, and on biomechanics in health and disease, taking into account age, gender, physique and functional state of persons, involved in physical education and sports. This is especially important when playing sports of the highest achievements, where the requirements for the technique of performing exercises are exceptional, and the slightest deviations lead to injuries, sometimes to disability, and a decrease in sports results.
Biomechanics textbook answers modern requirements applied to textbooks in medical and biological disciplines, common for pedagogical, medical universities and institutes of physical culture.
A large number of information tables, figures, diagrams, the same type and clear division of material according to the structure in each chapter, highlighted concise definitions make the material presented very visual, interesting, easily perceived and remembered.
This textbook will allow students, coaches, doctors, exercise therapy methodologists, physical education teachers to better understand the basics of sports biomechanics, sports medicine, physical therapy, and therefore, successfully and actively use them in their work. This textbook can be recommended to experts in applied mechanics who specialize in biomechanics.
Department head theoretical mechanics Perm State technical university,
Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Worker of Science Russian Federation
Yu.I. Nyashin
INTRODUCTION
The biomechanics of human movement is one part of a more general discipline, briefly called "biomechanics".
Biomechanics is a branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of tissues, organs and systems of a living organism and the mechanical phenomena that accompany life processes. Using the methods of theoretical and applied mechanics, this science investigates the deformation structural elements bodies, the flow of liquids and gases in a living organism, the movement of body parts in space, the stability and controllability of movements, and other issues accessible to these methods. Based on these studies, biomechanical characteristics of the organs and systems of the body can be compiled, the knowledge of which is the most important prerequisite for studying the processes of regulation. Accounting for biomechanical characteristics makes it possible to make assumptions about the structure of systems that control physiological functions. Until recently, the main research in the field of biomechanics was associated with the study of human and animal movements. However, the scope of this science is progressively expanding; now it also includes the study of the respiratory system, the circulatory system, specialized receptors, etc. Interesting data have been obtained in the study of the elastic and inelastic resistance of the chest, and the movement of gases through the respiratory tract. Attempts are being made to a generalized approach to the analysis of blood flow from the standpoint of continuum mechanics, in particular, elastic vibrations of the vascular wall are studied. It has also been proven that, from the point of view of mechanics, the structure of the vascular system is optimal for performing its transport functions. Rheological studies in biomechanics have revealed specific deformation properties of many body tissues: exponential non-linearity of the relationship between stresses and deformations, a significant dependence on time, etc. The knowledge gained about the deformation properties of tissues helps to solve some practical problems, in particular, they are used to create internal prostheses (valves, artificial heart, blood vessels, etc.). Particularly useful for classical mechanics solid body in the study of human movement. Often, biomechanics is understood precisely as its application. When studying movements, biomechanics uses data from anthropometry, anatomy, physiology of the nervous and muscular systems, and other biological disciplines. Therefore, often, perhaps for educational purposes, the biomechanics of the ODA includes its functional anatomy, and sometimes the physiology of the neuromuscular system, calling this association kinesiology.
The number of control actions in the neuromuscular system is enormous. Nevertheless, the neuromuscular system has amazing reliability and wide compensatory capabilities, the ability not only to repeatedly repeat the same standard sets of movements (synergy), but also to perform standard voluntary movements aimed at achieving certain goals. In addition to the ability to organize and actively memorize the necessary movements, the neuromuscular system provides adaptability to rapidly changing environmental and internal environment organism, changing habitual actions in relation to these conditions. This variability is not only passive in nature, but has the features of an active search carried out by the nervous system when it achieves the best solution to the tasks set. The listed abilities of the nervous system are provided by the processing in it of information about movements, which comes through feedback formed by sensory afferentation. The activity of the neuromuscular system is reflected in the temporal, kinematic and dynamic structures of movement. Thanks to this reflection, it becomes possible, by observing the mechanics, to obtain information about the regulation of movements and its violations. This possibility is widely used in the diagnosis of diseases, in neurophysiological studies with the help of special tests for monitoring the motor skills and training of disabled people, athletes, astronauts, and in a number of other cases.
TEXTBOOK FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS.
IN AND. DUBROVSKII, V.N. FEDOROV
Moscow
Reviewers:
doctor of biological sciences, professor A.G. Maxine; doctor of technical sciences, professor V.D. Kovalev;
Candidate of Medical Sciences, Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR
I.L. Badnin
The drawings are made by the artist N.M. Zameshaeva
Dubrovsky V.I., Fedorova V.N.
Biomechanics: Proc. for environments, and higher. education, institutions. M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2003. 672 p.: ill. ISBN 5-305-00101-3.
The textbook was written in accordance with the new program for the study of biomechanics in higher educational institutions. Much attention is paid to the biomechanical substantiation of the use of means of physical culture and sports on the example of various sports. Modern approaches to assessing the impact of various physical and climatic factors on an athlete's technique are reflected, and a biomechanical characteristic of various sports is given. Sections on medical biomechanics are presented for the first time, biomechanics of disabled athletes, biomechanical control of locomotion, etc.
The textbook is addressed to students of the faculties of physical culture of universities, institutes of physical culture and medical universities, as well as coaches, sports doctors, rehabilitation specialists involved in the development and prediction of training, treatment and rehabilitation of athletes and other specialists.
© Dubrovsky V.I., Fedorova V.N., 2003 © VLADOS-PRESS Publishing House, 2003 © Serial design of the cover. ISBN 5-305-00101-3 "Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS", 2003
FOREWORD
Any branch of human knowledge, including such a discipline as biomechanics, operates with a certain set of initial definitions, concepts and hypotheses. On the one hand, fundamental definitions from mathematics, physics, and general mechanics are used. On the other hand, biomechanics is based on data from experimental studies, the most important of which are the assessment of various types of human motor activity and their control; determination of the properties of biomechanical systems with various methods of deformation; results obtained in solving biomedical problems.
Biomechanics is located at the intersection of different sciences: medicine, physics, mathematics, physiology, biophysics, involving various specialists in its field, such as engineers, designers, technologists, programmers, etc.
The biomechanics of sports as an academic discipline studies both the movements of a person in the process of performing physical exercises, during competitions, and the movements of individual sports equipment.
Significant importance in modern sports and physical culture is given to mechanical strength, resistance of tissues of the musculoskeletal system, organs, tissues to repeated physical exertion, especially when training in extreme conditions (middle mountains, high humidity, low and high temperatures, hypothermia, changes in biorhythms) with taking into account the physique, age, gender, functional state of a person. All these data can be used to improve the methodology and technique for performing certain exercises and training systems, as well as to improve inventory, equipment and other factors.
Physical culture and sports in our country have lost their influence in the last decade. It does nothing to improve human health. It also affects in the form of a decrease in the ability to withstand negative environmental factors.
The value of sports at all times has been significant in preventing premature aging, in restoring the functionality of the body after illness and injury.
With the development of science, medicine is actively introducing its achievements, developing new methods of treatment, evaluating their effectiveness, and new diagnostic methods. This, in turn, enriches sports medicine and physical culture. This textbook offers knowledge of the physical foundations of many issues of sports medicine, which are necessary for a physical education teacher, coach, sports doctor, massage therapist. This knowledge is no less important than the knowledge of the basics of the training process. Depending on how the physical essence of one or another area of sports medicine is understood, in conjunction with medical aspects, it is possible to predict, dose the health-improving (therapeutic) effect, as well as the level of sports achievements.
In therapeutic physical culture, various physical exercises are used, implemented in a particular sport.
In this textbook, in comparison with previously published ones, for the first time for the biomechanics of sports, material is presented that shows the application of the laws of fundamental physics to many specific areas of this discipline. The following questions are considered: kinematics, dynamics of a material point, dynamics of translational motion, types of forces in nature, dynamics of rotational motion, non-inertial frames of reference, conservation laws, mechanical oscillations, mechanical properties. A large section is presented, showing the physical foundations of the impact of various factors (mechanical, sound, electromagnetic, radiation, thermal), the understanding of the physical essence of which is absolutely necessary for the rational solution of many problems of sports medicine.
Professor V.I. Dubrovsky and Professor V.N. Fedorov, in addition to biomechanical methods of monitoring people involved in physical education and sports, presented biomechanical indicators in normal and pathological conditions (injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system).apparatus, with fatigue, etc.), as well as during training in extreme conditions, in disabled athletes, etc.
Many issues are covered by the authors, taking into account the development of elite sports, wheelchair sports, the biomechanics of sports injuries, various age periods of development, taking into account the physique and technique for performing certain exercises in various sports.
The book shows the main directions in the development of biomechanics using modern methods of control: stationary and remote control of locomotion; development of modern technologies of inventory, equipment; techniques for performing physical exercises in various sports; control over the performance of exercises by disabled athletes; biomechanical control in injuries and diseases of the musculoskeletal system, etc.
In essence, in each chapter of the textbook, the authors emphasize that in order to successfully compete, an athlete must have a rational technique for performing an exercise, understanding its medical and physical essence, must be equipped with modern equipment, sports equipment, must be well prepared functionally and healthy.
A special place in the textbook is given to the influence of intense physical activity on structural (morphological) changes in the tissues of the musculoskeletal system, especially if the technique of performing physical exercises and methods of its correction are imperfect. It is noted that the response of the tissues of the musculoskeletal system to physical activity largely depends on the technique of performing exercises, physique, age, functional state, climatic and geographical factors, etc.
The authors pay great attention to the possibilities of using mathematical and physical models both for various exercises, and for individual sections and systems of the human body, in particular, the athlete, as well as the body as a whole, to predict the body's reactions to physical activity and various adverse environmental factors. . Physique, age are important for the calculation and model assessment of the tolerance limits of these effects, taking into account a variety of additional factors.
We still do not have a textbook in our country and abroad, where materials would be systematized both on the theoretical physical and mathematical foundations of the biomechanics of sports, and on biomechanics in health and disease, taking into account age, gender, physique and functional state of persons, involved in physical education and sports. This is especially important when playing sports of the highest achievements, where the requirements for the technique of performing exercises are exceptional, and the slightest deviations lead to injuries, sometimes to disability, and a decrease in sports results.
The textbook "Biomechanics" meets the modern requirements for textbooks in medical and biological disciplines, common for pedagogical, medical universities and institutes of physical culture.
A large number of information tables, figures, diagrams, the same type and clear division of material according to the structure in each chapter, highlighted concise definitions make the material presented very visual, interesting, easily perceived and remembered.
This textbook will allow students, coaches, doctors, exercise therapy methodologists, physical education teachers to better understand the basics of sports biomechanics, sports medicine, physical therapy, and therefore, successfully and actively use them in their work. This textbook can be recommended to experts in applied mechanics who specialize in biomechanics.
Head of the Department of Theoretical Mechanics, Perm State Technical University,
Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Worker of Science of the Russian Federation
Yu.I. Nyashin
INTRODUCTION
The biomechanics of human movement is one part of a more general discipline, briefly called "biomechanics".
Biomechanics is a branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of tissues, organs and systems of a living organism and the mechanical phenomena that accompany life processes. Using the methods of theoretical and applied mechanics, this science investigates the deformation of the structural elements of the body, the flow of liquids and gases in a living organism, the movement of body parts in space, the stability and controllability of movements, and other issues accessible to these methods. Based on these studies, biomechanical characteristics of the organs and systems of the body can be compiled, the knowledge of which is the most important prerequisite for studying the processes of regulation. Accounting for biomechanical characteristics makes it possible to make assumptions about the structure of systems that control physiological functions. Until recently, the main research in the field of biomechanics was associated with the study of human and animal movements. However, the scope of this science is progressively expanding; now it also includes the study of the respiratory system, the circulatory system, specialized receptors, etc. Interesting data have been obtained in the study of the elastic and inelastic resistance of the chest, and the movement of gases through the respiratory tract. Attempts are being made to a generalized approach to the analysis of blood flow from the standpoint of continuum mechanics, in particular, elastic vibrations of the vascular wall are studied. It has also been proven that, from the point of view of mechanics, the structure of the vascular system is optimal for performing its transport functions. Rheological studies in biomechanics have found specific deformationproperties of many tissues of the body: exponential non-linearity of the relationship between stresses and strains, a significant dependence on time, etc. The knowledge gained about the deformation properties of tissues helps to solve some practical problems, in particular, they are used to create internal prostheses (valves, artificial heart, blood vessels etc.). The classical mechanics of a rigid body is especially fruitfully used in the study of human movements. Often, biomechanics is understood precisely as its application. When studying movements, biomechanics uses data from anthropometry, anatomy, physiology of the nervous and muscular systems, and other biological disciplines. Therefore, often, perhaps for educational purposes, the biomechanics of the ODA includes its functional anatomy, and sometimes the physiology of the neuromuscular system, calling this association kinesiology.
The number of control actions in the neuromuscular system is enormous. Nevertheless, the neuromuscular system has amazing reliability and wide compensatory capabilities, the ability not only to repeatedly repeat the same standard sets of movements (synergy), but also to perform standard voluntary movements aimed at achieving certain goals. In addition to the ability to organize and actively memorize the necessary movements, the neuromuscular system provides adaptability to rapidly changing environmental and internal conditions of the body, changing habitual actions in relation to these conditions. This variability is not only passive in nature, but has the features of an active search carried out by the nervous system when it achieves the best solution to the tasks set. The listed abilities of the nervous system are provided by the processing in it of information about movements, which comes through feedback formed by sensory afferentation. The activity of the neuromuscular system is reflected in the temporal, kinematic and dynamic structures of movement. Thanks to this reflection, it becomes possible, by observing the mechanics, to obtain information about the regulation of movements and its violations. This possibility is widely used in the diagnosis of diseases, in neurophysiological studies with the help of special tests for monitoring the motor skills and training of disabled people, athletes, astronauts, and in a number of other cases.
Chapter 1 HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics is one of the oldest branches of biology. Its origins were the works of Aristotle and Galen, devoted to the analysis of the movements of animals and humans. But it was only thanks to the work of one of the most brilliant men of the Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) that biomechanics took its next step. Leonardo was especially interested in the structure of the human body (anatomy) in relation to movement. He described the mechanics of the body during the transition from a sitting to a standing position, when walking up and down, while jumping, and, apparently, for the first time gave a description of gaits.
R. Descartes (15961650) created the basis of the reflex theory, showing that the cause of movements can be a specific environmental factor that affects the senses. This explained the origin of involuntary movements.
Later, the Italian D. Borelli (16081679), a doctor, mathematician, and physicist, had a great influence on the development of biomechanics. In his book "On the Movement of Animals", in fact, he laid the foundation for biomechanics as a branch of science. He considered the human body as a machine and sought to explain breathing, blood flow and muscle work from the standpoint of mechanics.
Biological mechanics as the science of mechanical movement in biological systems uses the principles of mechanics as a methodological apparatus.
Human mechanicsthere is new section mechanics, studying the purposeful movements of a person.
Biomechanics is a branch of biology that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical phenomena occurring in them (during movement, breathing, etc.).
Leonardo DO Vinci I.P. Pavlov
P.F. Lesgaft N.E. Vvedensky
The first steps in a detailed study of the biomechanics of movements were taken only at the end of XIX century by German scientists Brown and Fischer(V. Braune, O. Fischer), who developed a perfect technique for recording movements, studied in detail the dynamic side of the movements of the limbs and the general center of gravity (GCG) of a person during normal walking.
K.Kh. Kekcheev (1923) studied the biomechanics of pathological gaits using the technique of Brown and Fisher.
P.F. Lesgaft (18371909) created the biomechanics of physical exercises, developed on the basis of dynamic anatomy. In 1877 P.F. Lesgaft began lecturing on this subject in physical education courses. at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft, this course was included in the subject “physical education”, and in 1927 it was separated into an independent subject called “theory of movement” and in 1931 it was renamed the course “Biomechanics of physical exercises”.
A great contribution to the knowledge of the interaction between the levels of regulation of movements was made by N.A. Bernstein (1880 1968). They gave a theoretical substantiation of motion control processes from the positions general theory large systems. Research N.A. Bernstein made it possible to establish an extremely important principle of motion control, which is generally recognized at the present time. Neurophysiological concepts of N.A. Bernstein served as the basis for the formation modern theory biomechanics of human movements.
Ideas N.M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of movement control through the use of sensitive signals, were developed in the theory of N.A. Bernstein about the ring nature of control processes.
B.C. Gurfinkel et al. (1965) clinically confirmed this direction, revealed the principle of synergy in the organization of the work of skeletal muscles during the regulation of vertical posture, and F.A. Severin et al. (1967) obtained data on spinal generators (motoneurons) of locomotor movements. R. Granite (1955) from the position of neurophysiology gave an analysis of the mechanisms of regulation of movements.
R. Granite (1973) noted that the organization of output responses is ultimately determined by the mechanical properties of the motor (motor) units (MU) and the specific hierarchy of activation processes - the inclusion of slow or fast MU, tonic or phasic motor neurons, alpha motor or alpha gamma control .
ON THE. Bernstein A.A. Ukhtomsky
THEM. Sechenov A.N. Krestovnikov
A great contribution to the biomechanics of sports was made by R.G. Osterhoud (1968); T. Duck (1970), R.M. Brown; J.E. Councilman (1971); S. Plagenhoef (1971); C. W. Buchan (1971); Dal Monte et al. (1973); M. Saito et al. (1974) and many others.
In our country, the study of the coordination of human movements has been conducted since the twenties XX centuries. Studies were carried out on the entire biomechanical picture of the coordination structure of voluntary movements of a person in order to establish general patterns, which determine both the central regulation and the activity of the muscular periphery in this most important life process. From the thirties XX centuries at the institutes of physical education in Moscow (N.A. Bernstein), in Leningrad (E.A. Kotikova, E.G. Kotelnikova), in Tbilisi (L.V. Chkhaidze), in Kharkov (D.D. Donskoy) and other cities began to develop scientific work in biomechanics. In 1939, a textbook by E.A. Kotikova "Biomechanics of physical exercises" and in subsequent years in textbooks and study guides began to include the section "Biomechanical substantiation of sports equipment in various sports."
From the biological sciences in biomechanics, scientific data on anatomy and physiology were used more than others. In subsequent years, the formation and development of biomechanics as a science was greatly influenced by dynamic anatomy, physics and physiology, especially the theory of nervism by I.P. Pavlov and about functional systems P.K. Anokhin.
A great contribution to the study of the physiology of the motor apparatus was made by N.E. Vvedensky (18521922). He carried out studies of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the nervous and muscular tissues. His works on the physiological lability of living tissues and excitable systems, on parabiosis have great value for modern sports physiology. His works on the coordination of movements are also of great value.
According to A.A. Ukhtomsky (18751942), biomechanics explores "how the resulting mechanical energy of motion and tension can acquire a working application." He showed that muscle strength, other things being equal, depends on the cross section. The larger the cross section of the muscle, the more it is able to lift the load. A.A. Ukhtomsky discovered the most important physiological phenomenon - the dominant in the activity of nerve centers, in particular, during motor acts. A large place in his works is devoted to the physiology of the motor apparatus.
Questions of the physiology of sports were developed by A.N. Krestovikov (18851955). They were associated with the elucidation of the mechanism of muscular activity, in particular, the coordination of movements, the formation of motor conditioned reflexes, the etiology of fatigue during physical activity and other physiological functions during exercise.
M.F. Ivanitsky (18951969) developed functional (dynamic) anatomy in relation to the tasks of physical culture and sports, that is, he determined the connection between anatomy and physical education.
The successes of modern physiology, and, first of all, the works of Academician P.K. Anokhin made it possible to take a fresh look at the biomechanics of movements from the position of functional systems.
All this made it possible to generalize physiological data with biomechanical studies and approach the solution important issues biomechanics of movements in modern sports, sports of the highest achievements.
In the middle of XX century, scientists have created a prosthetic hand, controlled by electrical signals from the nervous system. In 1957, in our country, a model of a hand (hand) was constructed, which carried out bioelectric commands such as “compress unclench”, and in 1964 a prosthesis was created with feedback, i.e., a prosthesis, from which information about the force of compression or unclenching of the hand, the direction of movement of the hand, and similar signs continuously enters the central nervous system.
PC. Anokhin
American specialists(E.W. Schrader et al., 1964) created a prosthetic leg amputated above the knee. A hydraulic model of the knee joint was made to achieve natural walking. The design provides for a normal heel height and leg extension when it is retracted, regardless of walking speed.
The rapid development of sports in the USSR served as the basis for the development of the biomechanics of sports. Since 1958, biomechanics has become mandatory in all institutes of physical culture academic discipline, departments of biomechanics were created, programs were developed, teaching aids, textbooks were published, scientific and methodological conferences were held, specialists were trained.
How subject biomechanics performs several roles. Firstly, with its help, the student is introduced to the circle of the most important physical and mathematical concepts that are necessary for calculating speed, repulsion angles, body weight, location of the BCT and its role in the technique of performing sports movements. Secondly, this discipline has an independent application in sports practice, because the system of motor activity presented in it, taking into account age, gender, body weight, physique, allows you to develop recommendations for the work of a coach, physical education teacher, methodologist of physical therapy, etc.
Biomechanical research has made it possible to create a new type of shoes, sports equipment, equipment and techniques for managing them (bicycles, mountain and jump skis, racing skis, rowing boats, and much more).
The study of the hydrodynamic characteristics of fish and dolphins made it possible to create special costumes for swimmers, change the swimming technique, which contributed to an increase in swimming speed.
Biomechanics is taught in higher physical education institutions in many countries of the world. An international society of biomechanics has been created, conferences, symposiums, and congresses on biomechanics are being held. At the Presidium Russian Academy Sciences, a Scientific Council on Biomechanics was created with sections covering the problems of engineering, medical and sports biomechanics.
Chapter 2 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL DATA ABOUT THE HUMAN BODY
From the point of view of mechanics, the human body is an object of the greatest complexity. It consists of parts that with a high degree of accuracy can be considered solid (skeleton) and deformable cavities (muscles, vessels, etc.), and these cavities contain fluid and filterable media that do not have the properties of ordinary liquids.
The human body in general terms retains the structure characteristic of all vertebrates: bipolarity (head and tail ends), bilateral symmetry, the predominance of paired organs, the presence of an axial skeleton, the preservation of some (relic) signs of segmentation (metamerism), etc. (Fig. 2.1 ).
Other morphofunctional features of the human body include: highly polyfunctional upper limb; an even row of teeth; developed brain; upright posture; extended childhood, etc.
In anatomy, it is customary to study the human body in an upright position with closed lower and lowered upper limbs.
In each part of the body, areas are distinguished (Fig. 2.2, a, b) of the head, neck, torso and two pairs of upper and lower limbs (see Fig. 2.1.6).
Rice. 2.1. segmental division spinal cord. Formation of plexuses from the roots of the brain (a). Segmental inversion of organs and functional systems (b)
On the body of a person, two ends are designated - cranial, or cranial and caudal, or caudal and four surfaces - abdominal, or ventral, dorsal, or dorsal and two lateral - right and left (Fig. 2:3).
On the limbs, two ends are determined in relation to the body: proximal, i.e. closer and distal, i.e. distant (see Fig. 2.3).
Axes and planes
The human body is built according to the type of two-sided symmetry (it is divided by the median plane into two symmetrical halves) and is characterized by the presence of an internal skeleton. Inside the body there is a dismemberment into metamers, or segments, i.e., formations that are homogeneous in structure and development, located in a sequential order, in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the body (for example, muscle, nerve segments, vertebrae, etc.); central nervous system lies closer to the dorsal surface of the body, digestive to the abdominal. Like all mammals, a person has mammary glands and hairy skin, the cavity of his body is divided by a diaphragm into the thoracic and abdominal sections (Fig. 2.4).
Rice. 2.2. Areas of the human body:
a anterior surface: 7 parietal region; 2 forehead area; 3 eye socket area; 4 mouth area; 5 chin area; b anterior region of the neck; 7 lateral region of the neck; 8 clavicle area; 9 palm of the hand; 10 anterior region of the forearm; 11 anterior elbow region; 12 back area of the shoulder; 13 axillary region; 14 chest area; 15 hypochondrium; 16 epigastrium; 17 umbilical region; 18 lateral region of the abdomen; 19 groin area; 20 pubic area; 21 medial area of the thigh; 22 anterior thigh area; 23 anterior region of the knee; 24 anterior region of the leg; 25 rear region of the lower leg; 26 anterior ankle region; 27 rear foot; 28 heel area; 29 back of the hand; 30 forearm; 31 back area of the forearm; 32 back elbow area; 33 back area of the shoulder; 34 back area of the forearm; 35 area of the mammary gland; 36 deltoid region; 37 clavicular-thoracic triangle; 38 subclavian fossa; 39 sternocleidomastoid region; 40 nose area; 41 temporal region.
Rice. 2.3. Mutual position of parts in the human body
b rear surface: 1 parietal region; 2 temporal region; 3 frontal area; 4 eye socket area; 5 zygomatic area; b buccal region; 7 submandibular triangle; 8 sternocleidomastoid region; 9acromial area; 10 interscapular region; 11 scapular region; 12 deltoid region; 13 lateral chest area; 14 back area of the shoulder; 15 hypochondrium; 16 back elbow area; 17 back area of the forearm; 18 front area of the forearm; 79 palm of the hand; 20 heel area; 21 sole of the foot; 22 rear of the foot; 23 anterior region of the lower leg; 24 rear region of the lower leg; 25 back of the knee; 26 rear thigh; 27 anal area; 28 gluteal region; 29 sacral region; 30 lateral area of the abdomen; 31 lumbar region; 32 subscapular region; 33 vertebral region; 34 back area of the shoulder; 35 back elbow area; 36 rear region of the forearm; 37 back of the hand; 38 anterior region of the shoulder; 39 suprascapular region; 40 back of the neck; 41 occipital region
Rice. 2.4. body cavities
Rice. 2.5. Scheme of axes and planes in the human body:
1 vertical (longitudinal) axis;
2 frontal plane; 3 horizontal plane; 4 transverse axis; 5 sagittal axis; 6 sagittal plane
In order to better navigate the relative position of the parts in the human body, they start from some basic planes and directions (Fig. 2.5). The terms "upper", "lower", "anterior", "rear" refer to the vertical position of the human body. The plane that divides the body in the vertical direction into two symmetrical halves is called median. Planes parallel to the median are called sagittal (lat. sagitta arrow); they divide the body into segments located in the direction from right to left. perpendicular to the median plane frontal, i.e. parallel to the forehead(fr. front forehead) plane; they cut the body into segments located in the direction from front to back. Perpendicular to the median and frontal planes are horizontal or transverse planes dividing the body into segments located one above the other. An arbitrary number of sagittal (with the exception of the median), frontal and horizontal planes can be drawn, i.e. through any point on the surface of the body or organ.
The terms "medial" and "lateral" are used to refer to parts of the body in relation to the median plane: medialis located closer to the median plane, lateralis away from her. The terms “internal” should not be confused with these terms interims and "external" externus, which are used only in relation to the walls of the cavities. The words "abdominal" ventralis, "dorsal" dorsalis, "right" dexter, "left" sinister, "superficial" superficial, "deep" profundus don't need an explanation. To designate spatial relationships on the limbs accepted terms"proximalis" and "distalis", i.e., located closer and further from the junction of the limb with the body.
To determine the projection of the internal organs, a series of vertical lines are drawn: anterior and posterior median , respectively, sections of the median plane; right and left sternal along the lateral edges of the sternum; right and left mid-clavicular through the middle of the clavicle; right and left parasternal in the middle between the sternum and midclavicular; right and left anterior axillary , respectively, to the anterior edge of the axillary fossa; right and left mid-axillary emanating from the depth of the fossa of the same name; right and left posterior axillary , respectively, the posterior edge of the axillary fossa; right and left scapular through the lower angle of the scapula; right and left paravertebral in the middle between the scapular and posterior median lines (corresponding to the tops of the transverse processes).
Brief information about the center of gravity of the human body
The function of the lower extremities of a person, if we exclude many physical exercises, is determined mainly by support (standing position) and locomotion (walking, running). In bothcase, the function of the lower extremities, unlike the upper ones, is significantly influenced by the common center of gravity (CG) of the human body (Fig. 2.6).
Rice. 2.6. The location of the common center of gravity for various types of standing: 1 with stress; 2 with anthropometric; 3 when calm
In many problems of mechanics, it is convenient and permissible to consider the mass of a body as if it is concentrated at one point - the center of gravity (CG). Since we have to analyze the forces acting on the human body during exercise and standing (rest), we need to know where the CG is located in a person in normal and pathological conditions (scoliosis, coxarthrosis, cerebral palsy, limb amputation, etc.).
In general biomechanics, it is important to study the location of the center of gravity (CG) of the body, its projection on the support area, as well as the spatial relationship between the CG vector and various joints (Fig. 2.7). This allows you to study the possibilities of blocking the joints, to evaluate compensatory, adaptive changes in the musculoskeletal system (MSA). In adult men (on average), the BCT is located 15 mm behind the anterior-inferior edge of the body V lumbar vertebrae. In women, the CT is located on average 55 mm in front of the anterior-lower edge. I sacral vertebra (Fig. 2.8).
In the frontal plane, the BCT is slightly (by 2.6 mm in men and 1.3 mm in women) shifted to the right, i.e., the right leg takes on a slightly greater load than the left.
Rice. 2.7. Types of standing human body position: 1 anthropometric position; 2 calm position; 3 tense position: A circle with a dot in the center, located in the pelvis, shows the position of the general center of gravity of the body; in the head area the position of the center of gravity of the head; in the area of the hand the position of the common center of gravity of the hand. Black dots show the transverse axes of the joints of the upper and lower extremities, as well as same atlanto-occipital joint
Rice. 2.8. Center location
severity (CT): a in men; b in women
The general center of gravity (GCT) of the body is composed of centers of gravity separate parts bodies (partial centers of gravity) (Fig. 2.9). Therefore, when moving and moving the mass of body parts, the common center of gravity also moves, but in order to maintain balance, its projection should not go beyond the area of \u200b\u200bthe support.
Rice. 2.9. The location of the centers of gravity of individual parts of the body
Rice. 2.10. The position of the general center of gravity of the body: a in men of the same height, but different physique; used by men of different heights; c in men and women
Height of the position of the OCT y different people varies significantly depending on a number of factors, which primarily include gender, age, physique, etc. (Fig. 2.10).
In women, the BCT is usually "slightly lower than in men (see Fig. 2.8).
In children early age The BCT of the body is located higher than in adults.
When it changes relative position parts of the body, the projection of its BCT also changes (Fig. 2.11). At the same time, the stability of the body also changes. In the practice of sports (learning exercises and training) and when performing exercises in therapeutic gymnastics, this issue is very important, since with greater body stability, movements with greater amplitude can be performed without disturbing balance.
Rice. 2.11. The position of the common center of gravity at various positions of the body
The stability of the body is determined by the size of the support area, the height of the body's bct, and the location of the passage of the vertical, lowered from the bct, inside the support area (see Fig. 2.7). How more area support and the lower the BCT of the body is, the greater the stability of the body.
quantitative expression the degree of stability of the body in a particular position isstability angle(UU). UU is called the angle formed by the vertical, lowered from the body's bct and a straight line drawn from the body's bct to the edge of the support area (Fig. 2.12). The larger the angle of stability, the greater the degree of stability of the body.
Rice. 2.12. Stability angles at Rice. 2.13. Gravity's shoulders
performing the exercise "twine": in relation to the transverse axes
a backward stability angle; rotation in the hip, knee
p forward stability angle; and ankle joints supporting
P gravity of the skater's leg
(according to M.F. Ivanitsky)
The vertical, lowered from the body's BCT, passes at some distance from the axes of rotation of the joints. In this regard, the force of gravity in any position of the body has a certain value in relation to each joint.moment of rotationequal to the product of the magnitude of the force of gravity on its shoulder.Shoulder of gravityis a perpendicular drawn from the center of the joint to the vertical, lowered from the bct of the body (Fig. 2.13). The larger the arm of gravity, the greater the moment of rotation it has in relation to the joint.
The mass of body parts is determined in various ways. If the absolute mass of body parts varies significantly among different people, then the relative mass, expressed as a percentage, is fairly constant (see Table 5.1).
Highly great importance have data on the mass of body parts, as well as on the location of partial centers of gravity and moments of inertia in medicine (for the design of prostheses, orthopedic shoes, etc.) and in sports (for the design of sports equipment, shoes, etc.).
Organism, organ, organ system, tissues
organism any living being is called, the main properties of which are: a constant exchange of matter and energy (within oneself and with the environment); self-renewal; traffic; irritability and reactivity; self-regulation; growth and development; heredity and variability; adaptability to the conditions of existence. The more complex the organism is, the more it maintains the constancy of the internal environment homeostasis (body temperature, blood biochemical composition, etc.) regardless of changing environmental conditions.
Evolution took place under the sign of two opposing tendencies: differentiation, or division of the body into tissues, organs, systems (with a corresponding and simultaneous division and specialization of functions), and integration, or unification of parts into an integral organism.
Authority call a more or less isolated part of the body (liver, kidney, eye, etc.) that performs one or more functions. In the formation of an organ, tissues of various structures and physiological roles take part, which have arisen over a long evolution as a set of adaptive mechanisms. Some organs (liver, pancreas, etc.) have complex structure, and each of their components performs its function. In other cases, the cellular structures that make up one or another organ (heart, thyroid gland, kidney, uterus, etc.) are subject to the implementation of a single complex function(blood circulation, urination, etc.).