Application of a linguistic experiment in teaching AI. Language game as a linguistic experiment
1. It is known that in the XX century. in various fields of science and art (in mathematics, biology, philosophy, philology, painting, architecture, etc.), many valuable ideas and undertakings of Russian scientists and cultural figures died out in the stuffy atmosphere of Soviet totalitarianism, but were recognized and developed in the West and decades later they return to Russia again.
It's in to a large extent also applies to the method of linguistic experiment, the enormous role of which was persistently emphasized in the 1920s by A. M. Peshkovsky and especially L. V. Shcherba. “Having made any assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of various phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied) using this rule (...) In the possibility of applying the experiment lies the enormous advantage - from a theoretical point of view - of the study of living languages ”[Shcherba 1974: 32].
In words, the need for experimentation in synchronic research is apparently recognized by all Russian linguists, but in reality, however, the possibilities of this method are still not used enough. Foreign research on grammar, semantics, pragmatics is, as a rule, a series of experiments on several carefully selected examples and the interpretation of the results. In Russia, work on the modern language in this respect differs little from works on the history of the language: in both, large lists of examples from the examined texts are given, and the very size of the list is regarded as proof of the correctness of the position being developed. At the same time, the circumstance is ignored that in real texts the phenomenon being analyzed is often distorted by the influence of additional factors. We forget the warning of A. M. Peshkovsky, who noted that it would be a mistake to see, for example, in the union and the spokesman for distributional, causal, conditional-effect, adversarial, etc. relations; this would mean that “everything that can be extracted from the material content of the sentences it combines simply falls into the meaning of the union” [Peshkovsky 1956: 142]. chemical analysis of some metal would take pieces of its ore of different mineral composition and. attribute the observed. spills to the metal itself. Obviously, the chemist will take for his experiment a pure metal, devoid of impurities. We must also operate with carefully selected examples, excluding, if possible, the influence of additional factors^, and experiment with these examples (for example, replace the word with its synonym, change the type of speech act, expand the phrase due to the diagnostic context, etc.).
2. The foregoing does not mean at all that the author is opposed to the collection of textual material. In studies of diachrony, stylistics, etc., it is necessary. Yes, and when studying a modern language, examples from the text are a useful starting point and valuable illustrative material. However, the collection of textual material should not become an end in itself. This occupation, not devoid of pleasantness, does not give so much: according to Mayakovsky, "a gram of production, a year of work."
When studying a living language, the emphasis should be on linguistic experimentation. We save time and achieve better results. Yu. D. Apresyan said this well: “You can collect facts for decades and never once notice the semantic secret of a word, which it instantly reveals under the conditions of a sharp experiment” [Apresyan 1971: 34].
3. important view experiment - are observations on "negative linguistic material" - anomalies (statements that contradict linguistic intuition). T. V. Bulygina and A; D. Shmelev note (with reference to T. Kuhn) that in science often a discovery begins with the realization of an anomaly [Bulygina - Shmelev 1997:438]. “... the game in violation of semantic and pragmatic canons aims to delve into the nature of the canon itself, and through it into the nature of things” [Arutyunova 1988: 303]. Of course, care must be taken when interpreting the results. Results that sharply contradict existing ideas (“they don’t climb into any gates”) require careful verification. It is possible that we are dealing with an experimental error. As E. Dahl noted, “if my thermometer shows that my temperature is 43 * C, then I will conclude from this not that the previous theories regarding possible fluctuations in the temperature of the human body are not correct, but that I should buy a new thermometer” ( cited from: [Bulygina - Shmelev 1997:437]).
Yu. D. Apresyan proposed a single six-digit experimental scale for measuring the degree of linguistic incorrectness: correct - (+), acceptable - (-), doubtful - (?), very doubtful - (??), wrong - (*), grossly wrong ( **). The language game (JG) is located, as a rule, in the upper part of the scale, these are usually small deviations from the norm or even just some kind of unusualness, for example, “condensation”, an oversaturation of some not too frequent language feature, such as Supplementary, put on underwear and drove off at night (cf. [Norman 1987]). Severe deviations from the norm and gross irregularities in artistic speech rare, and in the author's - extremely rare. There is, however, one exception - parody.
4. J. Kitchin sees in parody “the reaction of the bearers of conventional wisdom... In social matters, he is a defender of respectability, in literature, of established forms” (cited in [Novikov 1989:134]).
Lines by A Akhmatova I put on my right hand / A glove from my left hand M. V. Panov in a wonderful (unfortunately never published) course of lectures on the language of Russian poetry called the "tuning fork" of the poetics of acmeism. But how greedily, not disdainful of repetitions, the parodists, accustomed to the abstract poetics of the Symbolists, attacked these lines! Here are just a few of the parodies:
She just shuddered, "-Honey! Darling!
Oh my God, help me!
Ina pulled off the Galosha of the spruce leg with her right hand (S. Malakhov).
Stynutusta in a silent smile.
Dream or reality? Christ help!
On the right foot by mistake
She put on the shoes of a spruce foot (V. Sorgenfrey).
But now, yielding to male violence,
I grieve deeply!.
~ I put on a mantilla on my pale legs,
And on the shoulders-leotards (Don Aminado).
It should be added: parody is also a defender of established linguistic forms. The parodist often starts from some linguistic (intentional or unintentional) anomaly or unusualness in the parodied text, amplifying it - often to the point of gross incorrectness. It turns out "anomaly in the square." Thus, parodies are very interesting in the linguistic study of the lower part of the anomaly scale, the one that Yu. D. Apresyan designates with signs (*) and (**).
5. The experiment should become for the linguist researching modern language, just as common a working technique as it is, for example, for a chemist. However, the fact that it occupies a modest place in linguistic research is by no means accidental. The experiment requires certain skills and considerable effort. Therefore, it seems to us that it is especially important to use the experimental material that is already available, "lies underfoot." We mean the language game.
A paradoxical fact: the linguistic experiment is much wider than linguists have been using (for many centuries, if not millennia) the speakers themselves - when they play with the form of speech.
As an example, a series of experiments by O. Mandelyitama with the pronoun such, indicating a high degree of quality (eg, he is so strong) can be cited. Here are the lines from a youthful poem of 1909:
I was given a body - what should I do with it,
So single and so mine.
Here, the combination of the pronoun such with the adjective single and especially with the pronoun my is somewhat unusual. A combination like this mine seems acceptable, since it is close in meaning to “quite normal” type combinations like this native. However, Mandelstam himself clearly felt the unusualness of this combination and repeatedly used it in humorous poems, in a kind of auto-parody:
I was given a stomach, what should I do with it,
So hungry and so mine? (1917)
[The comic effect is created by narrowing and reducing the topic itself, reducing it to stomach problems.]
Or: Cheer up
Get on the tram
So empty
Such an eighth. (c. 1915)
The comic effect is caused by the combination of the pronoun such with the numeral eighth, which is difficult to comprehend as a qualitative adjective. The phrase such an eighth is anomalous, but not meaningless: as a result of the game, a new meaning arises. The fact is that, unlike the first, “prestigious”, highlighted numerals (cf. the first beauty, the first guy in the village, first of all), the eighth numeral is not highlighted, “ordinary”, and thus, the combination of such an eighth takes on meaning ' so ordinary, ordinary.
But here, in fact, it begins new series O. Mandelstam's linguistic experiments - experiments with numerals, dividing them into "prestigious" and "non-prestigious". Here is his joke, using the image of a “traveler”, naive and not familiar with the latest achievements of science, such as electricity (Shileiko, whom he mentions, is a well-known assyrologist, Anna Akhmatova’s husband, who temporarily settled in someone else’s luxurious apartment):
Traveler, where are you going? I was visiting Shileyka.
A man lives marvelously, you look, you do not believe your eyes.
He sits in a velvet armchair, eats a goose at dinner.
The buttons will be touched by hand - the light will turn on by itself.
If such people live on the Fourth Christmas Street,
Traveler, I pray, tell me, who lives on the Second?
The question of the need for experimental research in linguistics was first raised in the 1930s. of the last century L. V. Shcherba (275, 276). They have developed theoretical basis theory of linguistic experiment.
According to the concept of L. V. Shcherba, an experiment can have both positive and negative results. Negative results indicate either the incorrectness of the postulated rule, or the need for some of its restrictions. Citing as an example examples of correctly and incorrectly constructed sentences (There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city.), L. V. Shcherba argued that the researcher should address the question of the correctness or incorrectness of the linguistic material, first of all, to the native speaker himself, not relying only on his intuition. Such a natural experiment is spontaneously carried out in the language environment, for example, when a child learns to speak or when an adult learns foreign language, as well as in cases of pathology, when the disintegration of speech occurs (275).
L. V. Shcherba proposed a structural scheme of a linguistic experiment: (1) introspection, self-observation and (2) setting up the actual experiment. He wrote about the "principle of experiment" as an important point that allows you to penetrate deeper into the understanding of human speech activity. The author distinguished two types of linguistic experiment:
1. positive, in which, having made an assumption about the meaning of a particular word or about the rule of word formation, one should try whether it is possible to compose a series of phrases using this rule: a positive result in this case will confirm the correctness of the assumption made (for example, by making some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, one or another of its forms, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, one should try whether it is possible to connect a number of different forms using this rule);
2. a negative experiment, during which the researcher “creates” a deliberately incorrect statement, and the subject must find the error and make appropriate adjustments.
The third kind of linguistic experiment is the alternative experiment. It consists in the fact that the subject determines the identity or non-identity of two or more fragments of speech statements (segments of text) offered to him.
Thus, a linguistic experiment is an experiment that explores and "reveals" the linguistic instinct of the subject by checking the truth ("verification") of language or functional speech models. When verifying models of language ability or a model of speech activity, one should speak of a psycholinguistic experiment. In some cases, the researcher is simultaneously the subject. This variant is called a “thought linguistic experiment” (139, p. 80).
Supporters of traditional methods of linguistic analysis have raised a number of objections to the use of a linguistic experiment, pointing to limited opportunities experimental techniques (203, 245). This is due to the fact that deliberately artificial situations are created in the experiment, which is not typical for the natural functioning of language and speech. Spontaneous speech sometimes manifests features that cannot be identified under experimental conditions.
At the same time, according to the well-known Russian psycholinguist L. V. Sakharny, the fundamental features of speech activity revealed in the experiment are characteristic of it in other, non-experimental situations. Therefore, it is practically impossible to draw a clear line between typical and atypical, natural and artificial situations in the study of speech (language) activity (203, 204).
association experiment
In order to pilot study subjective semantic fields of words formed and functioning in the human mind, as well as the nature semantic links words within the semantic field in psycholinguistics, the method of associative experiment is used. Its authors in practical psychology are considered to be the American psychologists H. G. Kent and A. J. Rozanov (1910). Psycholinguistic variants of the associative experiment were developed by J. Dize and C. Osgood (299, 331 and others). AT domestic psychology and psycholinguistics, the methodology of the associative experiment was improved and tested in experimental studies by A. R. Luria and O. S. Vinogradova (44, 156, etc.).
At present, the associative experiment is the most developed technique for psycholinguistic analysis of the semantics of speech.
The procedure of the associative experiment is as follows. The subjects are presented with a word or a whole set of words and are told that they need to answer the first words that come to mind. Typically, each test subject is given 100 words and 7-10 minutes to answer *. Most of the reactions given in the associative dictionaries were obtained from university and college students aged 17-25 (in this case, the stimulus words were given in the native language of the subjects).
In applied psycholinguistics, several main variants of the associative experiment have been developed:
1. "Free" associative experiment. Subjects are not given any restrictions on verbal responses.
2. "Directed" associative experiment. The subject is asked to name only words of a certain grammatical or semantic class (for example, choose adjectives for nouns).
3. "Chain" associative experiment. The subjects are asked to respond to the stimulus word with several verbal associations at once - for example, name 10 different words or phrases within 20 seconds.
On the basis of associative experiments in applied psycholinguistics, special "dictionaries of associative norms" (typical, "normative" associative reactions) have been created. In foreign specialized literature, the dictionary of J. Dize (299) is among the most famous. In Russian psycholinguistics, the first such dictionary (“Dictionary of Associative Norms of the Russian Language”) was compiled by a team of authors led by A.A. Leontiev (213). At present, the most complete dictionary is the “Russian Associative Dictionary” (Yu. N. Karaulov, Yu. A. Sorokin, E. F. Tarasov, N. V. Ufimtseva, etc.). It contains about 1300 stimulus words (in "everyday" speech, in live conversational communication 2.5-3 thousand words are used). As typical verbal reactions, it presents about thirteen thousand different words; in total, the dictionary contains over a million verbal reactions.
Dictionary entries in the "Russian Associative Dictionary" have following structure: first, a stimulus word is given, then responses, arranged in descending order of frequency (indicated by a number). Within each group, verbal responses are listed in alphabetical order (198). The first digit indicates the total number of reactions to stimuli, the second - the number of different reactions, the third - the number of subjects who left this stimulus unanswered, i.e., the number of refusals. The fourth digital indicator is the number of single answers.
Method for assessing the data of the associative experiment. There are several possible interpretations of the results of the association experiment. Let's take a look at some of them.
When analyzing the verbal reactions of the subjects, first of all, the so-called syntagmatic (the sky is blue, the tree is growing, the car is moving, smoking is harmful) and paradigmatic (table - chair, mother - father) associations are distinguished.
Syntagmatic associations are those whose grammatical class is different from the grammatical class of the stimulus word and which always express predicative relations. Paradigmatic associations are reaction words of the same grammatical class as stimulus words. They obey the semantic principle of "minimal contrast", according to which the less stimulus words differ from reaction words in terms of the composition of semantic components, the higher the probability of actualization of the reaction word in the associative process. This principle explains why, by the nature of the associations, it is possible to restore the semantic composition of the stimulus word: a number of associations that have arisen in the subject for this word contain a number of features similar to those contained in the stimulus word (for example: summer, summer, began, rest , soon, cheers, idleness, school, holiday camp). According to these verbal reactions, it is quite easy to restore the stimulus word (in this case, the word vacation).
Some researchers believe that paradigmatic associations reflect linguistic relations (in particular, the relations of words-lexemes within the framework of lexical and grammatical paradigms), while syntagmatic associations reflect subject relations displayed in speech (21, 155, 251, etc.).
Among the verbal reactions in psycholinguistics, there are also reactions that reflect generic relations (a cat - a pet, a table - furniture), "sound" associations that have a phonetic similarity with a stimulus (a cat - a baby, a house - a tom), reactions that display situational connections designated objects (cat - milk, mouse), “clichéd”, restoring “ speech cliches"(master - golden hands, guest - uninvited)," socially determined "(woman - mother, hostess), etc.
The method of associative experiment is widely used in various areas of psycholinguistics (sociopsycholinguistics, applied psycholinguistics, etc.). Due to the fact that it is usually carried out on a large number of subjects, on the basis of the data obtained, it is possible to construct a table of the frequency distribution of reaction words for each stimulus word. At the same time, the researcher has the opportunity to calculate the semantic proximity (“semantic distance”) between different words. A peculiar measure of the semantic similarity of a pair of words is the degree of coincidence of the distribution of answers, i.e., the similarity of the associations given to them. This indicator appears in the works of various authors under the following names: “intersection coefficient”, “association coefficient”, “overlap measure” (299, 331).
The associative experiment is also used as one of the additional methods of distributive-statistical analysis of texts, when researchers conduct a statistical calculation of the frequency of phrases of different types (the so-called "distribution"). An associative experiment allows us to find out how the components of the linguistic consciousness of native speakers of a given language are realized in speech activity.
Apart from the highly active use in applied linguistics and psycholinguistics, the associative experiment is widely used in practical psychology, sociology, psychiatry, as a method of psychological and linguistic diagnostics and examination.
J. Dize (299) in his psycholinguistic experiments tried to reconstruct the "semantic composition" of a word on the basis of the data of an associative experiment. He subjected the matrices of semantic distances of secondary associations to a stimulus word (i.e., associations to associations) to the procedure of "factorial analysis". The factors identified by him (frequency characteristics of verbal reactions, types of associative correlations) received a meaningful interpretation and were considered as semantic components of meaning. A. A. Leontiev, commenting on the results of the experiments of J. Dize, concludes that they clearly show the possibility of isolating (based on the processing of the data of the associative experiment) factors that can be interpreted as semantic components of words. Thus, an associative experiment can serve as a means of obtaining both linguistic and psychological knowledge about the semantic component of language signs and the patterns of their use in speech activity (123, 139).
Thus, the associative experiment shows the presence in the meaning of the word (as well as in the denotation - the image of the object denoted by the word) of a psychological component. Thus, the associative experiment makes it possible to identify or clarify the semantic structure of any word. His data can serve as valuable material for studying the psychological equivalents of what is defined in psycholinguistics by the concept of "semantic field", behind which are the semantic connections of words objectively existing in the mind of a native speaker (155, etc.).
One of the main distinctive features Associative experiment is its simplicity and availability of application, since it can be carried out both individually and simultaneously with a large group of subjects. The subjects operate with the meaning of the word in the context of the situation of verbal communication, which makes it possible to identify in the course of the experiment some unconscious components of the meaning. So, according to the results of the experiment conducted by V.P. Belyanin (21), it was found that in the word exam in the minds of students - native speakers of the Russian language - there are also such emotional and evaluative " psychological components» semantics of this word as difficult, fear, terrible, heavy. It should be noted that they were not reflected in the corresponding "associative" dictionaries.
Associative experiments show that one of the personality-psychological features of the associative reactions of subjects of different ages (having different levels of language development, respectively) is expressed in varying degrees leading orientation to phonological and grammatical features stimulus words.
At the same time, some phonetic (“sound”) associations can also be considered as semantic (mother - frame, house - smoke, guest - bone). Most often, the predominance of such associations is noted in children who have not yet mastered the semantics of signs sufficiently. mother tongue, as well as in children lagging behind in speech development. (In adults, they can occur on the background of fatigue, for example, at the end of a long experiment.) A high degree of frequency or predominance of phonetic associations is also characteristic of persons (both children and adults) with disabilities intellectual development (21, 155).
A significant part of verbal associations in adolescents and adults is due to speech stamps, clichés. At the same time, associations also reflect various aspects cultural and historical experience of the subject (capital - Moscow, square - Red) and textual reminiscences (master - Margarita).
The associative experiment is of particular importance for practical psychology; It is no coincidence that it is one of the oldest methods experimental psychology. Among the first variants of the associative experiment is the method of "free associations" by X. G. Kent - A. J. Rozanov (313). It uses a set of 100 words as stimuli-irritants. Speech reactions to these words are standardized on the material a large number studies (mentally healthy people, mostly adults), on the basis of which the proportion of non-standard speech reactions (their ratio with standard ones) was determined. These data make it possible to determine the degree of eccentricity and "eccentricity" of the subjects' thinking.
The semantic fields of the words of the "active dictionary" (as well as the associative reactions determined by them) for each person are distinguished by a great individual originality, both in the composition of lexical units and in the strength of the semantic links between them. The actualization of this or that connection in the response-reaction is not accidental and may even depend on the situation (for example, in a child: friend - Vova). The general level of education and culture has a great influence on the structure and characteristics of a person's speech (verbal) memory. Thus, associative experiments of a number of domestic psychologists and linguists revealed that people with a higher technical education more often give paradigmatic associations, and those with a humanitarian education give syntagmatic associations (41, 102).
The nature of associations is affected by both age and geographical conditions, and a person's profession. According to A. A. Leontiev (139), residents of Yaroslavl (brush - mountain ash) and Dushanbe (brush - grapes) gave different reactions to the same stimulus in his experiment; people of different professions: conductor (brush - smooth, soft), nurse of the surgical department of the hospital (brush - amputation) and builder (brush - hair).
However, belonging to a certain people, one culture makes the "center" of the associative field as a whole quite stable, and connections - regularly repeated in given language(poet - Yesenin, number - three, friend - faithful, friend - enemy, friend - comrade). According to the Russian psycholinguist A. A. Zalevskaya (90), the nature of verbal associations is also determined by the cultural and historical traditions of a given people. Here are, for example, typical verbal associations to the word “bread”: a Russian person has bread and salt, an Uzbek has bread and tea, a French person has bread and wine, etc. The data obtained by A. A. Zalevskaya are indicative in this regard. when comparing word associations "in a historical perspective". So, when the author compared associations to the same stimuli, it turned out that the three most frequent reactions to the stimulus word "bread" in 1910 accounted for an average of approximately 46% of all responses-reactions, and in 1954 - already about 60% of all responses, i.e. the most frequent reactions became even more common. This can be explained by the fact that as a result of standard education, the influence of radio, television and other mass media, the stereotype of speech reactions has increased, and people themselves began to carry out their speech actions more uniformly (21, 90).
The linguistic experiment we carried out was aimed at a practical study of the levels of the structure of a linguistic personality.
The linguistic experiment was carried out in two stages.
The first stage of the linguistic experiment
The first stage of the experiment was carried out among students in grade 11 secondary school No. 59 of the city of Cheboksary. 20 people took part in the experiment (all works are attached). This part of the experiment consisted of 4 tasks and was aimed at studying the features of different levels of the structure of the linguistic personality of students graduating from high school. Since the zero level of the structure of a linguistic personality is not considered as indicative, characterizing individual characteristics of a person as the creator of various, unique texts, none of the tasks was focused on the study of this level.
I. The first task is a text of extremely generalized content, the correct interpretation of which cannot be reduced only to its superficial perception, to the interpretation of its direct meaning.
I. You can only rely on what resists (Stendhal).
High school students were asked to interpret this phrase in 5-6 sentences.
The passage proposed for analysis is interesting in that it can be interpreted both literally and figuratively. From the point of view of the laws of physics, one can really rely only on solid bodies, which offer resistance, since light objects cannot serve as a reliable support. At the same time, this statement has another, deeper, philosophical connotation: you should rely only on those people who, being mature, formed personalities, have their own opinion and are not afraid to express it, even if it does not coincide with yours. Such people are not afraid to criticize you if necessary, and honestly say that they don’t like something in order to help you become better, correct some of your own shortcomings. And only such people will also adequately accept criticism from you, trying, perhaps, to correct something in themselves.
The purpose of this task is to determine whether the students were able to feel the dualism of meaning and how they understand the second, deeper, aspect of the statement.
According to the results of the analysis of the answers, 12 people reacted to the existence of a philosophical subtext and gave an interpretation based on it.
- 1 student did not answer at all.
- 2 people considered only direct meaning statements, without delving into the discovery of additional meanings, but at the same time noted that they consider only a physical point of view: "If we consider this statement from the point of view of physics, then, considering the table and the person, we can consider this: when a person leans on the table, the table exerts resistance to him, and therefore a person does not fall"; "From a physical point of view, you can lean, for example, on a pole, only because it resists, and does not fall in the direction in which you push it."
- 5 people either did not grasp any of the meanings clearly enough, or evaded the answer, or misunderstood the content of the statement: "To resist means to try to prove what he is sure of; therefore, this statement can be relied upon"; "I think that Stendhal was talking about some kind of enemy or about something that the author does not succeed in, and this must be relied upon"; "Resistance means that there is something that contradicts any action or statement. If, for example, there is a lot of dispute over some term, that it is contradictory, causes resistance, then you can rely on it."
Thus, according to the results of the first task, we can conclude that more than half of the students perceive additional meanings that certainly accompany texts of an abstract, generalized nature. The rest either considered only the direct meaning of the statement, or evaded the answer, or misunderstood the statement as a whole.
II. The third motivational level of the structure of a linguistic personality implies the perception of not only additional deep meanings of the statement, but also the possession of general cultural (background) knowledge. Taking into account the fact that precedent texts embody the recognized values of world culture, they convey spiritual world the author of the statement, make the addressee involved in co-authorship, task II is a piece of text containing a precedent text, knowledge of which is already assumed by students by the time they graduate from high school. This task will allow to determine the degree of possession by high school students of the background knowledge necessary for the perception of such texts.
The passage of the text proposed for analysis and assignments to it:
It seems to me that he tries more for Sasha, because Sasha is far from Apollo (Yu. Nagibin).
The students had to answer the following questions:
- Who is Apollo?
- What, respectively, is Sasha's appearance?
As you know, Apollo is the ancient Greek god of beauty, the patron of the arts, poetry, music, who was distinguished by an unusually beautiful appearance. Based on these facts, we can conclude that Sasha is far from being handsome, because he is "far from Apollo."
- 1) When answering the question, who is Apollo, almost all students pointed out that Apollo had a beautiful appearance, figure.
- 5 people wrote that Apollo is the god of beauty, but did not indicate his connection with antiquity.
- 6 students wrote that Apollo is a god, while not indicating his function.
- 2 people determined that Apollo is the god of the sun in Ancient Greece, and, in fact, they are not so far from the correct answer, because Apollo is the patron of art, poetry, light.
- 3 students wrote that Apollo is a symbol, an ideal, a standard of beauty, but did not mention that he is a god.
1 person did not give an answer to this question, while showing not so much ignorance of mythology and literature as unwillingness to consider the proposed question.
Only 3 students showed deeper and more accurate knowledge, describing Apollo as the ancient Greek god of beauty. Of all the students, only 1 person tried to describe the appearance of Apollo: "He was handsome (with blond hair, regular features, with a good figure)".
It should be noted that none of the students gave a sufficiently complete and exhaustive answer. No one mentioned that Apollo is also the patron of the arts, poetry, music, light.
- 2). Sasha's appearance was determined correctly by 13 students.
- 3 people did not answer this question.
- 4 students gave conflicting answers, either devoid of logic or based on a misinterpretation of Sasha's appearance: "Sasha is also beautiful, but not perfect, she probably has little flaws that make her even more beautiful"; "Sasha is not entirely handsome, but not entirely ugly either, since there is no such person who could be compared in beauty with Apollo." At the same time, 2 people characterize Sasha's appearance correctly, but then they draw completely unfounded conclusions: "Sasha is ugly, and therefore Apollo does not like it, and he wants Sasha to be fine"; "And Sasha, he is far from ideal, maybe he just has a beautiful soul. Sasha is rich spiritually, not physically. But we cannot say about Apollo that he was rich in soul. He was more famous for the beauty of his body and appearance."
Thus, we can conclude: despite the fact that not all students were able to fully and exhaustively answer the question of who Apollo is, i.e. did not show deep knowledge of ancient mythology, in general, this did not prevent most students from correctly grasping the author's intention and correctly assessing Sasha's appearance.
So, for the perception of precedent texts, with the help of which the statement is introduced into the cultural and historical context with a wide time frame, both background knowledge and the ability to establish deep analogies and understand the author's intention are necessary. The study of the volume of background knowledge and the level of formation of the ability to operate with them when creating and perceiving the text makes it possible to determine the level of cultural and speech preparation of students and outline the paths to their further general and speech development.
III. In order to study the sense of style of high school students, their "sense of communicative expediency", a task was proposed in which texts with a motivated deviation from functional and stylistic norms were used. The students had to discover not only the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the deviation from the dominant style, but also the communicative expediency of combining language means belonging to different styles of speech in one text.
In connection with the tasks set, the question of the possibility of studying the sense of style as an ability that does not require the presence of theoretical knowledge is natural, because information about the structure of the text, about the functional styles of speech is provided school curriculum in the main Russian language course. However, a survey of high school students showed that many of them do not have a clear idea about this section of the course, since the speech theory was given in the 5th grade. In addition, determining the cause of the mixing of styles, especially in non-fiction texts, is not among the requirements for the speech development of students. According to the current programs, students should be able to create a statement in compliance with stylistic norms, find and eliminate possible errors in their text.
So, the purpose of the experimental study of the sense of style among high school students was to test their ability to assess the appropriateness - the inappropriateness of deviations from functional and stylistic norms, to determine additional meanings.
Task III is aimed at testing the ability of students to create an image of the speaker based on his speech. For this, an excerpt from N. Iovlev's story "Artist Syringe" (1991) was proposed without indicating the author's surname and the title of the work.
According to Ovid, the sweetest dreams visit us at dawn - by this time the soul is freed from the oppression of digestion.
The right word, I will not see sweet dreams today - neither at dawn, nor after. I've been so gorged on fried meat that my shriveled, dead stomach won't be able to get through this huge portion for at least a week.
Students were asked to answer 2 questions:
- -what can be said about the author of the work (epoch, experience, domestic or foreign)?
- What can be said about the hero (age, habits, occupation, education)?
It was also proposed to define the style of the text.
The passage is clearly inconsistent. It traces two lines, which at the lexical level are expressed as follows: 1) Ovid, oppression of digestion, right word, grand portion; 2) overeat; shrunken, dead stomach. If the first line characterizes the hero - and the narration is conducted on his behalf - as an intelligent, educated person, then the second one gorged himself with a colloquial word and the mention of a shrunken stomach points to the other side of his life, to a possible streak of failures, to the fact that the person sank under their weight . These two lines are not opposed to each other, they form a whole, although they are dissonant. speech characteristic the hero reflects the heterogeneity of his image: in the past he is an artist, and now he is a drug addict.
The answers of the students were varied, but certain trends can be traced in them. Let us present the generalized results of the analysis of works.
Determining the country and era, the students came to the conclusion that the author could live in Ancient Rome(1 answer); in the Middle Ages (1 answer); in noble Russia (3 answers); in Russia, but without indicating the era (1 answer); in America in the 19th century (1 answer); in the modern era (4 answers); it is impossible to determine the time, as it fits all eras (1 answer), 6 people did not indicate the country at all. 2 people did not answer this question.
It should be noted that only 3 people distinguished between the author and the hero of the work, and they all agreed that the author is an educated, intelligent person, that he is familiar with the works of ancient philosophers, and the hero is "uneducated and rude" (1 person), "dreamy and loves to eat" (1 person), "lives a little earlier, most likely under the rule of the USSR." The majority of students either believe that the author and the hero are identical, which indicates the inability to distinguish between the author, the creator of the work, and the characters invented by him (who are far from always even the spokesmen for the ideas of the author himself), or characterize only the author or only the hero, which again still indicates the non-distinction of these concepts.
As for the hero's habits, 6 people note his love of "eating a lot and tasty"; "eat, drink and play poker" (1 person); "eat before bed" (2 people). This shows that the students paid attention only to the surface content of the text, expressed at the lexical level, without delving into what the author wanted to show. The rest of the students did not cover this point at all, most likely again due to a misunderstanding of the author's intent.
The style of speech is defined as conversational (5 people), journalistic (2 people), journalistic with elements of reasoning (1 person), conversational with elements of journalistic (2 people), narrative with elements of reasoning (4 people), artistic (2 people), reasoning, description(1 person). 2 people did not cover this item.
In general, the works showed that none of the students could define the mixture of styles as a literary device, and, accordingly, no one was able to see such a variation of stylistic norms in the character’s speech as a means of revealing inner peace person, creating a more complex image of the hero, corresponding to the author's intention. The absence of this ability does not allow to fully understand the author's intention, and in real communication it can interfere with the perception of the interlocutor, lead to an underestimation or incorrect assessment of his personality. The nature of this ability is associated with a sensual-situational type of thinking, with the ability to determine the pragmatic components of linguistic meaning.
Based on the results of this task, aimed at studying the sense of style of high school students associated with the factor of communicative expediency, we can conclude that students have a very limited ability to attribute a text to a particular area of communication at the level of a sense of language, i.e. without special knowledge. The ability to perceive the variation of functional and stylistic norms does not manifest itself clearly enough, as a result of which students cannot name the reasons for mixing styles and, therefore, fully reveal the author's intention.
The presence in the texts of additional meanings, formed by a mixture of stylistic means, reflects the real state of modern Russian speech, therefore communicative competence high school students should include the ability to distinguish additional meanings and establish the reasons for their appearance. The development of such an ability also has a clearly expressed pragmatic motive - to strengthen the effectiveness of one's own speech in various areas of communication.
IV. The fourth task is aimed at studying students' knowledge of case texts and their ability to create situations in which the meaning of these case texts is realized.
Students were asked to define the concept of "Plyushkin" and give examples of situations where this concept gets its implementation.
- 4 people did not answer this question.
- 7 people described this character as a greedy, stingy person, miser without specifying the situation when a person can be called in this way.
- 7 people gave a more complete description of this character, indicating such features as unnecessary hoarding, gathering: "Plyushkin is a very greedy person, hoarding, not using the good that he has"; "Plyushkin is a callous and greedy person, main goal in whose life is accumulation. Even if he is very rich, he will never give his money, even to his children, he saves on everything ";" Plyushkin is a person who collects everything, saves up, even what he does not need. He always has a lot of junk." But at the same time, not a single student from the named group brought up a situation where a person can be said in this way.
However, 1 person tried to give an example of a situation where, in his opinion, a person can be called Plyushkin:
“Give me 5,000 rubles!” Vanya said.
- - I won't give it, I need it myself! Dima said.
- “Well, you are Plyushkin,” Vanya said, offended.
As can be seen from the above example, the student does not fully understand the meaning of the concept "Plyushkin", since it necessarily includes a component of hoarding, unnecessary gathering, which is not reflected in the answer. Moreover, Dima in the above example, apparently, needs the money himself, or, at least, he cannot freely give Vanya 5,000 rubles without putting it to his own detriment. Therefore, the student either picked up an unsuccessful example, or still does not fully understand the meaning of the precedent text.
There is 1 more answer, in which the student demonstrated an attempt to interpret the meaning of the precedent text, based on the associative connection between a bun, that is, a soft bun made of dough, and a plump good-natured man, who is called Plyushkin for his softness: "Plyushkin is a funny, plump person, treats everything with a laugh, but it happens that he takes it seriously when he is offended.
Thus, based on the results of the fourth task, we can conclude that, although in general the students showed knowledge of the meaning of the precedent text, none of them could bring a situation where this meaning is realized. This means that the theoretical knowledge of precedent texts, which is an indicator of the II thesaurus level of a linguistic personality, is not yet a condition that necessarily leads to the competent use of these precedent texts in speech, which characterizes the III motivational level of a linguistic personality.
Sections: Russian language
A student-centered approach, differentiated learning are the key concepts without which it is impossible to imagine a modern school. The Russian language lesson also requires close attention. If the forms of work with students with low motivation are already clear for many teachers, then what to offer to those who are able to work for high level difficulties?
One of the forms of work with gifted children in Russian language lessons can be a linguistic experiment. The dictionary of linguistic terms gives the following definition: a linguistic experiment is a test of the conditions for the functioning of a particular language element in order to determine its characteristic features, limits of possible use, and optimal use cases. “Thus, the principle of experiment is introduced into linguistics. Having made some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of various phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied) by applying this rule . An affirmative result confirms the correctness of the postulate ... But negative results are especially instructive: they indicate either the incorrectness of the postulated rule, or the need for some kind of its restrictions, or the fact that the rule no longer exists, but there are only dictionary facts, etc. . P." (L. V. Shcherba). The importance of applying the linguistic experiment was noted by A. M. Peshkovsky, A. N. Gvozdev.
Finding new knowledge is carried out by the students themselves in the process of analyzing specific, particular phenomena of the language, from which they move on to the general, to theoretical conclusions and laws.
So, for example, when studying the topic “Animate and inanimate nouns”, the knowledge of students with increased learning motivation can be deepened with the help of a morphological experiment. Also in primary school The children learned that animate nouns are those that answer the question: “Who?”, and inanimate nouns are those that answer the question: “What?”. In order for students to expand their knowledge and learn the difference between the scientific interpretation of nouns from the point of view of the category of animation - inanimateness and the everyday idea of this phenomenon, you can create the following problem situation: Is the word “doll” an animate or inanimate noun?
The linguistic experiment will consist in the declension of this noun in the plural according to cases and comparing it with the forms of nouns that do not raise doubts about belonging to animate or inanimate nouns (for example, “sister”, “board”).
As a result of independent observations, students will come to the conclusion: for the nouns “doll” and “sister” in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form genitive: (no) dolls = (see) dolls(no sisters = see sisters), R. p. = V. p.
The nouns “doll” and “board” in the plural form of the accusative case do not match: no dolls = I see dolls, but there are no boards = I see boards. Doll formula: R.p. = V.p. Board Formula: I.p.=V.p
The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not always coincide with the scientific idea of animate and inanimate nature.
For animate nouns in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive case (for animate masculine nouns of the 2nd declension and in the singular).
For inanimate nouns in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative case (for masculine nouns of the 2nd declension and in the singular, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative case).
The nouns dead and corpse are synonymous, but the noun dead is animate (V.p. = R.p.: I see a dead person - there is no dead person), and the noun corpse is inanimate (V.p. = I.p.: I see a corpse - here there is a corpse).
The same can be observed in the example of the noun microbe. From the point of view of biology, this is part of wildlife, but the noun microbe is inanimate (V.p. = I.p.: I see a microbe - there is a microbe here).
Sometimes fifth graders have difficulty determining the case of nouns. Mix nominative and accusative, genitive and accusative. To understand what case the nouns of the 2nd and 3rd declension are in, they can be replaced by nouns of the 1st declension, in which the endings of the indicated cases do not match: I bought a briefcase, a notebook - I bought a book; invited a friend, mother - invited a sister. The singular form of nouns of the 1st declension, in which the dative case coincides with the prepositional, can be replaced by the plural form: on the road - on the roads (prepositional case - about the roads).
In working with students with increased motivation, the method of syntactic experiment can be widely used.
From textbooks, students learn that prepositions are not members of a sentence.
But interested children can be introduced to another point of view on the syntactic role of prepositions. Linguist Yu. T. Dolin believes: “In the process of speech practice, both the lexical and syntactic independence of a number of non-derivative prepositions noticeably increases.” The essence of the experiment will be to compare the use of two prepositions. For observation, let's take the lines of N. Rubtsov:
I, the young son of trading posts,
I want the storm to sound forever
So that for the brave there was a sea,
And if without, then the pier.
Students will be sure to pay attention to the different uses of the two prepositions.
One preposition is used before an adjective, and the second without a nominal form. In a sentence, the preposition “without” answers the question “How?” and is a circumstance. To confirm the observation, we can offer an example from a poem by E. Yevtushenko:
And this explosion is heard (sometimes late),
From now on, dividing my whole life into before and after.
Students' conclusions will be approximately as follows: the prepositions "before" and "after" answer the questions "what?" and are additions.
At parsing You can also apply the method of linguistic experiment. In the case when difficulties arise with the definition of a sentence member, it is necessary to replace indistinct syntactic constructions with distinct ones. So in the sentence “Tourists finally noticed the exit to the surface”, difficulties may arise with the word “surface”. Instead of the sentence “Tourists finally spotted the exit to the surface”, you can use “Tourists finally spotted the exit leading to the surface” or “Tourists finally spotted the exit that leads to the surface”.
The possibility of replacing the prepositional-nominal combination “on the surface” with a participial phrase and an attributive clause proves that we are dealing with a definition.
The “silent” dictation can also be attributed to the linguistic experiment. A numeral is written on a piece of paper with a number, an object is drawn next to it. It is necessary to put the numeral and noun in a certain case. For example, no 97 (drawing), to 132 (drawing).
The linguistic experiment can take place in a group form. Each group receives a task in which a question is formulated, didactic material is presented and an experiment program is proposed to obtain a certain result. The results of the experiment can be evaluated both by the teacher himself and by a group of expert students, consisting of the most prepared students.
A linguistic experiment helps students to understand many difficult facts of the language, serves as a means to make sure that the interpretation of these facts is correct.
Everyone is experimenting with language:
poets, writers, wits and linguists.
A successful experiment points to the hidden reserves of the language,
unsuccessful - to their limits.
N.D. Arutyunova
There is a division of sciences into experimental and theoretical. The experiment is considered as a condition for increased accuracy, objectivity of science; the absence of experiment is considered to be a condition of possible subjectivity.
An experiment is a method of cognition, with the help of which phenomena of nature and society are studied under controlled and controlled conditions [NIE 2001: 20: 141]. Mandatory features experiment - the presence of controlled conditions and reproducibility.
Experimental methods in linguistics make it possible to study the facts of a language under conditions managed and controlled by the researcher [LES: 590].
In the middle of the twentieth century. the opinion was strengthened that the experiment in social sciences not only possible, but also necessary. The first to raise the problem of a linguistic experiment in Russian science was Academician L.V. Shcherba. The experiment, in his opinion, is possible only in the study of living languages. The object of the experimental technique is a person - a native speaker, who generates texts, perceives texts and acts as an informant for the researcher [LES: 591].
There are technical experiments (in phonetics) and linguistic ones. A textbook example of a linguistic experiment proving that the grammatical contour of a sentence is meaningful was L.V. Shcherby "Glokay kuzdra shteko boked bokra and curls bokrenka." Further development L. Petrushevskaya's fairy tale "Beat Puski" became this fun experiment.
Without experiment, it is impossible to proceed further. theoretical study language, especially its sections such as syntax, stylistics and lexicography.
The psychological element of the methodology lies in the evaluative feeling of correctness / incorrectness, the possibility / impossibility of one or another speech utterance[Shcherba 1974: 32].
Currently, the meaning of the word, the semantic structure of the word, lexical and associative groupings are being experimentally studied. synonymous rows, the sound-symbolic meaning of the word. There are over 30 experimental techniques, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.
The experiment is widely presented in syntactic works, for example, in the well-known book by A.M. Peshkovsky "Russian syntax in scientific coverage". Let's confine ourselves to one example from this book. In the verses of M. Lermontov “Along the blue waves of the ocean, only the stars will flash in the sky,” the word is only used not in a restrictive, but in a temporary sense, because it can be replaced by unions when, as soon as, therefore, before us subordinate clause time.
The possibilities of a linguistic experiment in the development of a student's language competence were demonstrated by the outstanding Russian philologist M.M. Bakhtin in his methodological article “Issues of Stylistics in Russian Language Lessons in Secondary School: The Stylistic Meaning of an Associative Compound Sentence” [Bakhtin 1994].
As an object of experiment, M.M. Bakhtin chose three non-union complex sentences and transformed them into complex sentences, fixing the structural, semantic and functional differences resulting from the transformation.
I am sad: there is no friend with me (Pushkin) > I am sad, because there is no friend with me. It immediately became clear that in the presence of a union, the inversion used by Pushkin becomes inappropriate and the usual direct - "logical" - word order is required. As a result of the replacement of Pushkin's non-union proposal with the allied one, the following stylistic changes took place: logical relations, and this "weakened the emotional and dramatic relationship between the poet's sadness and the absence of a friend"; "the role of intonation has now been replaced by a soulless logical union"; dramatization of the word by facial expressions and gestures became impossible; decreased figurativeness of speech; the sentence lost its conciseness and became less harmonious; it “as if passed into a silent register, became more adapted for reading with the eyes than for expressive reading aloud".
He laughed - everyone laughs (Pushkin) > It is enough for him to laugh, as everyone begins to obsequiously laugh(according to M.M. Bakhtin, this transformation is the most adequate in meaning, although it paraphrases Pushkin's text too freely). The dynamic drama of Pushkin's line is achieved by strict parallelism in the construction of both sentences, and this ensures the exceptional conciseness of Pushkin's text: two simple, uncommon four-word sentences with incredible fullness reveal Onegin's role in the collection of monsters, his overwhelming authority. Pushkin unionless proposal does not tell about the event, it dramatizes it in front of the reader. The allied form of submission would turn the show into a story.
Woke up: five stations ran away (Gogol) > When I woke up, it turned out that five stations had already fled back. As a result of the transformation, the bold metaphorical expression, almost the personification used by Gogol, becomes logically inappropriate. The result was a completely correct, but dry and pale proposal: nothing remained of Gogol's dynamic drama, of Gogol's impetuous and bold gesture.
Determining the type of the subordinate clause in the sentence “There is nothing in the world that your hands could not do, that they could not do, that they would disdain” (A. Fadeev), students almost without hesitation answer - an explanatory clause. When the teacher invites them to replace the pronoun with an equivalent word or phrase, say, “such a case” or simply “case”, then the students realize that we have an adjective-defining clause. We have taken this example from the book Difficult Questions of Syntax [Fedorov 1972]. By the way, it contains many examples of the successful use of the experiment in teaching the Russian language.
According to tradition, among the synonyms, a group of absolute ones is singled out, which allegedly have neither semantic nor stylistic differences, for example, the moon and the month. However, their experimental substitution into the same context: "The rocket is launched towards the Moon (month)" - eloquently indicates that the synonyms are functionally (and therefore, in meaning) different.
Let's compare two sentences: "He slowly returned to his table" and "He slowly returned to Moscow." The second sentence demonstrates that the adverb leisurely implies the performance of an action in front of the observer.
A special place is occupied by the methodology of psycholinguistic experiments, with the help of which researchers penetrate deep into the word, study, for example, its emotional load and connotation in general. All modern psycholinguistics is based on experiment.
The use of a linguistic experiment requires the researcher to have a linguistic flair, erudition and scientific experience.