Culture of the USSR in the 1930s. What policy towards the church was pursued by the Soviet state
This lesson dedicated to the culture and art of the USSR in the 1930s. Despite the totalitarian control of the state over all spheres cultural development society, art of the USSR in the 1930s. did not lag behind the world trends of that time. The introduction of technological progress, as well as new trends from the West, contributed to the flourishing of literature, music, theater and cinema. In the course of today's lesson, you will learn what factors influenced the culture of the USSR in the 1930s, what new things happened in the field of education, science, painting, architecture, literature, music, theater and cinema
Rice. 2. Tsvetaeva M.I. ()
Economic development also affects the development of culture and art. In the country in the 1930s, just as in the 20s, educated people were needed. The country needs competent highly qualified specialists in all sectors, in all areas. Education is developing, as well as culture, science and art.
Interesting changes are taking place in the social sphere. Culture is becoming more mass, that is, more people are educated, have the opportunity to join cultural and spiritual values. On the other hand, in order to please these masses of the population, cultural figures and artists are forced to lower the bar, to make art accessible and understandable to the people. Art as a method of influencing a person, as a method of understanding the world, can be a very important and powerful ally of power. Of course, the art of the 1930s. not so much opposed the authorities as helped, it was one of the means of establishing the Stalinist regime, a method of establishing the communist ideology, a method of establishing the cult of personality.
In the 30s. contacts with other countries have not yet ceased. Mutual exchange of cultural ideas, trips, exhibitions are not as intense as in the 1920s, but, nevertheless, they do occur. The USSR was a multinational country, and in the 1930s. high level reaches national culture, a separate script of small peoples appears Soviet Union.
Culture and art continued to comprehend the events that took place in the 1930s. There were no bright events, but the impetus given by the revolution continued its action. In the 1930s the Bolsheviks continued to talk about the cultural revolution, and the first task was to raise the level of education, the elimination of illiteracy. In the early 30s. introduces a universal 4-year free education, at the end of the 30s. the 7-year-old becomes obligatory and also free. Total high school then included the program of 9 classes (see Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Soviet poster ()
Moreover, built great amount new schools, many of these schools, built in the 1930s, with large spacious classrooms and corridors, still stand in our cities.
In addition to the system of secondary education, higher education is also developing. By the end of the 30s. in the USSR there were several thousand higher educational institutions. A huge number of new educational institutions, branches of higher educational institutions were opened. Almost a million people by 1940 had higher education. There have been changes in the structure higher education. From Ser. 30s a greater role has been given social sciences, first of all history. In the 20-30s. continuity was maintained in the field of teaching mathematics, physics, and other exact and natural sciences, but with the humanities, everything was different. We can say that in the 1920s - early 1930s. history simply did not exist, the historical faculties at the Moscow and Leningrad institutes were liquidated. Since 1934, the tasks have changed.
In 1933, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. The German national idea, patriotic, was perverted by the Nazis. In this regard, the education system is changing, more attention is paid to those sciences that are engaged in the education and development of patriotic feelings in a person.
Great success in the 30s. in particular, such famous Soviet physicists and chemists as P.L. Kapitsa, A.F. Ioffe, I.V. Kurchatov, G.N. Flerov, who worked in different fields. S.V. Lebedev, the famous Soviet chemist, through his experiments, achieved the production of synthetic rubber (see Fig. 4, 5, 6).
Rice. 4. P.L. Kapitsa ()
Rice. 5. A.F. Ioffe()
Rice. 6. S.V. Lebedev ()
Things were not so good in the humanities. In the 1930s there were several discussions, in particular, on history. As a result of these discussions, the opinion was established that the entire history of mankind, according to the theory of Karl Marx, is five formations successively replacing each other: primitiveness, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, smoothly turning into communism. Socio-economic formation - the central concept Marxist theory society or historical materialism. By means of the OEF, ideas about society as a certain system were fixed and at the same time the main periods of its development were singled out. historical development. It was believed that any social phenomenon can be correctly understood only in connection with a certain GEF, an element or product of which it is. The history of all countries and peoples has begun to conform to this pattern, to this pattern. There were discussions, discussions could be held, but when the discussion ended, often on instructions from above, it was forbidden to argue further and only one point of view was recognized as correct. Living scientific life was stopped, because science without discussions is impossible. Also, science was severely damaged by repression. Repressed scientists: N.I. Vavilov, P.A. Florensky, E.V. Tarle, S.F. Platonov, D.S. Likhachev. (see Fig. 7).
Rice. 7. D.S. Likhachev ()
Art and literature also developed in the 1930s. It must be said that more significant changes are taking place in the sphere of literature and art than in the sphere of development of science and education. Since 1934, there has been a creative organization in the country that unites all writers - the Union of Writers of the Soviet Union. Until 1934, there were several organizations: LEF (left front), the Union of Russian Writers, the Organization of Peasant Writers, etc. In 1934, they all united, and under the leadership of Maxim Gorky, a new organization was created - the Union of Writers. At the beginning of 1929, the LEF association broke up; it did not become part of the Writers' Union. After some time, the Union of Composers, the Union of Architects appeared. The Soviet authorities organized such unions in order to take literary and artistic figures under control. Thus, control by the authorities in a totalitarian regime is carried out by different methods. Firstly, this is purely administrative control, and secondly, through the unions of writers, journalists, artists, composers. A sufficiently large number of excellent writers could not fit into this new organized literary life. M.A. was practically not printed. Bulgakov, they stopped publishing A.P. Platonov, hounded M.I. Tsvetaev, died in the camps of O.E. Mandelstam, N.A. Klyuev. Repression touched many writers. At the same time, A.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.A. Fadeev, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, K.M. Simonov, M.A. Sholokhov, K.I. Chukovsky, A.L. Barto, M.M. Prishvin. To the verses of Soviet poets M.V. Isakovsky, V.I. Lebedev-Kumach composed amazing songs (see Fig. 8, 9, 10).
Rice. 8. Korney Chukovsky ()
Rice. 9. Aibolit. Korney Chukovsky ()
Rice. 10. Agnia Barto ()
Interesting processes took place in other areas of art. Music is a difficult area to perceive. 30s - these are the years of different music: on the one hand, S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich wrote serious symphonic music. But the masses of Soviet citizens sang the songs of A.V. Alexandrov, for example, his famous song "Katyusha", which became popular. Among the famous performers of that time are L.P. Orlova, L.O. Utyosov. In 1932 the Union of Soviet Composers was founded.
Art is always a struggle, it is an artist's struggle with himself, it is a struggle of styles, a struggle of trends. In the 1930s Socialist realism continues to assert itself - a theoretical principle and the main artistic direction that dominated the USSR in the mid-1930s. - early 1980s In Soviet art and art criticism already in the late 1920s. an idea was formed about the historical purpose of art - to affirm socialist ideals, images of new people and new social relations in a generally accessible realistic form. The Russian avant-garde (P. Filonov, Robert Falk, Kazimir Malevich) gradually fades into the background. At the same time, P. Korin, P. Vasiliev, M. Nesterov continued to create, began to paint portraits famous people, scientists, doctors, artists.
Interesting processes continue in architecture. There is such a trend as constructivism, the avant-garde in architecture. One of the directions of the avant-garde said that architecture should be functional. Homes, in addition to being beautiful, should also be simple and comfortable. In the 30s. Soviet urban planning is born. Large, spacious, bright, as convenient as possible cities, new cities of the future - their creation was in the first place among Soviet architects. A. Shchusev, K. Melnikov, the Vesnin brothers are architects who created a new look for our country. In addition to houses, apart from residential areas, there was an idea to show the beauty of the industrial world, to build beautiful factories, so that a person, looking at this industrial landscape, would understand that the country was moving towards a bright future.
At the end of the 30s. in all branches of art: in painting, and in sculpture, and in architecture, a great style begins to appear - the Soviet Empire style. This is the imperial style, it is characterized by large beautiful powerful houses, paintings depicting heroes. The Stalin Empire style is the leading direction in Soviet architecture (1933-1935), which replaced rationalism and constructivism and became widespread during the reign of I.V. Stalin (see Fig. 11, 12).
Rice. 11. Stalinist empire. Hotel "Ukraine" ()
Rice. 12. Stalinist empire. Ministry of Foreign Affairs ()
The sculpture of V.I. Mukhina "Worker and Collective Farm Girl", prepared for the world exhibition in Paris in 1937 (see Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Sculpture "Worker and Collective Farm Girl". IN AND. Mukhina ()
Movie
Cinema carried an important ideological load. It spoke about revolutionary struggle(“Youth of Maxim”, “Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg side” - directors G. Kozintsev and L. Trauberg); about the fight against internal enemies (“The Great Citizen” - directed by F. Ermler); about a happy life Soviet people(comedies directed by G. Aleksandrov with the participation of L. Orlova "Jolly Fellows", "Circus", "Volga-Volga"); about overcoming difficulties ("Seven Courageous" - directed by S. Gerasimov). In the film directed by M. Romm "Lenin in 1918", Stalin appeared for the first time in the cinema. In 1938, on Stalin's orders, S. Eisenstein staged the film Alexander Nevsky, starring N. Cherkasov. Composers I. Dunaevsky, N. Bogoslovsky, V. Solovyov-Sedoy wrote songs for cinema.
Theater
In the sphere of theatrical life, the Bolshoi Theater was considered the main musical theater, and the Moscow Art Academic Theater (MKhAT) named after M.V. Chekhov. Galina Ulanova shone in the ballet. Composers were encouraged to create opera and ballet performances on heroic themes. In particular, R. Gliere's ballet "The Flames of Paris" (about french revolution) and A. Cheshko's opera The Battleship Potemkin.
Let's summarize. Creation a large number educated people, institutions, the development and expansion of branches of the Academy of Sciences led to an increase in the level of education, the creation of a new layer of the Soviet intelligentsia. On the whole, positive processes were going on in education and science, with the exception of the tragic moments of repression. In the 1930s art, painting, music, literature, sculpture, architecture developed.
Homework
- Describe the processes of development of education, science and artistic culture of the USSR in the 1930s.
- Why do you think the 1930s special attention was paid to the teaching of history?
- Expand the essence of the method of socialist realism in art. What works of socialist realism do you know?
- Which of the repressed in the 1930s. can you name the figures of science and culture? Prepare a report or message about their activities and creativity.
Bibliography
- Shestakov V.A., Gorinov M.M., Vyazemsky E.E. Russian history,
- XX - beginning of the XXI century, 9th grade: textbook. for general education institutions; under. ed.
- A.N. Sakharov; Ros. acad. Sciences, Ros. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". -
- 7th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2011. - 351 p.
- Kiselev A.F., Popov V.P. Russian history. XX - the beginning of the XXI century. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2013. - 304 p.
- Lezhen E.E. Poster as a means of political agitation in the 1917-1930s. Bulletin of the Saratov State Social and Economic
- university. - Issue No. 3. - 2013. - UDC: 93/94.
- Braginsky D.Yu. Sports motives in Russian art of the 1920-1930s. Proceedings of the Russian State Pedagogical University A.I. Herzen. - Issue No. 69. - 2008. - UDC: 7.
- mobile.studme.org().
- Nado5.ru ().
- countries.ru ().
- Russia.rin.ru ().
Make a summary table "Achievements of the culture of the USSR in the 1920s - 1930s." Use additional literature
literature |
M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don", V. Kataev "Time, forward!", I. Ilf and E. Petrov "The Twelve Chairs", "The Golden Calf", Bulgakov M. "Master and Margarita", which was prohibited. |
painting |
S. Gerasimov, K. Petrov-Vodkin, A. Daineka, M. Grekov dedicated paintings October revolution and the Civil War. |
sculpture |
IN AND. Mukhin "Worker and Collective Farm Girl". |
architecture |
Stalinist style in architecture, the project of the Palace of Soviets (was not implemented) |
S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky, B. Khaikin came forward. |
|
Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, the first artistic director of which was A. Blok, the theater. V. Meyerhold, the theater. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow Theater. Moscow City Council. |
|
cinema |
S. Eisenstein "October", S. and G. Vasiliev "Chapaev". |
What were the consequences for the church and society as a whole of this policy? Give an assessment of the policy of the state in relation to the church and religion.
The Soviet government actively intervened in the affairs of confessions. There was a confiscation of church property, church marriage was not recognized. Already in 1918, a law was passed on the separation of the church from the state and the school from the church. Soon the clergy were deprived of the right to vote, and during the period civil war, industrialization and collectivization were the repression of the clergy. Special department The NKVD classified the "churchmen" as "anti-Soviet elements." There were mass arrests and executions of clergy. The policy towards them softened a little after the church called for the defense of the Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War.
What is culture? There are many answers to this question. In a broad sense, culture is everything that is created by the mind and hands of man. There is a material and spiritual culture, a culture of work, life, etc. The main subject of our consideration is “culture and time”. First of all, we will talk about those events, phenomena, people of culture who vividly reflected their era in its ideas and values, scientific and technical achievements, and artistic monuments.
In the first decades of the XX century. among the European intelligentsia, there were feelings of crisis and disintegration of the surrounding world, a premonition of imminent changes and even the end of the existing order of things. Then the Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev wrote an essay with the remarkable title "The End of Europe", and the German O. Spengler - the book "The Decline of Europe" (literally - "The Decline of the Western World"), which became widely known after the World War. These works debunked the rational-optimistic ideas about European history, the belief in endless progress and the increasing well-being of mankind. Instead, the ideas of a cultural and historical cycle, an inevitable change of cultures, were put forward.
In artistic culture, the position of realism, which was the highest achievement of the 19th century, began to weaken more and more noticeably. Arising at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the new artistic movement was given a name that emphasized its modernity - modernism. It represented different trends and groups that did not have a single ideological and artistic program. Common were the departure from the traditions and ideals of the old art, as well as the search for new artistic forms and means.
A special place in the artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX century. occupied the Art Nouveau style (note the difference between the concepts of "modern" and "modernism"), which has spread in many European countries (in France - under the name "Art Nouveau", in Germany - "Jugendstil", etc.). It was based on the idea that art creates beauty and brings it into life, which in itself is not very good and attractive. One of the means to achieve this goal was considered to be the synthesis of different arts: architecture, arts and crafts, painting, graphics, etc. Art Nouveau masters also widely used combinations of elements of different styles: European and Oriental, modern and traditional. Particularly significant were the achievements of Art Nouveau in architecture, where unusual designs were created. appearance, refined and sometimes ostentatious buildings with comfortable interior layouts. However, for all its artistic expressiveness, Art Nouveau remained a style for the elite and soon gave way to other trends.
The most daring search for new art forms and means of expression led the so-called avant-garde (the French word "avant-garde" means "advanced") currents and groups. Here the poets experimented with the forms and size of the verse (one can recall, for example, the early works of V. V. Mayakovsky), the artists experimented with the color and composition of the paintings. The painters did not set themselves the task of displaying any object close to reality; their paintings often had no plot at all. The decisive role was played by the visions and feelings of the artist himself. Fauvism (translated from French as “wild”), primitivism, expressionism, cubism, and abstractionism became well-known modernist movements during this period. Over the course of two or three decades, they changed, developed into other currents. Many major masters whose names were associated with individual movements (for example, A. Matisse - with Fauvism, M. Chagall - with primitivism, P. Picasso - with Cubism) actually "did not fit" into this narrow and rather arbitrary framework . They did not obey the canons of this or that trend, they improved their own style and manner of painting, which then became models. A notable phenomenon in the modernist movements of the early 20th century. was the work of V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, N. Goncharova, L. Popova and other Russian artists.
Artistic culture of the 1920s–1930s
The World War and the events that followed it brought severe trials and losses to millions of people, shook the foundations of the social order, and gave impetus to attempts at its revolutionary transformation. During this period, both the contradictions that divided people and the aspirations for freedom and justice common to many were revealed. This could not but be reflected in the culture of subsequent decades.
In post-war literature, writers of the “lost generation” occupied a prominent place: the German E. M. Remarque, the American E. Hemingway, the Englishman R. Aldington, and others. They participated in the war and could not forget what they saw and experienced. Showing the life of their heroes in the war, they protested against the terrible extermination of people in their everyday life. At the same time, the cause for which the war was waged was called into question. The English poet R. Brooke wrote about this during the war years: “And if I die, just think that somewhere there is a particle of a foreign land that has become England.” The anti-war orientation of the works of the writers of the "lost generation" caused different attitudes - support from some people and irritation from others. So, the Nazis used the novel by E. M. Remarque “On Western front no change" as a reason for depriving the writer of German citizenship.
Unlike the writers of the "lost generation", who were dominated by a feeling of regret for the lost ideals and values, many figures of European culture saw in the turbulent events of the first decades of the 20th century. implementation of the most important social and political ideas. They were attracted by the active struggle of people against inequality and injustice, for social and national liberation. Such views were shared by the French writers A. Barbusse and R. Rolland, the German G. Mann, the American T. Dreiser, and others. Their heroes did not find a place for themselves in bourgeois society. Some of them fought against this society, as in A. Barbusse's novel "Fire", while others, like Clyde Griffith from "An American Tragedy" by T. Dreiser, sought to break through in it at any cost and died without reaching their goal.
In the literature and art of this trend, features characteristic of modern times - the ideologization and politicization of culture - were noticeably manifested. Many of the artists who belonged to him joined the communist parties, were engaged in political and social activities. Representatives of revolutionary art in different countries united in unions and associations, such as the "Workers' Council for the Arts" in Germany (1918-1919), the "Left Front" in Czechoslovakia (since 1929), the "Union of Proletarian Art" in Japan (1929-1934), etc. .
Some masters of culture, who did not belong to any ideological and artistic associations and political parties, turned to new social ideas believing that they will help overcome the injustice and inhumanity of the existing system. Among them was one of the brightest and most original writers of the 20th century. B. Brecht.
Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956) was born into a wealthy family. Already in his youth, he came to a spontaneous rejection of the burgher, bourgeois way of life, which was reflected in his first plays. In his mature years, Brecht took up the study of Marxist literature. The events of 1929 - early 1930s in Germany, which he witnessed, strengthened him in his rejection of the existing social order. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power, he left Germany. Brecht became widely known for his performances of his plays The Threepenny Opera, The Mother, and others. In them, he partly used the plots of the works of other authors (the plays of the 18th-century English playwright D. Gay, The Beggar's Opera, and M. Gorky's novel, The Mother) , but created original works with his own idea, style, language. They were distinguished by dynamic action, sharp dialogues, included parables, songs, slogans and statements on the topic of the day. So, one of the characters of the Threepenny Opera, a robber-raider, declares in his defense: “What is a master key compared to an action? What is raiding a bank compared to founding a bank?” Behind the paradox and mockery, to which the author often resorted, were hidden “eternal questions” about the life and death of a person, his falls and rises, dreams and failures. Next to the troublemaker artist was a humanist artist. This last feature was especially pronounced in the plays created by Brecht in the late 1930s and early 1940s. a kind person from Cesuan", "Mother Courage and her children".
History of the first decades of the XX century. gave rich food for a special literary genre- social fiction. The authors of such works tried to present in the circumstances they invented, outside the real place and time, the events and models of social relations, the features of which they observed in the surrounding world. In 1920, E. Zamyatin wrote fantasy novel"We", which became one of the first creations in the genre of dystopia (published abroad in 1924). Later, O. Huxley's novels “The Beautiful new world"(1932) and D. Orwell "1984" (1949).
In the novel "We" the action takes place in a "mathematically perfect United State". The life of the heroes, denoted instead of names by "numbers", is strictly regulated in production and at home, in personal relationships and entertainment. Artistic creativity is considered in this society as a "public service", and individual consciousness is considered a disease. Hero D-503 is torn between the rigid rules of the system and the human need for friendship and love. In the finale, he informs the Benefactor ( supreme leader of this society) about those who do not want to obey the existing order, about the “enemies of happiness”, including the woman he loves. Thus, he dooms them to torture and death, but remains faithful to the system. The novel seems to predict the features of the then totalitarian societies that were taking shape.
A striking example of artistic prophecy was the novel by the Czech writer K. Capek "The War with the Salamanders". It tells a fantastic story about how some amphibious creatures, having come into contact with people, gradually capture more and more " living space”, and then, with the help of weapons received from people, they start a war aimed at destroying humanity. An entertaining story with elements of a brilliant parody of the society of that time suddenly became scary because of its resemblance to reality. This impression was strengthened by the fact that part of the story was built in the form of newspaper reports, similar in content to the press publications of those years. K. Capek died in 1938, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, in which much of what he predicted came true. In this regard, one cannot but recall the words of A.P. Chekhov: "A real writer is the same as an ancient prophet: he sees more clearly than ordinary people."
In the fine arts of the 1920s and 1930s, as well as in literature, new trends of both realistic and modernist orientation appeared. One of the most striking manifestations of innovation in realistic art was the Mexican school of monumental painting, created by the artists D. Rivera, X. C. Orozco, D. A. Siqueiros and others.
The founders of the school were contemporaries and participants in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. This formed their attitude to life, to their people, ideological positions. D. Siqueiros emphasized: “Our path was different, completely different than that of the artists of the European avant-garde ...” Starting creative activity, he and his comrades defined their main task as follows: “To create a monumental and heroic art, humanistic and folk, focused on our great masters of the past and the extraordinary culture of pre-Hispanic America!” The implementation of these intentions was facilitated by the cultural policy of the first post-revolutionary governments, which attached great importance to the monumental propaganda of the ideas and gains of the liberation struggle of the peoples of Mexico. Young artists received orders for the design of administrative and public buildings. On the walls and facades of these buildings appeared monumental paintings - frescoes, reflecting the events of history and modernity. Artists denounced the war, the inhumane aspects of bourgeois society, and fascism. Their works combined emotionality, publicism and artistic expressiveness. The themes, images, symbolism of the frescoes were deeply national, the masters of this school continued the traditions of the art of the Indians of Mexico. At the same time, they expressed the feelings of compassion and anger, shock and impulse to freedom inherent in all people. New for the art of that time was the technique of monumental painting invented by the artists.
An active artistic position was complemented by political activities among the representatives of this school. In the early 1920s, the Syndicate of Revolutionary Painters, Sculptors and Engravers was created, proclaiming main task art serving the cause of the revolution. The leaders of the Syndicate D. Siqueiros, D. Rivera, X. Guerrero were elected members of the Central Committee of the Mexican Communist Party. The illustrated newspaper Machete, published by the Syndicate, soon became the official organ of the Communist Party.
Significant changes took place in the 1920s and 1930s in the modernist movement. Many of its representatives, having witnessed the war and social upheavals, sought to escape from reality, hide in their own world. Considering life cruel, unmanageable and meaningless, they decided that art should not display, explain and improve it. Moreover, art is irrational (does not obey reason). These ideas formed the basis of surrealism (“supra-realism”) that arose in the 1920s. Its creators argued that creativity is primarily a reflection of the artist's subconscious feelings.
Surrealists most often depicted on their canvases certain fantasies, random combinations of bodies and objects, often deliberately distorted, deformed. Denial of beauty and harmony, anti-aesthetic were characteristic features of this style. It seemed to complete the transition from the mind to the subconscious, from the search for new forms to chaos. Surrealists sought to shock, shock the public, not S. Dali. Dream. 1937 only with his creativity, but also with eccentric, antisocial behavior. Their ideologue A. Breton declared: "The simplest surrealistic action is to go out into the street with a revolver in your hands and, as much as you have enough strength, shoot anywhere into the crowd." One of the most famous surrealist artists, S. Dali, publicly called his method “critical-paranoid” (nevertheless, in the mid-1930s, the surrealists expelled Dali from their circle for the “too academic” nature of his painting).
Culture in mass society
The formation of a mass society in the industrial countries in the 1920s and 1930s created the conditions for the widespread dissemination of artistic culture. It was positive that works of art turned out to be more accessible to various strata and groups of the population, became part of public life. The costs, according to connoisseurs of art, consisted in replacing unique, high-profile samples with serial, ordinary art products.
New trends visibly manifested themselves during this period in the art that creates the environment for people - architecture. Here, the currents of rational, constructivist architecture stood out, widely spread in many countries, including Russia.
The emergence of new trends had both technological and social prerequisites. In construction technology, it was associated with the use of reinforced concrete structures, continuous glazing of walls, etc. The social order was the need for extensive, mass building of cities. If in the pre-war years architects focused on the design of office buildings, banks, luxurious mansions, now this list has been replenished with projects of apartment buildings, university and school campuses, industrial buildings, stadiums.
Many architects began to create residential complexes, which, along with typical residential buildings, housed public and domestic facilities. In some cases, these were towns surrounded by parklands for representatives of the so-called middle class, in others - quarters for workers. Projects of residential complexes received special support in the Soviet Union, where they were given an ideological justification: it was emphasized that this was “an opportunity to create a single powerful team that unites most public functions in a communal way.” According to such projects, communal houses, demonstration residential complexes with shops, kindergartens, laundries, etc. were built.
In rationalism and constructivism, simplicity, the correspondence of the forms and the internal layout of the building to its purpose were put in the first place. A prominent representative of European rationalism was the French architect C. E. Le Corbusier (1887-1965). It was he who formulated the most concise manifesto of the new trend: "A house is a machine for living." Corbusier's buildings were raised above the ground on special support pillars, they had the correct geometric shape, a well-thought-out layout, "ribbon" windows, and a flat roof designed for laying out a garden.
Factory in Rotterdam Arch. I. A. Brinkman and others 1928-1930
The well-known school of rationalism "Bauhaus" was created by German architects headed by W. Gropius. The Bauhaus style quickly acquired an international character.
In the 1920s and 1930s, cinematography became a mass art form. It was the time of the formation of cinema, each year brought new artistic and technical discoveries. One of the pinnacles of world cinema during this period was the work of the outstanding actor and director Ch. Chaplin.
Charles Spencer Chaplin (1889–1977) Born in London in an acting family, he followed in the footsteps of his parents from a young age. As a young actor, he came to the United States, where he began directing comedy films at one of the studios in Los Angeles. In 1919, together with several actors and directors, he founded the independent film company United Artistes. Chaplin's most famous films: "The Kid" (1920), "Gold Rush" (1925), "Lights big city"(1931)," New Times "(1936). Their hero is a small man in a bowler hat, oversized boots and a cane. Outward comedy, eccentric tricks and sadness of a lonely person, looking for warmth and sympathy, surprisingly coexisted in him. Watching his adventures, the audience both laughed and cried. Perhaps this brought Chaplin worldwide recognition.
The search for something new and significant achievements marked the first steps of Soviet cinema, which turned to themes of great social significance. The works of film director S. M. Eisenstein (1898-1948) gained international fame. His film "Battleship Potemkin" is included by film critics among the ten best films of all time.
In the late 1920s, The Great Silent, as cinema was called, began to speak (the first sound film was released in the United States in 1927). Silent film stars who lacked the necessary acting technique and voice abilities gave way to a new generation of actors, many of whom came from the theater. The game of actors has become more natural, understandable to the audience. Instead of the previous musical accompaniment in the films, music sounded, which helped to reveal the artistic concept and emphasize the dynamics of the action. Music for sound films was written by many famous composers. One of the high standards in this area, which received international recognition, was the music by S. S. Prokofiev for the film "Alexander Nevsky" (1938).
Film production in the USA has gained a special scope. The 1920s and 1930s went down in history as the "golden age" of Hollywood (this film city arose on the outskirts of Los Angeles shortly before the First World War). It has become an international cinema center with great financial and technical capabilities. Actors and directors from many countries came here. But almost unlimited material possibilities did not give absolute creative freedom. The work of filmmakers was strictly regulated by contracts with film studios. The owners of the "dream factory" (as Hollywood was called) knew very well what kind of product they wanted to receive.
In 1930, the Production Code, mandatory for all studios, was adopted in Hollywood. It said:
“Every American film should claim that the way of life in the United States is the only and best thing for any person. One way or another, every film should be optimistic and show little man that somewhere and someday he will grab his happiness by the tail. The film should not turn inside out the dark sides of our lives, should not incite decisive and dynamic passions.
A notable feature of the culture of this period was the widespread use of music. She sounded on the radio, in gramophone records. Partly it was classical music - opera and symphony recordings (among the first were made unique recordings of the great opera singers E. Caruso and F. I. Chaliapin). Symphony orchestras appeared on the radio. But pop and dance music was especially popular. This was the heyday of jazz, which originated in the United States and then spread to many countries. It was based on the rhythms of Negro folk music and improvisation. In the same years, a musical was born - a special kind of performance that combined speech, singing and dancing.
Totalitarianism and culture
A special position developed in the 1920s-1930s in the culture of countries in which totalitarian regimes were established. B. Mussolini, speaking in 1925 at the Congress of the Fascist Party, said: “We want to fascist the nation... Fascism must become a way of life. There must be Italians of the era of fascism, as there were, for example, Italians of the Renaissance. Culture, as well as other spheres of society, fell under the control of the state. In Italy were created state academy and the National Fascist Syndicate visual arts.
In Germany, the Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda, headed by J. Goebbels, organized the Imperial Chamber of Culture, which included seven sections (press, radio, cinema, literature, theater, musical and visual arts). Persons who were not members of the chamber, in essence, were deprived of the right to engage in artistic activities.
The Nazis waged a "battle for culture" using the harshest methods. Already in 1933, exhibitions began to be held under the Roman civilization with very expressive names: “Signs of Decay in Art”, “The 1938 Exhibition of Degenerate Art”, at which the works of modernist artists were declared “degenerate”. Almost 16,000 works by foreign masters were confiscated from German museums: V. Van Gogh, A. Matisse, P. Picasso, V. Kandinsky, M. Chagall and others, as well as German artists, whose manner did not meet the tastes of the Nazis. Sculptural monuments were destroyed, for example, the works of E. Barlach, dedicated to the fallen in the war. They were declared "offensive to the national feelings of the Germans." In architecture, rationalist currents came under fire from criticism, and the world-famous Bauhaus school was closed. For racial reasons, jazz music was banned (in the USSR it was not accepted for another reason - as a manifestation of an alien bourgeois culture).
What was offered instead of the exiled objectionable culture? First of all, what corresponded to the dominant ideology. Monumentalism reigned in art, which was supposed to reflect the greatness of the new society and the “superman” it generated.
The architectural complex in Nuremberg (with an area of 30 sq. km), intended for holding Nazi congresses and celebrations, became a demonstrative building. It included the Palace of Congresses, a stadium for 405 thousand seats with a height of stands over 80 m, etc. The scale of the buildings corresponded to the monumental sculptures of heroes German history, athletes with "Nordic features".
In German painting, having displaced modernist searches and "streams of the subconscious", the national-romantic style was established. Preference was given to the topics “German land”, “German labor”, “German mother”, “ German soldier- Defender of the Motherland. A special place in painting and sculpture was occupied by portraits and narrative paintings depicting leaders. The ideologists of totalitarianism, no worse than American filmmakers, imagined the possibilities of influencing people in cinema. It also established the canons for propaganda documentaries and feature films, not excluding entertainment films intended for the mass audience.
References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.
After the revolution, the country faced numerous tasks in the sphere of spiritual life. Objectively, it was necessary to increase the literacy of the population; take steps to develop new priority areas in science; to train the cadres of scientific, technical and creative intelligentsia, corresponding to the tasks of an industrial society; to ensure the connection of science with production, the use of its results for the needs of industrialization. At the same time, the authorities needed to assert their ideological influence in society. To solve this problem, it was supposed to actively use the possibilities of literature, art, and the humanities.
Already in the years of the civil war, work began to eliminate the illiteracy of the country's population. The society “Down with illiteracy” was created, the leadership of which included the head of the legislative branch M. I. Kalinin, the leader of the party and chairman of the government V. I. Lenin, the People’s Commissar of Education A. V. Lunacharsky and others. Thousands of new schools were opened across the country where both children and adults were taught basic literacy skills (reading, numeracy, writing). Activities in this direction gave an impressive result - by the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, more than 80% of the country's population was literate.
By the mid 1930s. In general, the Soviet education system took shape, which included primary, general secondary, secondary specialized and higher education. In the pre-war years, the transition to compulsory universal seven-year education was completed and the task of transition to universal secondary education in urban centers and seven-year education in rural areas and national regions was set. The network of universities in the country has grown more than 8 times and amounted to 817 universities and institutes. As a result, the number of specialists in the USSR increased from 1.5 million in 1917 to 20 million in 1941.
At the same time, the ideological control over the activities and mindsets of the intelligentsia was quite strict. In the late 20's - early 30's. demonstrative trials took place: the Shakhty case, the “case of academicians”, the case of the Labor Peasant Party, etc. In the early 30s. the creation of mass public organizations began, uniting the intelligentsia and putting it under the control of the party: the Union of Writers, the Union of Composers, the Union of Architects, the Union of Artists, the All-Union Society of Inventors, etc.
At the same time, the state allocated huge funds for the development scientific research, especially in fundamental areas of knowledge. As a result, important discoveries were made in the study atomic nucleus(A.F. Ioffe), the development of the theory of space flights (K.E. Tsiolkovsky), the theory of jet propulsion (F.A. Zander). Great importance was attached to the development of the Northern Sea Route and the study of the Arctic (O. Yu. Schmidt, I. D. Papanin). The works of I. P. Pavlov in the field of physiology have received worldwide recognition. N. I. Vavilov was recognized as the world's largest specialist in genetics. The encyclopedic scientist V. I. Vernadsky created fundamental works on the theory of the biosphere. A significant breakthrough was made by Soviet specialists in the field of aircraft construction (A. N. Tupolev) and rocket science (S. P. Korolev). Pilots (V. P. Chkalov, G. F. Baidukov, A. V. Belyakov, M. M. Gromov, V. S. Grizodubova, M. I. Raskova, P. A. Osipenko, V. K. Kokkinaki), who tested new models of aviation equipment in the prewar years and made non-stop flights to Far East, North Pole, in America.
However, many scientists were forced to leave the country during the years of the civil war and after it, as they did not want to put up with the new political regime. Herself Soviet authority initiated the expulsion of the largest representatives of the intellectuals in the humanities, representing the pre-revolutionary scientific school - P. A. Sorokin, N. A. Berdyaev and others. Many of the remaining scientists (A. F. Losev, P. A. Florensky and others) were subjected to repression for political reasons.
Since the mid 30s. a new stage in the development of artistic culture begins. The method of socialist realism becomes official and the only acceptable one. He meant the creation of works that reveal the issues of socialist construction and view the surrounding reality through this prism.
In the literature of the 30s. along with the names of A. M. Gorky (who returned to the country after emigration), A. N. Tolstoy, and other writers with pre-revolutionary fame, new names appeared - M. A. Sholokhov (“Quiet Don”), M. S. Shaginyan (“ Hydrocentral”), V.P. Kataev (“Time, forward!”), I. Ilf and E. Petrov (“The Twelve Chairs”, “The Golden Calf”). Soviet children's literature was formed, represented by the works of S. Ya. Marshak, K. I. Chukovsky, A. P. Gaidar, B. S. Zhitkov, and others.
A feature of the fine arts was the predominance of ceremonial painting, as well as paintings on the themes of the revolution and civil war, the construction of socialism. The recognized masters of this direction were S. V. Gerasimov (“Collective Farm Holiday”), K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (“Death of the Commissar”), A. A. Deineka (“Defense of Petrograd”), M. M. Grekov (“ Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army”), B.V. Ioganson (“Interrogation of the Communists”).
The musical life of the country was inextricably linked with the names of the largest composers S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, A. I. Khachaturian, T. N. Khrennikov, D. B. Kabalevsky, I. O. Dunaevsky and others.
A technical revolution took place in the cinema - domestic film and film equipment appeared, a series of large film studios opened. The first Soviet sound film was the painting by N. V. Ekk “A ticket to life”. The main theme of the cinema was the life of Soviet people, their participation in the events of the revolution (“Deputy of the Baltic” by I. E. Kheifits and A. G. Zarkhi; “October” by S. M. Eisenstein; “Lenin in October” and “Lenin in 1918” "M. I. Romm), civil war ("We are from Kronstadt" by E. L. Dzigan; trilogy about Maxim G. M. Kozintsev and L. Z. Trauberg; "Chapaev" S. and G. Vasiliev), industrialization and collectivization, the development of remote areas of the country (“Seven Brave”, “Komsomolsk” by S. A. Gerasimov). The first musical comedies "Merry Fellows" and "Volga-Volga" (G. V. Aleksandrov), historical films "Peter the Great" (V. M. Petrov), "Alexander Nevsky" (S. M. Eisenstein) were released.
Thus, in the 1920-30s. the country has made significant progress in the development of science, education and culture. The illiteracy of the main part of the population was eliminated. A unified system of national education took shape. A new engineering, technical and creative intelligentsia has been formed. The largest discoveries were made in the fundamental fields of science, development, and technical thought received. At the same time, culture, science and education were placed under state control. The ideological influence on their activities has increased significantly. Many representatives of science, culture and art were repressed, and some bright works of art never reached the reader and viewer (the novels by M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, A. P. Platonov “The Juvenile Sea”, “The Pit”, "Chevengur"; paintings by P. N. Filonov, K. S. Malevich and others).
With the end of the Civil War and the transition to the NEP, new trends in the development of culture emerged. In the context of the liberalization of the public sphere, the activity of the intelligentsia increased. Public debates were held on the role of religion, on the fate of the intelligentsia in new Russia. The activities of previously created learned societies(philosophical, historical). New public associations arose - scientific, creative, cultural and educational. Thousands of people, for example, participated in the work of the International Organization for the Relief of the Fighters of the Revolution (IOPR), in patronage workers' organizations, the society of friends of the radio, etc. The process of liberalizing public life was inconsistent and contradictory. The leaders of the country feared that freedom of opinion could lead to the expansion of the activities of opponents of the Soviet regime. In order to oppose bourgeois ideology, political schools, Soviet party schools, and communal universities were organized. To propagate Marxist philosophy and combat philosophical idealism, the Society of Militant Materialists was created (1924). From the mid-1920s, the work of private publishing houses, as well as public organizations, began to be limited. Control was established over the press, the activities of publishing houses, the repertoire of cinema and theaters. From the end of the 1920s, state authorities increased control over the development of the spiritual life of society. There have been changes in the structure of the governing bodies of culture. The leadership of its individual branches was transferred to specialized committees (for high school, on radio and broadcasting, etc.). A.S. Bubnov, who had previously been in leadership work in the Red Army system, was appointed the new people's commissar of education. Prospects for the development of culture began to be determined by five-year national economic plans. The discussion of issues of cultural construction took place at congresses and plenums of the Central Committee of the Party. In the activities of party and state bodies great place occupied the work aimed at overcoming the bourgeois ideology and the establishment of Marxism in the minds of people. the main role in the unfolding socio-political struggle, it was assigned to the social sciences, press, literature and art. The resolutions of the Central Committee of the party “On the journal “Under the banner of Marxism” and “On the work of the Communist Academy” (1931) outlined the tasks and main directions for the development of the social sciences. They were required to overcome the gap between science and the practice of socialist construction. The resolution formulated the thesis of "aggravation of the class struggle on the theoretical front." Following this, the search for "class enemies" began on the "historical front", on the musical and literary "fronts". The historians E. V. Tarle and S. F. Platonov, and the literary critic D. S. Likhachev were accused of “counter-revolutionary sabotage”. In the 1930s, many talented writers, poets, and artists were repressed (P. N. Vasiliev, O. E. Mandelstam, and others). The transfer of the forms and methods of the class struggle to the sphere of culture had negative impact on the spiritual life of society.
In the 1920s, one of the central directions of cultural policy was the work to eliminate illiteracy among the population. On the eve of October 1917, about three-quarters of the entire adult population of Russia could neither read nor write. There were especially many illiterates in rural areas and national outskirts. From the end of 1918, the reorganization of the system began. public education. Gymnasiums, real schools, parochial and zemstvo schools were liquidated. In their place, a single labor school for the whole country was created from two stages (with a training period of five years and four years). Tuition has been cancelled. At the end of 1919, the government adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of Russia." The law obligated all citizens aged 8 to 50 who could not read and write to learn to read and write in their native language or Russian. Those who evade this duty could be prosecuted. The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created. Together with the People's Commissariat of Education, she led the work that was unfolding in the country to teach the population to read and write. In cities and rural areas, literacy centers were created to teach reading and writing. The transformations affected higher education. New rules for admission to universities were introduced. Students were enrolled without exams and without secondary education documents. Young workers and peasants enjoyed the advantages in entering universities. In 1919, in order to improve general education for applicants to universities, workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created. The reform of higher education was supposed to contribute to the creation of a new, worker-peasant intelligentsia. During the years of the pre-war five-year plans, work continued to eliminate illiteracy and semi-literacy, to raise the cultural level of the Soviet people. A unified plan for teaching reading and writing to the adult illiterate population was drawn up. The year 1930 was an important milestone in the work aimed at turning the USSR into a literate country. Compulsory universal primary (four-year) education was introduced. Significant funds were allocated for school construction. During the years of the second five-year plan alone, more than 3,600 new schools were opened in cities and workers' settlements; more than 15 thousand schools began to operate in rural areas. The tasks of the country's industrial development demanded everything more competent and qualified personnel. However, educational level workers was low: the average duration of their schooling was 3.5 years. The percentage of illiterate workers reached almost 14%. A gap has developed between the general education of the workers, the level of their general culture, and the needs of the national economy. A network has been set up to improve staff training industrial training: technical schools, courses and circles to improve technical literacy. Measures were taken to develop the system of secondary specialized and higher education. Restrictions were abolished for "class alien elements" when entering universities. The workers' faculties were liquidated. The network of higher educational institutions has expanded. By the beginning of the 1940s, there were 4.6 thousand universities in the country.
Attention was paid to restoring the scientific potential of the country. New research institutes were opened. Among them are the Physico-Chemical, Physico-Technical (now - named after Academician A.F. Ioffe), Central Aerohydrodynamic (TsAGI) institutes. Well-known scientists took part in the organization of new research centers: a major theorist in the field of aviation N. E. Zhukovsky, physicist A. F. Ioffe and others. Institute of Scientific Information on Social Sciences - INION). Under the conditions of the Civil War, famine and lack of resources, the return on the work of research institutes was small. The government made attempts to improve the life of scientists by introducing natural rations and increased salaries. But these measures were episodic and could not change the plight of scientific personnel. Only after the end of the civil war did the conditions for the formation of science appear. New institutions were founded in the system Russian Academy Sciences, which since 1925 became known as the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In the 1930s, work continued on the creation of research centers, branch science developed. The Institutes of Organic Chemistry, Geophysics, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL). Research was carried out on problems of microphysics (P. L. Kapitsa), semiconductor physics (A. F. Ioffe), and the atomic nucleus (I. V. Kurchatov, G. N. Flerov, A. I. Alikhanov, and others). The works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky in the field of rocket technology became scientific basis to create the first experimental rockets. The research of the chemist S. V. Lebedev made it possible to organize industrial way production of synthetic rubber. Shortly before the start of the Great Patriotic War, under the leadership of A.P. Aleksandrov, methods were invented to protect ships from magnetic mines.
The artistic life of the 1920s was difficult - in the struggle of artistic views and systems. Literary groupings of futurists, Lefists, and constructivists came forward with their declarations. What they had in common was a view of art as a means of transforming the world. Writers and poets who broke with Proletcult (M. P. Gerasimov, V. V. Kazin, I. N. Sadofiev, and others) organized the literary association "Forge" (after the name of the magazine of the same name). The group declared itself the only organization expressing the interests of the revolutionary working class. In the early 1920s, Russian and Moscow proletarian writers' associations (RAPP and MAPP) arose. The leaders of both organizations saw the purpose of the writers they united in influencing the reader in the direction of the communist tasks of the proletariat.
Identical processes took place in the sphere of musical life. For the reflection in the work of composers of themes related to the creation of a new society, she advocated Russian association proletarian musicians (RAPM). The associations showed intolerance towards the so-called non-proletarian writers and composers. The struggle for the "purity" of proletarian art was led by the Russian Association of Proletarian Artists (RAPH).
Beginning in the second half of the 1920s, literature and art were seen as one of the means of communist enlightenment and education of the masses. It was this that explained the intensification of the struggle against "counter-revolutionary" ideas and "bourgeois theories" in the sphere of artistic life. At the turn of the 1920s–1930s, the number of literary associations. The groups "Pass", "Lef" (Left Front of Art), the All-Russian Union of Writers, the Union of Peasant Writers, the Constructivist Literary Center (LCC) and others were active. They held their congresses, had printed organs. In 1932, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations” was adopted. In accordance with it, all literary groups were abolished. Writers and poets united in a single creative union (it consisted of 2.5 thousand people). In August 1934, the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers took place. A. M. Gorky made a report on the tasks of literature. Following the all-Union congress, writers' congresses were also held in some Union republics and writers' unions were created as branches of the All-Union. Among the leaders of the USSR Writers' Union in the 1930s were A. M. Gorky and A. A. Fadeev. The Union of Soviet Composers was created. With the emergence of creative unions, relative freedom was eliminated artistic creativity. Questions of literature and art were discussed on the pages of newspapers as a matter of fundamental importance. The main creative method of literature and art became socialist realism, the most important principle of which was partisanship.
At the turn of the 1920s–1930s, a new generation of poets and composers entered literature and art. Many of them participated in the development of songwriting. The authors of the songs were the poets V. I. Lebedev-Kumach, M. V. Isakovsky, A. A. Prokofiev. Composers I. O. Dunaevsky, the Pokrass brothers, A. V. Aleksandrov worked in the song genre. In the 1930s, the poetry of A. A. Akhmatova, B. L. Pasternak, K. M. Simonov, V. A. Lugovsky, N. S. Tikhonov, B. P. Kornilov, A. A. Prokofiev received wide recognition . Best Traditions Russian poetry was continued in his work by P. N. Vasiliev (the poems “Christolyubov Prints” and “Salt Riot”) and A. T. Tvardovsky (the poem “Country of the Ant”). A notable phenomenon in literary life were the works of A. N. Tolstoy, A. A. Fadeev.
The industrialization of the country in the late 1920s - early 1930s contributed to the development of mass urban planning and the formation of Soviet architecture. Near the factories, workers' settlements were built with a system of cultural and community services, schools and children's institutions. Palaces of culture, workers' clubs and health resorts were built. New architectural solutions were proposed by I. V. Zholtovsky, I. A. Fomin, A. V. Shchusev, and the Vesnin brothers. The architects sought to create Soviet architectural forms that would correspond to the tasks of building a new society.
Integral part national culture The 1920s–1930s is the work of representatives of the artistic and scientific intelligentsia who found themselves abroad. By the end of the Civil War, the number of emigrants from Soviet Russia reached 1.5 million people. In subsequent years, emigration continued. Almost two thirds total number persons who left Russia settled in France, Germany and Poland. Many emigrants settled in the countries of North and South America, in Australia. Cut off from their homeland, they sought to preserve their cultural traditions. Several Russian publishing houses were founded abroad. Newspapers and magazines in Russian were printed in Paris, Berlin, Prague and some other cities. Books by I. A. Bunin, M. I. Tsvetaeva, V. F. Khodasevich, I. V. Odoevtseva, G. V. Ivanov were published. Many prominent scientists-philosophers ended up in emigration. Being far from their homeland, they tried to comprehend the place and role of Russia in the history and culture of mankind. N. S. Trubetskoy, L. P. Karsavin and others became the founders of the Eurasian movement. The program document of the Eurasians "Exodus to the East" spoke of Russia's belonging to two cultures and two worlds - Europe and Asia. Due to its special geopolitical position, they believed, Russia (Eurasia) represented a special historical and cultural community, different from both the East and the West. One of scientific centers Russian emigration was the Economic Cabinet of S. N. Prokopovich. The economists who united around him analyzed the socio-economic processes in Soviet Russia in the 1920s, published scientific works on this topic. Many representatives of the emigration returned to their homeland in the late 1930s, others remained abroad, and their work became known in Russia only several decades later.