Social interaction. What is society - Knowledge Hypermarket The nature of the social interactions described in the paragraph
- When studying society, you should remember that the first condition for developing your own position on various issues of social development is the understanding that social problems arise and are solved as a result of the interaction of individuals, groups, organizations. It is important to understand the direction of the joint actions of people, to identify the nature of the relationship between them.
- When studying society, we must not forget that it largely depends on nature. natural conditions in which there are different countries and peoples, space phenomena, natural disasters with devastating consequences, epidemics that span entire continents - all this has an impact on the life of society. But it is impossible not to take into account the results of society's impact on the natural environment, which have disastrous consequences for humanity.
- Culture enables society to resist dangers. How better man owns the achievements of culture, the more successfully he is able to solve the problems that arise before him.
- Social Sciences not only allow to satisfy the curiosity inherent in people, but also help a person who has mastered their basics to navigate in a complex, rapidly changing world, more accurately determine the possibilities and ways to achieve success in life and work.
Document
Reflections on the society of the Russian sociologist, the founder of the Russian and American sociological schools P. A. Sorokin from the book “Man, Civilization. Society".
Since we are talking about society, we thereby assume the presence of not one unit, not one being, but at least several. The unit of society does not constitute. Hence, society means, first of all, the totality of several units (individuals, beings, individuals). Now let us imagine that these units (individuals, individuals) are absolutely bottled up and have no relations with each other. Will there be society in this case? Obviously not. Hence the conclusion: society means not only the totality of several units (individuals, individuals, etc.), but also assumes that these units are not isolated from each other, but are located among themselves in interaction process, that is, they have one or another influence on each other, are in contact with each other and have one or another connection with each other. In other words, the concept of society presupposes not only the presence of several units, but it is also required that the units interact with each other.
All interacting centers and all processes of interaction can be divided into three main forms: 1) "inorganic" interacting centers and physical-chemical interaction (the inorganic world), studied by physical and chemical sciences; 2) living "organic" interacting centers and biological interaction (organic world, life phenomena) studied by the biological sciences; 3) finally, interacting centers endowed with the psyche, consciousness, and mental interaction, that is, the exchange of ideas, feelings, acts of will(phenomena of culture, the world of sociality), studied by the social sciences.
Questions and tasks for the document
- Why is a collection of individuals isolated from each other not a society?
- Why does P. A. Sorokin believe that mental interactions are the subject of study of the social sciences?
- Explain the nature of the described in paragraph social interactions, using the text of Sorokin-
Questions for self-examination
- What should be understood by society in the narrow and broad sense of the word?
- What is the relationship between society and nature? What is the specific social phenomena?
- What is the feature human activity?
- What is the connection between the joint activities of people and the forms of their association?
- What kind of relationship can be considered social?
- Explain the different meanings of the concept of "culture".
- What do researchers refer to as cultural universals?
- What sciences study society?
Tasks
- An argument ensued in one of the lessons. Nikolai argued that man appeared first, and then society. Olga objected to him: a person becomes a person only in society, therefore society arose first, and then a person. What do you think? Justify your point of view.
- The Roman philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) said: “We are born to live together; our society is a vault of stones that would collapse if one did not support the other.” How do you understand this statement? Compare it with the definition of society given in the textbook. Do these characteristics match? If the modern definition of society differs from that given by the ancient philosopher, then what are the differences?
- L. N. Tolstoy wrote: “If people interfere with you, then you have no reason to live. Leaving people is suicide." What thought in the educational text is consonant with this statement of the writer? Why do you think so?
- Are the so-called negative values (rules of conduct in a criminal community, the production of pornography, etc.) cultural phenomena? Justify your conclusion.
Thoughts of the wise
“Nature creates man, but society develops and shapes him.”
B. G. Belinsky (1811 - 1848), Russian literary critic
"? Is it possible to separate society from nature? Are there "uncivilized" societies?
At first glance, it seems that the answer to the question posed in the title of the paragraph is not difficult. Indeed, the concept of "society" has long and firmly entered our scientific and everyday vocabulary. But as soon as we attempt to give it a definition, we are immediately convinced that there can be many such definitions. For example, "society of book lovers", "noble society", "pedagogical society". In this case, by society we mean a certain group of people united for communication, joint activities, mutual assistance and support to each other.
But another row is also possible. related concepts: "primitive society", "feudal society", "French society". Here already, using the concept of "society", we have in mind a certain stage historical development humanity or a particular country. If we continue to move in accordance with this logic of reasoning (from the particular to the general), then humanity as a whole, the totality of all peoples in their historical and future development, can also be a society. This is the entire population of the earth. In other words, society is a part of the world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.
This definition reveals the concept of "society" in a broad sense. Let's try to understand this in more detail.
SOCIETY AS A JOINT ACTIVITIES OF PEOPLE
Let's start with the second part of the above definition. Society is a collection of people. However, this is not a simple sum of individuals included in it, which are sometimes called "social atoms", but held together by numerous connections and relationships. The fundamental basis of these connections is human activity. In the process of joint activity there is an interaction between its participants.
All living beings interact with the environment (with nature, other living beings). Outwardly, this is manifested in noticeable movements (motor activity). But there is also an internal (mental) activity that affects behavior. For example, many facts are known that speak of a dog's attachment to its owner. In the literature, a case is described when a dog continued to go to the station for several years by the time the train arrived, on which its deceased owner had previously returned from work.
Note that animals adapt to the environment. At the same time, they can use individual objects as tools and even make primitive tools with the help of paws and teeth. Animals use these items to obtain food, defense, building a home, that is, to satisfy their vital needs. The possibilities of animal behavior are determined by the structure of their body, the natural conditions in which they live. (Remember how monkeys, beavers, birds, and other living creatures use primitive tools.)
In turn, human activity has a practical-transformative character. A person is not limited to adapting to existing natural and social conditions, although adaptive behavior takes great place and in his life. (Remember, for example, the influence geographical conditions, the value of legal and moral norms, customs, traditions.) However, adaptation is not the limit of human capabilities. Human activity is not limited to adapting to the environment, but transforming it. For this, not only natural objects are used, but, first of all, means created by man himself (tools of labor).
Both the behavior of animals and human activity are consistent with a specific goal (i.e., they are expedient). For example, a predator hides in an ambush or sneaks towards a prey; its behavior is consistent with the goal of obtaining food. The bird flies away from the nest with a cry, distracting the attention of a person. But compare: a person builds a house, all his actions in this case are also expedient. However, for a predator, the goal is, as it were, set by its natural qualities and external conditions. At the heart of his behavior is a biological program of behavior, instincts. Human activity is characterized by historically developed (as a generalization of the experience of previous generations) programs. At the same time, a person himself determines his goal (carries out goal-setting). He is able to go beyond the program, i.e., existing experience, to define new programs (goals and ways to achieve them). Thus, goal-setting is inherent only in human activity.
Human activity is the fundamental principle, the starting point of the relationships and relationships that arise in society. However, the life of society is not limited to activities. It itself is generated by the material and spiritual needs, interests, value orientations of people.
An important condition for human life is collectivity. Man, in fact, is a social being, whose life is provided by cooperation, interaction with other people. A person needs this no less than food or tools. Let us recall a fact known to you from the basic school course: not only human activity requires cooperation with other people, but the very transformation of a child into a person requires being in the environment of people, communicating with his own kind. The cases of a person's survival in isolation from society described in the literature are explained only by the fact that he could use, if not objects created in the joint activity of people, then at least the knowledge and experience gained in society.
The interaction of people in the process of activity gives rise to various forms of their association. Therefore, society can be understood not only as a set of certain types joint activity, but also as a set of various forms of their association for this activity: primary collectives, social groups, public organizations, and also as a network of relations between them.
Every sphere public life also complex education. Its constituent elements give an idea of society as a whole. It is no coincidence that some researchers consider society at the level of organizations operating in it (state, church, education system, etc.), others - through the prism of the interaction of social communities. A person enters society through a collective, being simultaneously a member of several collectives (labor, trade union, sports, etc.). Society is presented as a collective of collectives.
A person is also included in larger communities of people - a social group, class, nation.
The various connections between social groups, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity, are called public relations.
But not all connections that arise between people in the process of communication or joint activities are classified as social relations. Indeed, imagine that you are in a crowded bus: someone is interested in when the stop he needs will be, someone asks to give way. The contacts arising in these situations are random, episodic, and they are not classified as social relations.
Let's turn to another situation. You came to get a job. You will have to present a number of documents, perhaps pass an interview, conclude an agreement, which stipulates all the basic conditions of employment. And everyone who solves the same problem as you goes through similar procedures. Such relationships - steadily repeating, largely impersonal (formal), affecting important aspects of people's lives - are called public.
We will return to the study of society later. Let us now consider the relationship between society and nature.
SOCIETY AND NATURE
Society is a part of the world isolated from nature (in this case, nature means the totality of the natural conditions of human existence). What is this isolation? Unlike elemental natural forces, a person with consciousness and will is at the center of social development. Nature exists and develops according to its own laws independent of man and society. There is one more circumstance: human society acts as a creator, reformer, creator of culture. The very concept of culture in the broadest sense means everything created by man: it is a second nature created by man, which, as it were, is built on top of natural nature. All this gives rise to the idea that man and society in their activities are opposed to nature. Attitude towards nature as something unformed, lower than culture, puts a person in the position of a conqueror, conqueror of nature. Let us recall the well-known words of Turgenev's hero Bazarov: “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop. The person in it is a worker. What this installation has led to today is well known. Dangerous for human life pollution of its environment, the gradual depletion of natural resources caused an ecological crisis, created a threat to the very existence of mankind.
Today it is important to realize the inseparable connection between nature and society.
On the one hand, the natural environment, geographical and climatic features have a significant impact on social progress, accelerating or slowing down the pace of development of countries and peoples, influencing the social division of labor.
On the other hand, society also affects the natural environment of man. The history of mankind testifies both to the beneficial effect of human activities on the natural habitat, and to its detrimental consequences. So, at one time, the swamps around Florence were drained, which later became flowering lands. Orchards and vineyards on the slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, as well as beautiful groves on the islands Pacific Ocean, is the work of human hands. At the same time, there are cases when herds of domestic animals trampled the soil and ate young shoots. For example, it was said about ancient Greece that its power was “eaten up” by bred goats.
Prominent Italian scientist and public figure of the twentieth century. A. Peccei wrote: “It is well known that, having increased his power over Nature, man immediately imagined himself as the undivided master of the Earth and immediately began to exploit it, neglecting the fact that its size and biophysical resources are quite finite. Now it is also understood that as a result of such uncontrolled human activity, the once generous and abundant biological life of the planet was severely damaged, its best soils were partially exterminated, and valuable agricultural lands are increasingly built up and covered with asphalt and concrete roads, which many the most accessible mineral wealth, that man-made pollution can now be found literally everywhere, even at the poles and at the bottom of the ocean, and that now the consequences of all this are manifested in the climate and other physical characteristics of the planet.
Of course, all this causes deep anxiety, but we do not know to what extent this disturbs the balance and upsets the cycles necessary for the evolution of life in general; how many irreversible changes we have already caused and which of them may affect our own lives now or in the future; it is also unknown what stocks of the main non-renewable resources we can realistically count on and how many renewable resources and under what conditions we can safely use. Since the Earth's "carrying capacity" is clearly not unlimited, there are obviously some biophysical limits, or "outer limits", for expanding not only human activity, but also its presence on the planet in general.
So, returning to the definition of the concept of society with which we began our reasoning, let us clarify: speaking of the isolation of society from nature, we mean its inherent special features, but not isolation from nature and the processes of its natural development.
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
The word "culture" is used as often as the words "society" and "nature". At the same time, culture is most often understood as any achievements of mankind in the spiritual field: artistic creations, scientific discoveries, as well as the level of spiritual requests individual person, its worthy behavior. A cultured person is an educated person with good taste literary language who is interested in highly artistic works of art, etc.
This interpretation of culture is quite appropriate. However, as in the case of society, this concept has many meanings. Speaking about the interaction of society and nature, we have already mentioned culture, defining it as a "second nature" created by man. Thus, in the broadest sense of the word, culture encompasses all types of transformative human activity, aimed not only at external environment, but also on him. This is more in line with the original meaning of the word, which comes from the Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education.
What do we attribute to the created, "cultivated" by man? These are built buildings, and written books, and sown fields, and means of communication and communication, and established traditions, and generally accepted moral norms, and personal convictions, and much, much more. Thus, the world of culture is both material and spiritual results of human activity.
From what has been said, it is obvious that without culture we would not be people, but would remain only a community of individuals of a certain biological species. People act on the basis of cultural norms (morality, law, customs and traditions), change under the influence of cultural property(remember the “educational” meaning of the word “culture”), accumulate and pass on to other generations the achievements of culture, create its new forms and meanings.
Even the natural manifestations of our lives are transformed under the influence of culture. For example, we satisfy the need for food precisely in those ways that are enshrined in modern society certain norms: in most cases, we buy products in the store (someone uses the possibility of personal farming), process (if it is not a finished product) on the stove, in the oven, serve the cooked dish on a plate and eat it using at least spoons .
The culture is characterized by historicity and great diversity. For a deeper study of the world of culture, researchers identify its types, forms, components and create various classifications. It is generally accepted that culture is divided into material (buildings, vehicles, household items, appliances and equipment, etc.) and spiritual (knowledge, language, symbols, values, rules and norms, and much more).
This division is rather conditional. It is clear that behind every completely material thing there are certain forms of labor organization, the intention of the creators, often complex calculations and mathematical calculations, that is, phenomena related to spiritual culture. At the same time, the fruits of spiritual activity are most often materialized: artistic images come to life on the pages of a book, a religious idea is embodied in the construction of a temple.
Many peoples who inhabited our planet in the past and live today differed and differ from each other primarily in their original culture. And this applies not only to linguistic differences, religious views or artistic creativity. The originality is manifested in traditions and rituals, in the family way of life and attitude towards children, in the manner of communication and preferences in food, and in many other things. At the same time, it is possible to understand the individual elements of the culture of a particular society only within the framework of its entire culture. One American sociologist gives the following example: people in Western countries are distinguished by a particularly reverent attitude towards oral hygiene. From the point of view of a representative of another culture, the ritual of regular brushing of teeth “with a tuft of bristles coated with magic powder” looks no less strange than the custom of some tribes to knock out their front teeth for beauty or protrude their lips with the help of special plates for the same purpose.
At the same time, researchers who have studied the cultures of various peoples have come to the conclusion that all cultures have some common features or forms. They have been called cultural universals. These include, in particular, the presence of a language with a certain grammatical structure, the institution of marriage and family, and religious rituals. All cultures have norms related to caring for children. Almost all nations have a ban on incest - sexual relations between close relatives.
But even these few universals are refracted in their own way in the culture of different societies. So, most of them today reject polygamy, while in a number of Muslim countries this is a legal norm.
About many cultures “inside. national culture you will learn in later chapters of the tutorial.
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Social life, as we have already seen, is complex and multifaceted, therefore it is studied by many sciences, called social sciences (history, philosophy, sociology, political science, jurisprudence, ethics, aesthetics, etc.). Each of them considers a certain area of public life. Thus, jurisprudence explores the essence and history of the state and law. The subject of ethics is the norms of morality, aesthetics - the laws of art, artistic creativity of people. The most general knowledge about society as a whole is provided by such sciences as philosophy and sociology.
We have already noted that society, in comparison with nature, has its own specifics. “In all areas of nature ... a certain regularity dominates, independent of the existence of thinking humanity,” wrote the greatest physicist M. Planck (1858-1947). Society, on the other hand, is nothing more than a collection of people endowed with will and consciousness, performing actions and deeds under the influence of certain interests, motives, and moods.
Do objective laws of development, that is, independent of people's consciousness, operate in social reality? Is it possible to study social life, abstracting from the diversity of views, interests, intentions of people? If not, is it possible to recognize social science as a science that provides accurate and objective knowledge about the world?
These questions have long been faced by researchers of social life. And the answers to them were given and given different. So, some philosophers proceed from the fact that social phenomena are subject to laws common to all reality, and in their knowledge one can use the exact methods of social research, and sociology as a science should be free from ties with ideology, which requires separation in the course of a specific study of real facts from their subjective assessments. Within the framework of another philosophical direction, an attempt was made to eliminate the confrontation between objective phenomena and the person who knows them. Proponents of this direction seek to comprehend the social world in relation to the goals, ideas and motives of really acting people. Thus, the “experiencing” person himself and his perception of the world through the prism of the individual’s attitude towards him are at the center of the study.
Who is right in this dispute?
Let's not rush to answer.
PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS
1 When studying society, you should remember: the first condition for developing your own position on various issues of social development is the understanding that social problems arise and are solved as a result of the interaction of individuals, groups, organizations. It is important to understand the direction of the joint actions of people, to identify the nature of the relationship between them.
2 When studying society, we must not forget that it largely depends on nature. The natural conditions in which different countries and peoples are located, cosmic phenomena, natural disasters with devastating consequences, epidemics covering entire continents - all this has an impact on the life of society. But it is impossible not to take into account the results of society's impact on the natural environment, which have disastrous consequences for humanity.
3 Culture enables society to withstand dangers. The better a person owns the achievements of culture, the more successfully he is able to solve the problems that arise before him.
4 Social sciences not only allow to satisfy the curiosity inherent in people, but also help a person who has mastered their fundamentals to navigate in a complex, rapidly changing world, to more accurately determine the possibilities and ways to achieve success in life and work.
Document
Reflections on the society of the Russian sociologist, the founder of the Russian and American sociological schools P. A. Sorokin from the book “Man. Civilization. Society" .
Since we are talking about society, we thereby assume the presence of not one unit, not one being, but at least several. The unit of society does not constitute. Hence, society means, first of all, the totality of several units (individuals, beings, individuals). Now let us imagine that these units (individuals, individuals) are absolutely bottled up and have no relations with each other. Will there be society in this case? Obviously not. Hence the conclusion: society means not only the totality of several units (individuals, individuals, etc.), but also assumes that these units are not isolated from each other, but are in the process of interaction with each other, that is, they have one or another effect on each other. different influence, are in contact with each other and have one or another connection with each other. In other words, the concept of society presupposes not only the presence of several units, but it is also required that the units interact with each other.
All interacting centers and all processes of interaction can be divided into three main forms: 1) (teorganic) interacting centers and physical-chemical interaction (the inorganic world), studied by physical-chemical sciences; 2) living "organic" interacting centers and biological interaction (organic world, life phenomena), studied by the biological sciences; 3) finally, interacting centers endowed with the psyche, consciousness, and mental interaction, that is, the exchange of ideas, feelings, volitional acts (phenomena of culture, the world of sociality), studied by the social sciences.
Questions and tasks for the document
1. Why is a set of individuals isolated from each other not a society?
2. Why does P. A. Sorokin believe that mental interactions are the subject of study of the social sciences?
3. Explain the nature of the social interactions described in the paragraph using Sorokin's text.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS
1. What should be understood by society in the narrow and broad sense of the word?
Lesson in social science on the topic "What is society"Purpose: to get acquainted with the essence and characteristics of human society, to identify the specifics of social relations.
Subject: social science.
Grade: 10.
Date: "____" ____.20___
Teacher: Khamatgaleev E.R.
I. Communication of the topic and purpose of the lesson.
II. Presentation of the program material.
Storytelling with elements of conversation
Introduction
You are holding a book in your hands, which, in a compressed form, contains key questions social and humanitarian knowledge. Perhaps you, who have chosen a class or school of a natural-mathematical or technological profile, will have a question: “Why should I return to them again? After all, I am going to be not a historian, not a philosopher or a sociologist, but an engineer, a researcher in the field of mathematics, natural science, technology. The best answer to this question was given at the end of the 20th century. famous scientist in the field of natural sciences, academician Nikita Nikolaevich Moiseev: “The more years I have been engaged in natural sciences, the more I lack liberal education, and I can clearly trace how, as my "humanitarian qualification" increased, both the scale of my natural scientific interests and the scale of values changed. And probably all natural scientists have gone this way.
At first it seemed to me that the real thing was only physics, technical sciences and, of course, mathematics. Gradually, however, interests shifted more and more towards problems containing "humanitarian components". Now, analyzing my many years of experience, not only scientific, but also pedagogical activity, I am more and more convinced of the need for a good initial liberal education. It should be noted that I did not say anything new - such thoughts are shared by an increasing number of physicists, mathematicians, natural scientists.
Thinking about the future, about the coming era of the noosphere, I am gradually leaning towards the conviction that the coming century will be the century of the humanities ... will be the century of the human sciences.
What are the grounds for such an assessment?
First, at the end of the 20th century it became clear that the progress of the natural sciences and technology in itself does not give only positive results. Contradictions became apparent scientific and technological progress that made the world unstable and brought to the fore the problem of the survival of mankind. Achievements in the field of genetic engineering, microworld physics, electronics and many others have sharpened the issues of ethical evaluation of research, humanitarian expertise of scientific and technical projects.
The 20th century gave a man who knows the secrets of nature, who created great science and technology, unprecedented power, but he also discovered a dead end into which his opposition to nature leads him, the loss of humanistic criteria for his activity.
Under these conditions, many scientists call for the integration of the natural sciences and the humanities, which makes it possible to solve the problems of mankind in a comprehensive manner, relying both on the possibilities of natural science and on the assessments put forward by social science. With this approach, a unified picture of the world arises, which will make it possible to determine the guidelines for both scientific and technical and socio-political activities.
Secondly, at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. there are significant changes in the life of the society itself. The integrity and interdependence of the world community are growing, the pace of change is accelerating, and the complexity of public structure. This also applies to Russian society, in which at the end of the XX century. began a complex process of the formation of democracy, the transition from lack of freedom to freedom of choice, from the dictates of authoritarian power to coordination and cooperation, from top management to self-government, the formation of multi-variant complementary flexible social systems capable of self-regulation, self-organization.
Even a scientist who is passionate about his science (physicist or biologist, chemist or mathematician) does not live in an “ivory tower”, is not in a vacuum, but is immersed in society and, in addition to the status of a scientist, has the status of a citizen who does not want to be only an object of influence from sides of society and the state, but seeking to influence them in their own interests.
Every person, regardless of his profession, living in society, entering into contact and interaction with other people, institutions and organizations of civil society, the state, needs social and humanitarian knowledge, which becomes a guideline for his activities in modern world.
The knowledge and skills that this course gives you will need in life, as well as help in the study of social disciplines available in curricula any institutions vocational education wherever you go after graduation.
So the efforts that you spend on studying this course will not be lost, but will help you successfully adapt to the conditions of life and future profession.
WHAT IS A SOCIETY
How many meanings does the word "society" have? Is it possible to separate society from nature? Are there "uncivilized" societies?
At first glance, it seems that the answer to the question posed in the title of the paragraph is not difficult. Indeed, the concept of "society" has long and firmly entered our scientific and everyday vocabulary. But as soon as we attempt to give it a definition, we are immediately convinced that there can be many such definitions. For example, "society of book lovers", "noble society", "pedagogical society". In this case, by society we mean a certain group of people united for communication, joint activities, mutual assistance and support for each other.
But another series of related concepts is also possible: "primitive society", "feudal society", "French society". Here already, using the concept of "society", we have in mind certain stage historical development of mankind or a particular country. If we continue to move in accordance with this logic of reasoning (from the particular to the general), then humanity as a whole, the totality of all peoples in their historical and prospective development, can also be a society. This is the entire population of the Earth. In other words, society - it is a part of the world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.
This definition reveals the concept of "society" in a broad sense. Let's try to understand this in more detail.
Society as a joint life activity of people
Let's start with the second part of the above definition. Society is a collection of people. However, this is not a simple sum of individuals included in it, which are sometimes called "social atoms", but held together by numerous connections and relationships. The basis of these connections is the human activity. In the process of joint activity, there is interaction between its members.
All living beings interact with the environment (with nature, other living beings). Outwardly, this is manifested in noticeable movements (motor activity). But there is also an internal (mental) activity that affects behavior. For example, many facts are known that speak of a dog's attachment to its owner. The literature describes a case when a dog continued to go to the station for several years by the time the train arrived, on which its deceased owner had previously returned from work.
Note that animals to the environment adapt. At the same time, they can use individual objects as tools and even make primitive tools with the help of paws and teeth. Animals use these items to obtain food, defense, building a home, that is, to satisfy their vital needs. The possibilities of animal behavior are determined by the structure of their body, the natural conditions in which they live. (Remember how monkeys, beavers, birds, and other living creatures use primitive tools.)
In turn, human activity has a practical-transformative character. A person is not limited to adapting to existing natural and social conditions, although adaptive behavior also occupies a large place in his life. (Recall, for example, the influence of geographical conditions, the importance of legal and moral norms, customs, traditions.) However, adaptation is not the limit of human capabilities. Human activity is not limited to adapting to the environment, but transforms her. For this, not only natural objects are used, but, above all, means created by man himself. (tools).
Both the behavior of animals and human activity are consistent with a specific goal (i.e., they are expedient). For example, a predator hides in an ambush or sneaks towards a prey - its behavior is consistent with the goal of getting food. The bird flies away from the nest with a cry, distracting the attention of a person. But compare: a person builds a house, all his actions in this case are also expedient. However, for a predator, the goal is, as it were, set by its natural qualities and external conditions. At the heart of his behavior is a biological program of behavior, instincts. Human activity is characterized by historically developed (as a generalization of the experience of previous generations) programs. At the same time, a person himself determines his goal (carries out goal-setting). He is able to go beyond the program, i.e., existing experience, to define new programs (goals and ways to achieve them). In this way, goal setting inherent only in human activity.
Human activity is the fundamental principle, the starting point of the relationships and relationships that arise in society. However, the life of society is not limited to activities. It itself is generated by the material and spiritual needs, interests, value orientations of people.
An essential condition for human life is collectivity. Man, in fact, is a social being, whose life is provided by cooperation, interaction with other people. A person needs this no less than food or tools. Let us recall a fact known to you from the basic school course: not only human activity requires cooperation with other people, but the very transformation of a child into a human requires being in the environment of people, communicating with his own kind. The cases of a person's survival in isolation from society described in the literature are explained only by the fact that he could use, if not objects created in the joint activity of people, then at least the knowledge and experience gained in society.
The interaction of people in the process of activity gives rise to various forms of their association. Therefore, society can be understood not only as a set of individual types of joint activities, but also as a set of various forms of their association for this activity: primary collectives, social groups, public organizations, and also as a network of relations between them.
Each sphere of public life is also a complex formation. Its constituent elements give an idea of society as a whole. It is no coincidence that some researchers consider society at the level of organizations operating in it (the state, the church, the education system, etc.), while others view it through the prism of the interaction of social communities. A person enters society through a collective, being simultaneously a member of several collectives (labor, trade union, sports, etc.). Society is presented as a collective of collectives.
A person is also included in larger communities of people - a social group, class, nation.
The diverse ties that arise between social groups, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity, are called public relations.
But not all connections that arise between people in the process of communication or joint activities are classified as social relations. Indeed, imagine that you are on a crowded bus: someone asks when the right stop will be, someone asks to give way. The contacts arising in these situations are random, episodic, and they are not classified as social relations.
Let's turn to another situation. You came to get a job. You will have to present a number of documents, perhaps pass an interview, conclude an agreement, which stipulates all the basic conditions of employment. And everyone who solves the same problem as you goes through similar procedures. Such relationships are recurring, largely impersonal (formal), affecting important aspects of people's lives - and are called public.
We will return to the study of society later. Now consider the relationship between society and nature.
Society and nature
Society - it is a part of the world isolated from nature (in this case, nature means the totality of the natural conditions of human existence). What is this isolation? Unlike elemental natural forces, a person with consciousness and will is at the center of social development. Nature exists and develops according to its own laws independent of man and society. There is another circumstance: human society acts as a creator, a transformer, a creator of culture. The concept itself culture in the broadest sense means everything created by man: it is a man-made second nature, which, as it were, is built on top of natural nature. All this gives rise to the idea that man and society in their activities are opposed to nature. The attitude to nature as something unformed, lower than culture, puts a person in the position of a conqueror, a conqueror of nature. Let us recall the well-known words of Turgenev's hero Bazarov: “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop. The person in it is a worker. What this installation has led to today is well known. Dangerous for human life pollution of its habitat, the gradual depletion of natural resources caused an ecological crisis, created a threat to the very existence of mankind.
Today it is important to realize the inseparable connection between nature and society.
On the one hand, the natural environment, geographical and climatic features have a significant impact on social progress, accelerating or slowing down the pace of development of countries and peoples, influencing the social division of labor.
On the other hand, society also affects the natural environment of man. The history of mankind testifies both to the beneficial effect of human activities on the natural habitat, and to its detrimental consequences. So, at one time, the swamps around Florence were drained, which later became flowering lands. Orchards and vineyards on the slopes Caucasus mountains, like the beautiful groves on the islands of the Pacific Ocean, are the work of man. At the same time, there are cases when herds of domestic animals trampled the soil and ate young shoots. For example, it was said about ancient Greece that its power was “eaten” by bred goats.
Prominent Italian scientist and public figure of the XX century. A. Peccei wrote: “It is well known that, having increased his power over Nature, man immediately imagined himself as the undivided master of the Earth and immediately began to exploit it, neglecting the fact that its size and biophysical resources are quite finite. It has now also been understood that as a result of such uncontrolled human activity, the once generous and abundant biological life of the planet, its best soils have been partially destroyed, and valuable agricultural land is increasingly being built up and covered with asphalt and concrete roads, that many of the most accessible mineral resources have already been fully used, that man-made pollution can now be found literally everywhere, even at the poles and at the bottom of the ocean , and that now the consequences of all this are manifested in the climate, other physical characteristics of the planet.
Of course, all this causes deep anxiety, but we do not know to what extent this disturbs the balance and upsets the cycles necessary for the evolution of life in general; how many irreversible changes we have already caused and which of them may affect our own lives now or in the future; it is also unknown what stocks of the main non-renewable resources we can realistically count on and how many renewable resources and under what conditions we can safely use. Since the "carrying capacity" of the Earth is clearly not unlimited, then, obviously, there are some limits, or "outer limits", for the expansion not only of human activity, but also of its presence on the planet in general.
So, returning to the definition of the concept of society with which we began our reasoning, let us clarify: speaking of the isolation of society from nature, we mean its inherent special features, but not isolation from nature and the processes of its natural development.
Society and culture
The word "culture" is used as often as the words "society" and "nature". At the same time, culture is most often understood as any achievements of mankind in the spiritual field: artistic creations, scientific discoveries, as well as the level of spiritual needs of an individual, his worthy behavior. A cultured person is a person who is educated, has good taste, knows the literary language, is interested in highly artistic works of art, etc.
This interpretation of culture is quite appropriate. However, as in the case of society, this concept has many meanings. Discussing the interaction of society and nature, we have already mentioned culture, defining it as a "second nature" created by man. Thus, in the broadest sense of the word, culture encompasses all types of transformative human activity, directed not only at the external environment, but also at himself. This is more in line with the original meaning of the word, which comes from the Latin culture- cultivation, upbringing, education.
What do we attribute to the created, “cultivated” by man? These are built buildings, and written books, and sown fields, and means of communication and communication, and established traditions, and generally accepted moral norms, and personal convictions, and much, much more. Thus, the world of culture is both material and spiritual results of human activity.
From what has been said, it is obvious: without culture, we would not be people, but would remain only a community of individuals of a certain biological species. People act on the basis of cultural norms (morality, law, customs and traditions), change under the influence of cultural values (remember the “educational” meaning of the word “culture”), accumulate and pass on to other generations the achievements of culture, create its new forms and meanings.
Even the natural manifestations of our lives are transformed under the influence of culture. For example, we satisfy the need for food precisely in the ways that are enshrined in modern society by certain norms: in most cases, we buy products in a store (someone uses the possibilities of personal farming), process them (if this is not a finished product) on a stove, in oven, serve the cooked dish on a plate and eat it using at least spoons.
The culture is characterized by historicity and great diversity. For a deeper study of the world of culture, researchers identify its types, forms, components and create various classifications. It is generally accepted that culture is divided into material(buildings, vehicles, household items, appliances and equipment, etc.) and spiritual(knowledge, language, symbols, values, rules and norms, and much more).
This division is rather conditional. It is clear that behind every completely material thing there are certain forms of labor organization, the intention of the creators, often complex calculations and mathematical calculations, that is, phenomena related to spiritual culture. At the same time, the fruits of spiritual activity are most often materialized: artistic images come to life on the pages of a book, a religious idea is embodied in the construction of a temple.
Many peoples who inhabited our planet in the past and live today differed and differ from each other, first of all, by their original culture. And this applies not only to linguistic differences, religious views or artistic creativity. The originality is manifested in traditions and rituals, in the family way of life and attitude towards children, in the manner of communication and food preferences, and in many other ways. At the same time, it is possible to understand the individual elements of the culture of a particular society only within the framework of its entire culture. One American sociologist gives the following example: people in Western countries are distinguished by a particularly reverent attitude towards oral hygiene. From the point of view of a representative of another culture, the ritual of regular brushing of teeth with “a tuft of bristles coated with magic powder” looks no less strange than the custom of some tribes to knock out their front teeth for beauty or protrude their lips with the help of special plates for the same purpose.
At the same time, researchers who have studied the cultures of various peoples have come to the conclusion that all cultures have some common features or forms. They were called cultural universals. These, in particular, include the presence of a language with a certain grammatical structure, the institution of marriage and family, and religious rituals. All cultures have norms related to caring for children. Almost all nations have a ban on incest - sexual relations between close relatives.
But even these few universals are refracted in their own way in the culture of different societies. So, most of them today reject polygamy, while in a number of Muslim countries this is a legal norm.
You will learn about many cultures “within” the national culture from the subsequent chapters of the textbook.
Social Sciences
Public life, as we have already seen, is complex and multifaceted, therefore it is studied by many sciences, called public(history, philosophy, sociology, political science, jurisprudence, ethics, aesthetics, etc.). Each of them considers a certain area of public life. So, jurisprudence explores the essence and history of the state and law. Subject ethics are moral standards aesthetics – art laws, artistic creativity of people. The most general knowledge about society as a whole is provided by such sciences as philosophy and sociology.
We have already noted that society, in comparison with nature, has its own specifics. “In all areas of nature ... a certain regularity dominates, independent of the existence of thinking humanity,” wrote the greatest physicist M. Planck (1858-1947). Society, on the other hand, is nothing more than a collection of people endowed with will and consciousness, performing actions and deeds under the influence of certain interests, motives, and moods.
Do objective laws of development, that is, independent of people's consciousness, operate in social reality? Is it possible to study social life, abstracting from the diversity of views, interests, intentions of people? If not, is it possible to recognize social science as a science that provides accurate and objective knowledge about the world?
These questions have long been faced by researchers of social life. And the answers to them were given and given different. So, some philosophers proceed from the fact that social phenomena are subject to laws common to all reality, and in their knowledge one can use the exact methods of social research, and sociology as a science should be free from ties with ideology, which requires separation in the course of a specific study of real facts from their subjective assessments. Within the framework of another philosophical direction, an attempt was made to eliminate the confrontation between objective phenomena and the person who knows them. Proponents of this direction seek to comprehend the social world in relation to the goals, ideas and motives of really acting people. Thus, the “experiencing” person himself and his perception of the world through the prism of the individual’s attitude towards him are at the center of the study.
Who is right in this dispute?
Let's not rush to answer.
III. Practical conclusions.
When studying society, you should remember that the first condition for developing your own position on various issues of social development is the understanding that social problems arise and are solved as a result of the interaction of individuals, groups, organizations. It is important to understand the direction of the joint actions of people, to identify the nature of the relationship between them.
When studying society, we must not forget that it largely depends on nature. The natural conditions in which different countries and peoples are located, cosmic phenomena, natural disasters with devastating consequences, epidemics covering entire continents - all this has an impact on the life of society. But it is impossible not to take into account the results of society's impact on the natural environment, which have disastrous consequences for humanity.
Culture enables society to resist dangers. The better a person owns the achievements of culture, the more successfully he is able to solve the problems that arise before him.
Social sciences not only make it possible to satisfy the curiosity inherent in people, but also help a person who has mastered their basics to navigate in a complex, rapidly changing world, to more accurately determine the possibilities and ways to achieve success in life and work.
IV. Document.
Reflections on the society of a Russian sociologist, the founder of Russian and American sociological schools P. A. Sorokina from the book The Man. Civilization. Society".
Since we are talking about society, we thereby assume the presence of not one unit, not one being, but at least several. The unit of society does not constitute. Means, society means, first of all, the totality of several units (individuals, beings, individuals). Now let us imagine that these units (individuals, individuals) are absolutely bottled up and have no relations with each other. Will there be society in this case? Obviously not. Hence the conclusion: society means not only the totality of several units (individuals, individuals, etc.), but also implies that these units not isolated from each other, but are located among themselves in the process interactions, that is, they influence each other in one way or another, come into contact with each other and have one or another connection with each other. In other words, the concept of society presupposes not only the presence of several units, but it is also required that the units interact with each other.
…All interacting centers and all interaction processes can be divided into three main forms: 1) "inorganic" interacting centers and physical-chemical interaction (the inorganic world), studied by physical-chemical sciences; 2) live "organic" interacting centers and biological interaction (organic world, life phenomena), studied by the biological sciences; 3) finally, interacting centers endowed with the psyche, consciousness, and mental interaction, that is, the exchange of ideas, feelings, volitional acts (phenomena of culture, the world of sociality), studied by the social sciences.
Questions and tasks for the document
Why is a collection of individuals isolated from each other not a society?
Why does P. A. Sorokin believe that mental interactions are the subject of study of the social sciences?
Explain the nature of the social interactions described in the paragraph using Sorokin's text.
V. Questions for self-examination.
What should be understood by society in the narrow and broad sense of the word?
What is the relationship between society and nature? What is the specificity of social phenomena?
What is the nature of human activity?
What is the connection between the joint activities of people and the forms of their association?
What kind of relationship can be considered social?
Explain the different meanings of the concept of "culture".
What do researchers refer to as cultural universals?
What sciences study society?
An argument ensued in one of the lessons. Nikolai argued that man appeared first, and then society. Olga objected to him: a person becomes a person only in society, therefore society arose first, and then a person. What do you think? Justify your point of view.
The Roman philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD) said: “We are born to live together; our society is a vault of stones that would collapse if one did not support the other.” How do you understand this statement? Compare it with the definition of society given in the textbook. Do these characteristics match? If the modern definition of society differs from that given by the ancient philosopher, then what are the differences?
L. N. Tolstoy wrote: “If people interfere with you, then you have no reason to live. Leaving people is suicide.” What thought in the educational text is consonant with this statement of the writer? Why do you think so?
Are the so-called negative values (rules of conduct in a criminal community, the production of pornography, etc.) cultural phenomena? Justify your conclusion.
VII. Thoughts of the wise.
“Nature creates man, but society develops and shapes him.”
V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848),
Russian literary critic
Evaluation of student responses.
The lesson “What is society” (grade 10, Bogolyubov) helps to clarify this concept for oneself and think about the role of a person in society.
Questions and tasks for the document
- Why is a group of isolated individuals not a society??
Society is not only a collection of individuals. They must interact with each other. This can be understood by doing a simple thought experiment:
Isolate all individuals from each other so that there are no interactions between them. It is obvious that society will not work out of such a set of people. There will be no connections of the members of this population with each other.
Therefore, society is formed only under two mandatory conditions:
- the presence of units of society (people);
- their interactions with each other.
Social science grade 10: what is society and what sciences study it
- Why does P. A. Sorokin believe that mental interactions are the subject of study of the social sciences?
Psychic interactions are the communication of people at the level of ideas, cultural phenomena, relationships within society. Such processes are described not by physics or chemistry, not biology.
Psychic interactions are studied by such Social sciencies like history, sociology, philosophy, jurisprudence.
- Explain the nature of the social interactions described in the paragraph, using the text of Sorokin-
Every interaction between people can be classified into one of three forms:
- inorganic - related to physical and chemical processes;
- organic - biological interaction;
- mental - the exchange of ideas, volitional acts and feelings.
Social science grade 10: what is society - basic questions
Questions for self-examination
- What should be understood by society in the narrow and broad sense of the word?
Broadly speaking, society - a group of people who have come together to help each other, work together and communicate.
In other words, society is a part of the world separate from nature, which includes the interactions of people.
In the narrow sense of the word society can be defined in terms of:
- joint life of people;
- part of the world, isolated from nature;
- the form cultural development;
- object of study of social sciences.
Society and nature (Grade 10)
- What is the relationship between society and nature? What is the specificity of social phenomena?
Society is separated from nature, but at the same time, closely connected with it. Thanks to society, mankind has created "its own nature" - culture. Man and society can be opposed to nature.
Natural phenomena are spontaneous, and society is built on the goal-setting of its members.
Society is closely interconnected with nature. Climate, geographical position strongly influences the rate of social progress. However, society itself has an impact on the natural environment. Human activity can be both beneficial and destructive to nature. It draws natural resources, exterminates animals and vegetation.
The looming environmental crisis is a reminder of the importance of managing natural resources. That is why it is important to understand that human activities must take into account the importance of preserving nature.
- What is the nature of human activity?
Features of human activity:
- Unlike animals, which are guided by instincts, a person acts on the basis of a goal.
- Man transforms environment, but does not adapt to it.
- Human activity is based on interaction.
Human activity is the basis of social relations.
Human activity is based on historical programs. But a person can go beyond these programs.
- What is the connection between the joint activities of people and the forms of their association?
Society is formed thanks to the joint activity and psychic connection of its members. In the absence of these factors, society cannot form.
A child becomes a man only among those like him. This indicates the need for the participation of other people in the formation of the individual.
In any case, society is formed on some unifying factor that stimulates people to develop together.
Human behavior is made up of historically developed programs and is subject to collectivity. Man needs to communicate with his own kind.
- What kind of relationship can be considered social?
Public relations are only when they are formed in the process of joint activity. For example, asking to pass the fare is not a public relationship. When an employee is hired by an employer, such relations can be considered public.
Public relations are formed between nations, social groups. Such relations are formed in the process of cultural, political, social life.
- Explain the different meanings of the concept of "culture".
Different interpretations of the concept of culture:
- Various human achievements - in art, science, sports.
- Cultural behavior of a person and the level of his cultural needs.
- Transformative activity that is aimed at the environment and at oneself.
Culture is divided into spiritual and material.
spiritual include - ideas, values, rules
to the material - books, buildings, various devices
- What do researchers refer to as cultural universals?
The culture of every nation has some stable features. They are called cultural universals. For example:
- marriage customs;
- grammar of the language;
- religious rituals.
However, even universals common to all peoples can change depending on the people.
The lesson “What is society” (grade 10, Bogolyubov) helps to understand what place nature and culture play in a person’s life. The sciences that study society help to understand much of the behavior of individual groups of people.
- What sciences study society?
Society studies many sciences:
- philosophy - the science of the most general laws of development of nature, man and society;
- sociology - the science of the behavior of groups of people and each person in a group;
- ethics;
- morality;
- jurisprudence;
Now the lesson "What is society" (grade 10, Bogolyubov) disassembled and no issues.
Tasks
- An argument ensued in one of the lessons. Nikolai claimed that a man appeared earlier ... What do you think? Justify your point of view.
You will find answers to these questions in the article:
Chapter 6 Social Interaction
Sociological science has shown interest in the problem of social interaction since its inception. Let us recall the main positions from which the well-known and mentioned above scientists considered this issue. Even O. Comte, analyzing the nature of social connection in his “Social Statics”, came to the conclusion that only such a unit where social interaction is already present can act as a basic element of a social structure; Therefore, he declared the family to be the elementary unit of society.
M. Weber introduced into scientific circulation the concept of "social action" as the simplest unit of social activity. As we remember, with this concept, he denoted such an action of an individual, which is not only aimed at resolving his life problems and contradictions, but also consciously focused on the response behavior of other people, on their reaction.
The central idea of the sociological realism of E. Durkheim, to which, in essence, all his scientific work was devoted, is the idea of social solidarity - the question of what is the nature of those ties that unite, attract people to each other.
We could refer to the works of any of the classics or modern theorists of sociological science, and it would not be difficult to see how much attention they pay to the problem of social interaction. At the same time, when the question of social connection arises, almost every time emphasis is placed on the mutual influence of the social objects under consideration on each other.
§ 1. The concept of social interaction and the conditions for its occurrence
Consideration of the problems of social interaction is a search for answers to a wide variety of questions: what are the typical ways in which people establish among themselves the most diverse connections; how they maintain these ties, what are the conditions for maintaining and, conversely, breaking these ties; how these connections affect the preservation of the integrity of the social system; how the very nature of a social system affects the ways in which the people within it interact... In short, the questions that arise when considering the problem of social interaction seem to have no end.
Social interaction is a generalized and key concept for a number of sociological theories. This concept is based on the notion that a social figure, individual or society is always in the physical or mental environment of other social figures - actors (individual or group) and behaves in accordance with this social situation.
As you know, the structural features of any complex system, whatever the nature of its origin, depend not only on what elements are included in its composition, but also on how they are interconnected, connected, what effect they have on each other. friend. In essence, it is the nature of the connection between the elements that determines both the integrity of the system and the emergence of emergent properties, which is its most characteristic property as a whole. This is true for any systems - both for fairly simple, elementary, and for the most complex systems known to us - social ones.
The concept of "emergent properties" was formulated by T. Parsons in 1937 in his analysis of social systems. In doing so, he had in mind three interconnected conditions.
¦ First of all, social systems have a structure that arises not by itself, but precisely from the processes of social interaction.
¦ Secondly, these emergent properties cannot be reduced (reduced) to a simple sum of biological or psychological characteristics of social actors: for example, the characteristics of a particular culture cannot be explained by correlating it with the biological qualities of people - carriers of this culture.
¦ Thirdly, the meaning of any social action cannot be understood in isolation from the social context of the social system in which it is manifested.
Perhaps, Pitirim Sorokin considered the problems of social interaction most scrupulously and in detail, devoting a significant part of the first volume of "The System of Sociology" to them. Let's try, following the classic of Russian and American sociology, to understand the elementary concepts of this most important social process, which connects many disparate people into a single whole - society and, moreover, turns purely biological individuals into people - that is, into reasonable, thinking and, most importantly, , social beings.
In the same way as O. Comte once, P. A. Sorokin expressed confidence that a single individual cannot be considered as an elementary “social cell” or the simplest social phenomenon: “... an individual as an individual cannot in any way be considered microcosm of the social macrocosm. It cannot, because only an individual can be obtained from an individual and neither what is called "society" nor what is called "social phenomena" can be obtained ... For the latter, not one, but many individuals, at least two, are required.
However, in order for two or more individuals to form a single whole, which could be considered as a particle (element) of society, their presence alone is not enough. It is also necessary that they interact with each other, that is, they exchange some actions and responses to these actions. What is interaction from the point of view of a sociologist? The definition that Sorokin gives to this concept is quite extensive and claims to embrace the almost immense, that is, all possible options: “The phenomenon of human interaction is given when: a) mental experiences or b) external acts, or c) both of one (some) people represent a function of the existence and state (mental and physical) of another or other individuals.
This definition, perhaps, is truly universal, because it includes both cases of direct, direct contacts between people and variants of indirect interaction. It is not difficult to verify this by considering a wide variety of examples that occur in Everyday life each of us.
If someone (accidentally or intentionally) stepped on your foot in a crowded bus (outer act) and this caused you to resent (psychic experience) and exclaim indignantly (outer act), then this means that an interaction has occurred between you. If you are a sincere admirer of Michael Jackson's work, then, probably, each appearance of him on the TV screen in the next clip (and the recording of this clip probably required the singer to perform many external acts and experience many mental experiences) will cause you a storm of emotions (psychic experiences), or maybe you jump up from the couch and start singing along and “dancing” (thus performing external acts). At the same time, we are no longer dealing with direct, but with indirect interaction: Michael Jackson, of course, cannot observe your reaction to the recording of his song and dance, but there is hardly any doubt that he was counting on such a response from millions of his fans, planning and carrying out their physical actions (external acts). So that given example also shows us a case of social interaction.
Tax department officials developing a new fiscal project, State Duma deputies discussing this project, amending it, and then voting for the adoption of the relevant law, the president signing a decree on the introduction of a new law into force, many entrepreneurs and consumers whose income will be influence of this law - they are all in a complex intertwined process of interaction with each other, and most importantly - with us. There is no doubt that here there is a very serious influence of both external acts and the mental experiences of some people on the mental experiences and external acts of other people, although in most cases the participants in this chain may not even see each other (at best, on a TV screen).
It is important to note this point. Interaction always causes some physical changes in our biological organism. For example, our cheeks “flash” when looking at a loved one (vessels under the skin expand and experience a rush of blood); listening to an audio recording of a popular singer we love, we experience emotional arousal, etc.
What are the basic conditions for the emergence of any social interaction? P. A. Sorokin introduces and analyzes in detail three such conditions (or, as he calls them, “elements”):
1) the presence of two or more individuals that determine the behavior and experiences of each other;
2) the commission by them of some actions that affect mutual experiences and actions;
3) the presence of conductors that transmit these influences and the effects of individuals on each other.
We, in turn, could add a fourth condition here, which Sorokin does not mention:
4) availability common ground for contacts, contact.
Now let's try to take a closer look at each of these four conditions.
1. Obviously, in an empty space (or in a space filled only with plants and animals) no social interaction can occur. It can hardly occur where there is only one human individual. Robinson's relationship with his parrot and goat cannot be recognized as patterns (samples) of social interaction. At the same time, the mere fact of the presence of two or more individuals is still not enough for interaction to arise between them. These individuals must have the ability and desire to influence each other and respond to such influence. Among the ten basic needs of homo sapiens, which P. A. Sorokin identifies in his classification, at least five are closely related to the desire of any person for contacts with other people, and it is simply impossible to satisfy them outside of such contacts.
True, it should be noted that most of these needs are by no means innate; they arise only in the course of interaction. However, the question of which of them - the needs or the process of interaction - is ultimately the cause and which is the effect, has as much chance of being answered as the question of which is primary - the chicken or the egg.
2. As was stated in the definition given at the beginning of this paragraph, interaction occurs only when at least one of the two individuals has an impact on the other, in other words, performs some deed, action, act aimed at the other. Indeed, it is possible (albeit with difficulty) to imagine an arbitrarily large number of people gathered in one territory within the immediate reach (visibility and audibility) of each other, but at the same time completely ignoring each other, occupied exclusively with themselves. and your inner feelings. And in this case, we can hardly say that there is an interaction between them.
3. The condition for the presence of special conductors that transmit an irritating effect from some participants in the interaction to others is quite closely related to the fact that the information transmitted during the interaction is always imprinted on some kind of material media.
Strictly speaking, information cannot exist outside of material carriers. Even at the deepest and most unconscious – genetic – level, information is recorded on material carriers – in DNA molecules. The elementary information that animals exchange with each other is also transmitted with the help of material carriers. The loose tail of a male peacock is perceived by the female through the perception of light waves by the organs of vision. Alarm signals (warnings of potential danger) are transmitted and perceived by members of the pack (any - be it a rook or a wolf) using sound waves; the same applies to the calling trills of the male nightingale, perceived by the female with the help of air vibrations. Ants communicate with each other, secreting portions of certain odorous substances with special glands: the olfactory organs of insects perceive the molecules of a particular substance as a smell, deciphering the information contained in it. In a word, in all cases information is transmitted and received with the help of various material carriers. However, these natural material carriers are extremely short-lived, most of them exist only during the period of transmission and reception, after which they disappear forever. They need to be re-created each time.
Perhaps the most significant difference between human (and therefore social) interaction and communication between animals is the presence of the so-called second signaling system! This is a system of conditioned reflex connections peculiar only to a person, formed under the influence of speech signals, i.e., in fact, not the most direct stimulus - sound or light, but its symbolic verbal designation.
Of course, these combinations of sound or light waves are also transmitted using short-lived material carriers, however, unlike momentary, one-time information transmitted by animals, information expressed in symbols can be recorded (and subsequently, after an arbitrarily long period of time, reproduced, perceived, deciphered and used) on such material media that are preserved for a long time, being imprinted on stone, wood, paper, film and magnetic tape, magnetic disk. They, unlike natural carriers that exist in nature in finished form, are produced by people, are artificial objects. Information is imprinted on them in a sign-symbolic form by changing certain physical parameters of the carriers themselves. This is precisely the fundamental basis for the emergence and development of social memory. The second signal system itself, being the basis for the emergence of generalized abstract thinking, can develop only in the course of specific social interaction.
One way or another, if there are no conductors acting as carriers of material information carriers, there can be no talk of any interaction. However, when the conductors are present, neither space nor time will be an obstacle to the implementation of interaction. You can call your friend from Moscow to Los Angeles, located on the other side of the globe (conductor - telephone cable or radio waves transmitted using an artificial Earth satellite), or write him a letter (conductor - paper and mail delivery) and thus enter into interaction with him. Moreover, you interact with the founder of sociology, Auguste Comte (who has been dead for a hundred and fifty years) by reading his books. Look what a long chain of interactions runs between you, how many social actors are included in it (editors, typesetters, translators, publishers, booksellers, librarians) - after all, they, in turn, also act as conductors of this interaction.
Thus, in the presence of conductors, "in fact, neither space nor time is an obstacle to the interaction of people."
We have already noted above that sociology, in contrast to such scientific disciplines as, for example, psychology or social psychology, studies not only the direct and immediate interaction that occurs in the course of direct contacts between individuals. The object of her research are all types of social interactions. You interact with many people you know and don't know when you're on the radio, publishing an article in a magazine or newspaper, or being an official enough high level, put your signature on a document that affects life quite a large number citizens. And in all these cases it is impossible to do without material carriers of information, as well as certain conductors that transmit this information.
4. We considered it necessary to supplement the list of conditions for the emergence of social interaction proposed by P. A. Sorokin with one more thing – what we called the presence of a common basis1 for contacts between social subjects. In the most general case, this means that any effective interaction can occur only when both parties speak the same language. It's about not only about a single linguistic base of communication, but also about an approximately identical understanding of the norms, rules, principles that guide the interaction partner. Otherwise, the interaction may either remain unfulfilled or lead to a result, sometimes directly opposite to that expected by both parties.
Finally, the most general approach to considering the essence of social interaction requires classifying them, that is, compiling a certain typology of interactions. As you know, the compilation of any typology is based on the choice of a certain criterion - a system-forming feature. P. A. Sorokin identifies three main features that make it possible to develop three different approaches to the typology of social interactions, respectively. Let's take a brief look at them.
1. The typology of social interactions is compiled depending on the quantity and quality of individuals participating in the interaction process. If we talk about quantity, then only three options for interactions can arise here:
a) occurring between two single individuals;
b) between a single individual and a group;
c) between two groups. Each of these types has its own specifics and differs significantly in character from the others, as Sorokin points out, "even under the premise of qualitative homogeneity of individuals."
With regard to quality, this criterion indicates, first of all, the need to take into account the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the interacting subjects. There are a great many criteria for homogeneity or heterogeneity, it is hardly possible to take into account even any of their complete set. Therefore, Sorokin lists the most important of them. In his opinion, special attention should be paid to belonging to:
a) one family
a) different families
b) one State
b") to different states
c) one race
c")» races
d)" language group
d")» language groups
e) one gender
e")» to the floor
f)» age
f")» age
m) similar in profession, degree of wealth, religion, scope of rights and obligations, political party, scientific, artistic, literary tastes, etc.
m") different in profession, property status, religion, scope of rights, political party, etc.
"The similarity or difference of interacting individuals in one of these relations is of great importance for the nature of the interaction."
2. The typology of social interactions is compiled depending on the nature of the acts (actions) performed by the interacting subjects. Here, too, it is impossible or extremely difficult to cover the full range of options; Sorokin himself lists some of them, the most important. We will simply name these options, and the interested reader can read them in more detail in the original source.
1) depending on doing and not doing (abstinence and patience);
2) interaction is unilateral and bilateral;
3) long-term and temporary interaction;
4) antagonistic and solidaristic interaction;
5) interaction is template and non-template;
6) interaction conscious and unconscious;
7) intellectual, sensory-emotional and volitional interaction.
3. And, finally, the typology of social interactions is compiled depending on the conductors. Here Sorokin identifies: a) forms of interaction depending on the nature of the conductors (sound, light-color, motor-mimic, subject-symbolic, through chemical reagents, mechanical, thermal, electrical); b) direct and indirect interaction.
In addition, in the first volume of "Systems of Sociology" there is a reference to other methods of classification developed by other sociologists.
§ 2. Interpretations of social interaction in special sociological theories
So, the concept of social interaction is central in sociology due to the fact that a number of sociological theories have arisen that develop and interpret its various problems and aspects at two main levels of research, as we have already mentioned, the microlevel and the macrolevel. At the micro level, the processes of communication between individuals who are in direct and immediate contact are studied; such interaction occurs mainly within small groups. At the macro level of social interaction, the interaction of large social groups and structures arises; here the interest of researchers covers, first of all, social institutions. In this section, we will briefly review only some of the most common theories and their "offshoots".
One of the most well-known and thoroughly developed concepts describing social interaction is the exchange theory. In general, the conceptualization of social interaction, social structure and social order in terms of the exchange of relations has long been the focus of such a scientific discipline as anthropology, but only relatively recently has it been adopted by sociologists. The intellectual foundations of the idea of exchange are described in detail in classical political economy, whose founders Bentham and Smith believed that the main driving factor in the activity of any human being should be considered the desire for utility and gain. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, many works on social anthropology pointed to the important role of exchange transactions in the life of primitive tribes.
One of the initial premises on which the theory of exchange is based is the assumption that in the social behavior of any person there is a certain rational principle that encourages him to behave prudently and constantly strive to obtain a wide variety of "benefits" - in the form of goods, money, services. , prestige, respect, approval, success, friendship, love, etc. In the early 1960s, the American sociologist George Homans came to the conclusion that such notions as "status", , "power", etc., should be explained not by the action of macrosocial structures, as is customary in functionalism, but from the point of view of those social relations that give rise to them. The essence of these relations, according to Homans, is the desire of people to receive benefits and rewards, as well as in the exchange of these benefits and rewards.
Proceeding from this, Homans explores social interaction in terms of the exchange of actions between the “Actor” and the “Other”, assuming that in such an interaction each of the parties will seek to extract the maximum benefit and minimize their costs. Among the most important of the expected rewards, he refers, in particular, to social approval. The mutual reward that arises in the course of the exchange of actions becomes repetitive and regular, and gradually develops into relationships between people based on mutual expectations. In such a situation, the violation of expectations on the part of one of the participants entails frustration and, as a result, the emergence of an aggressive reaction; at the same time, the very manifestation of aggressiveness becomes, to a certain extent, satisfaction.
These ideas were further developed by another contemporary American sociologist, Peter Blau, who argued that virtually "all human contact rests on the scheme of giving and returning the equivalence." Of course, these conclusions were borrowed from the ideas of the market economy, as well as behavioral psychology. In general, exchange theories see a similarity between social interactions and economic or market transactions carried out in the hope that services rendered will somehow be returned. Thus, the basic paradigm of the exchange theory is a dyadic (two-personal) model of interaction. We repeat that the emphasis is on mutual exchange, although the basis of interaction still remains calculated and plus this includes a certain amount of trust or mutually shared moral principles.
This kind of approach almost inevitably faces a number of criticisms. The content of these remarks is as follows.
¦ The psychological premises of the theory of exchange are too simplified and place an excessive emphasis on the selfish, calculating elements of individuality.
¦ The exchange theory, in fact, is limited in development, since it cannot move from a two-personal level of interaction to social behavior larger scale: as soon as we move from a dyad to a larger plurality, the situation becomes much more uncertain and complex.
The exchange theory fails to explain many social processes such as the dominance of generalized values, which cannot be extracted from the paradigm of dyadic exchange.
¦ Finally, some critics argue that the theory of exchange is just "an elegant conceptualization of sociological triviality."
Given this, the followers of Homans (Blau, Emerson) tried to be more flexible in order to overcome the gap between the micro- and macro levels that the exchange theory created. In particular, Peter Blau proposed to conduct research on social interaction by synthesizing the principles of social exchange with the concepts of such macrosociological concepts as structural functionalism and conflict theory.
One of the modifications of the exchange theory is the theory of rational choice that arose in the 80s of the twentieth century. This is a relatively formal approach, arguing that social life can in principle be explained as the result of "rational" choices of social actors. “When faced with several possible courses of action, people usually do what they believe should, with a certain degree of probability, lead them to the best overall outcome. This deceptively simple sentence sums up rational choice theory.” This form of theorizing is characterized by a desire to apply technically rigorous models of social behavior that help to draw clear conclusions from a relatively small number of initial theoretical assumptions about "rational behavior".