The First Patriotic War 1914 1918. Russia in the First World War: briefly about the main events
With the development of capitalism, the contradictions between the big powers and the military-political blocs intensified;
- weaken England.
- struggle for the redivision of the world.
- split France and seize its main metallurgical bases.
- seize Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, the Baltic countries and thereby weaken Russia.
- cut off Russia from the Baltic Sea.
The main goal of Austria-Hungary was:
- capture Serbia and Montenegro;
- gain a foothold in the Balkans;
- tear off Podolia and Volhynia from Russia.
Italy's goal was to gain a foothold in the Balkans. Involving in the First World War, England wanted to weaken Germany and divide Ottoman Empire.
Russia's goals in the First World War:
- to prevent the strengthening of German influence in Turkey and the Middle East;
- gain a foothold in the Balkans and in the Black Sea straits;
- take possession of the lands of Turkey;
- capture Galicia, which is under the control of Austria-Hungary.
The Russian bourgeoisie intended to enrich itself through the First World War. The assassination in Bosnia by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 was used as a pretext for war.
On July 28, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia announced mobilization to help Serbia. Therefore, on August 1, Germany declared war on Russia. On August 3 Germany declared war on France and on August 4 attacked Belgium. Thus, the treaty on the neutrality of Belgium, signed by Prussia, was declared "a simple piece of paper." On August 4, England stood up for Belgium and declared war on Germany.
On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany, but did not send troops to Europe. She began to seize German lands on Far East and subdue China.
In October 1914, Turkey entered World War I on the side of the Triple Alliance. In response, on October 2, Russia, on the 5th - England and on the 6th - France declared war on Turkey.
First World War 1914
At the beginning of the First World War, three fronts were formed in Europe: Western, Eastern (Russian) and Balkan. A little later, a fourth was formed - the Caucasian front, on which Russia and Turkey fought. The Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) plan prepared by Schlieffen came true: on August 2, the Germans took Luxembourg, on the 4th - Belgium, and from there entered Northern France. The French government temporarily left Paris.
Russia, wishing to help the Allies, on August 7, 1914 introduced two armies into East Prussia. Germany removed two infantry corps and a cavalry division from the French front and sent them to the Eastern Front. Due to inconsistency in the actions of the Russian command, the first Russian army died near the Masurian Lakes. The German command was able to concentrate its forces on the second Russian army. Two Russian corps were surrounded and destroyed. But the Russian army in Galicia (Western Ukraine) defeated Austria-Hungary and moved into East Prussia.
To stop the advance of the Russians, Germany had to withdraw 6 more corps from the French direction. So France got rid of the danger of defeat. On the seas, Germany waged a cruising war with Britain. On September 6-12, 1914, on the banks of the Marne River, the Anglo-French troops repulsed the German attack and launched a counteroffensive. The Germans managed to stop the Allies only on the River Aisne. Thus, as a result of the Battle of the Marne, the German plan for "Lightning War" failed. Germany was forced to wage war on two fronts. The war of maneuver turned into a positional war.
World War I war - military actions in 1915-1916
In the spring of 1915, the Eastern Front became the main front of the First World War. In 1915, the main attention of the "Triple Alliance" was turned to the withdrawal of Russia from the war. In May 1915, the Russians were defeated in Gorlice and retreated. The Germans took Poland and part of the Baltic lands from Russia, but they failed to withdraw Russia from the war and conclude a separate peace with it.
In 1915, special changes to Western front Did not happen. Germany used submarines for the first time against England.
German attacks without warning on civilian ships aroused the indignation of neutral countries. April 22, 1915 Germany first used the poison gas chlorine in Belgium.
To divert the attention of the Turkish army from the Caucasian front, the Anglo-French fleet fired on the fortifications in the Dardanelles, but the allies suffered damage and retreated. Under a secret agreement, in the event of victory in the Entente war, Istanbul was transferred to Russia.
The Entente, having promised Italy a number of territorial acquisitions, won it over to its side. In April 1915 in London, England, France, Russia and Italy concluded a secret agreement. Italy joined the Entente.
And in September 1915, the Quadruple Alliance was formed, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.
In October 1915, the Bulgarian army captured Serbia, and Austria-Hungary captured Montenegro and Albania.
In the summer of 1915, on the Caucasian front, the offensive of the Turkish army on Apashkert ended in vain. At the same time, England's attempt to seize Iraq ended in failure. The Turks defeated the British near Baghdad.
In 1916, the Germans became convinced of the impossibility of withdrawing Russia from the war and again concentrated their efforts on France.
On February 21, 1916, the battle of Verdun began. This battle went down in history under the name "Verdun Meat Grinder". The belligerents lost up to a million soldiers near Verdun. For six months of fighting, the Germans conquered a piece of land. The counterattack of the Anglo-French forces also did nothing. After the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, the parties again returned to trench warfare. The Battle of the Somme saw the first use of tanks by the British.
And on the Caucasian front in 1916, the Russians captured Erzurum and Trabzon.
In August 1916, Romania also entered the First World War, but was immediately defeated by the Austro-German-Bulgarian troops.
World War I-last years
On June 1, 1916, in the Battle of Jutland, neither the English nor the German fleets achieved an advantage.
In 1917, active actions began in the warring countries. In February 1917, a bourgeois-democratic revolution took place in Russia, the monarchy fell. And in October, the Bolsheviks staged a coup d'état and seized power. On March 3, 1918, the Bolsheviks in Brest-Litovsk concluded a separate peace with Germany and its allies. Russia left the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk:
- Russia has lost all territories up to the front line;
- Kars, Ardagan, Batum were returned to Turkey;
- Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine.
Russia's withdrawal from the war eased Germany's position.
The United States, which gave out large loans to European countries and wished for the victory of the Entente, became worried. In April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. But France and England did not want to share the fruits of victory with America. They wanted to end the war before the US troops arrived. Germany, on the other hand, wanted to defeat the Entente before the arrival of US troops.
In October 1917, at Caporetto, the troops of Germany and Austria-Hungary defeated a significant part of the Italian army.
In May 1918, Romania signed peace with the Quadruple Alliance and withdrew from the war. In order to help the Entente, which lost after Russia and Romania, the United States sent 300,000 soldiers to Europe. With the help of the Americans, the German breakthrough to Paris was stopped on the banks of the Marne. In August 1918, the American-Anglo-French troops besieged the Germans. And in Macedonia, the Bulgarians and Turks were defeated. Bulgaria withdrew from the war.
On October 30, 1918, Turkey signed the Armistice of Mudros, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary surrendered. Germany, on the other hand, adopted the 14 Points program put forward by W. Wilson.
On November 3, 1918, a revolution began in Germany, on November 9, the monarchy was overthrown and a republic was proclaimed.
On November 11, 1918, the French Marshal Foch, in a staff car in the Compiègne Forest, accepted the surrender of Germany. The First World War is over. Germany undertook to withdraw its troops from France, Belgium, Luxembourg and other occupied territories within 15 days.
Thus, the war ended with the defeat of the Quadruple Alliance. The advantage of the Entente in manpower and equipment decided the fate of the First World War.
The German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires collapsed. On site former empires new independent states emerged.
The First World War claimed millions of lives. Only the United States enriched itself in this war, turning into a world creditor to which England, France, Russia, Italy and other European countries were indebted.
Japan also successfully emerged from the First World War. She took over the German colonies in pacific ocean increased its influence in China. The First World War was the beginning of the crisis of the world colonial system.
WORLD WAR I
(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918), the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; 9.5 million of them were killed and died from wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled.
Main reasons. The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of unification of Germany was completed and the hegemony of Prussia was consolidated in German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the system of alliances, the foreign policy of the German government was determined by the desire to achieve Germany's dominant position in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck tried to link Russia and Austria-Hungary with Germany by secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Union of the Three Emperors fell apart. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's positions by creating the Tripartite Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany came to the fore in European diplomacy. France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891-1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, she concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aloof from rivalry on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced her to make her choice. The British could not help but be disturbed by the nationalist sentiments that prevailed in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the buildup of power. navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "cordial consent" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed an alliance Triple Entente (Triple Entente) as opposed to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape. One of the causes of the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. Formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each European countries sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans for the return of the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning their lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany. Tension in international relations was strengthened by a number of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908-1909; finally, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened her commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could hardly count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
July crisis and the beginning of the war. After Balkan Wars active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the conspiratorial organization "Young Bosnia", decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for the teachings of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was killed in the city of Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would take on a local character if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if she helps Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military formations be allowed into Serbian territory in order to prevent hostile actions together with Serbian forces. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. SD Sazonov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, openly spoke out against Austria-Hungary, having received assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgian neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. After the Germans invaded Belgium on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war. The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed to be a stalemate. This period ended with negotiations on a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry into the war of the United States on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its withdrawal from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major advance of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the surrender of the Central Powers.
First period. Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany's ties with overseas countries, from where before the war German enterprises received copper, tin and nickel. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on lightning war- Blitzkrieg. The Germans put into action the Schlieffen plan, which was supposed to ensure a rapid success in the West with a large offensive against France through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to strike a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not carried out. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy's invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgian territory. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liège, which blocked the path to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported almost 90,000 expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French, on the other hand, gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluk was 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. Commanding French forces General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to go on the counteroffensive. The first battle on the Marne began on 5 and ended on 12 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French advance on the weakened right flank made it inevitable that the German armies would retreat northward to the line of the Aisne River. The battles in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres on October 15 - November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in the hands of the Allies, which ensured communication between France and England. Paris was saved and the Entente countries got time to mobilize resources. The war in the west took on a positional character; Germany's hopes of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable. The opposition followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium to Compiègne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Miyel, and then southeast to the Swiss frontier. Along this line of trenches and barbed wire, approx. 970 km was carried out for four years trench warfare. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses on both sides. Hopes remained that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans to Koenigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with directing the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a "wedge" between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and force them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southerly direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, having captured several thousand people, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of the Russian troops posed a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial regions for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of the Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia huge losses, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to keep significant forces on the Eastern Front. As early as August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the bloc of the Central Powers. With the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany. On the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during the battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles also ended in defeat. landing operation- a naval expedition, which was equipped by the Entente countries at the beginning of 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting the Balkan states to the side of the allies. On the Eastern Front, towards the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was not possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with a new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.
War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. The German colonies were captured, and the trade of the Germans through the sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine - was blocked in their ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war there was only one major naval battle- when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6,800 killed, captured and wounded; Germans who considered themselves winners - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas. Having occupied a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the warring countries usually did not bind themselves to the observance of international law, and Great Britain so expanded the list of goods considered contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea. The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained submarine fleet, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships. On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamship Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President Wilson protested, the US and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.
Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to ask for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Operations on the Eastern and Southwestern Fronts were of great importance during the spring and summer of 1916. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive against Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were incessant attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century completely changed the way of warfare. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to the titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, according to various estimates, ranged from 208 to 359 billion dollars. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the right moment had come to start peace negotiations.
Second period.
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and December 18, 1916 turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms. As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe. The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war public opinion in the USA it was divided: some openly sided with the allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and above all the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson presented in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over everything Atlantic Ocean. Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop combat training programs. The anti-German sentiments of the North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and handed over to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmerman offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period.
The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main lines of attack. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918. On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance. On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Château-Thierry. The situation of 1914 was repeated: the Germans reached the Marne River, just 60 km from Paris. However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany. Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France. On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt to break through at Château-Thierry. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.
The last offensive of the allies. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began to relieve pressure on Château-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. In the battle of Amiens on August 8, the German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Earlier, German Chancellor Prince von Gertling believed that the Allies would sue for peace by September. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. “So we thought on the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the most optimistic among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military men convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat. The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. On June 20-26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were driven back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open. Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called August 8 - the beginning of the battle of Amiens - "a black day for German army"The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Solonik front, Bulgaria signed a truce on September 29. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria Hungary In order to negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed headed by Prince Max of Baden, who proposed to President Wilson to begin the negotiation process on October 5, 1918. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. troops were broken.The cavalry and armored vehicles of the Italians made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the name to the whole battle.On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918 agreed to conclude peace on any conditions.
Revolution in Germany. On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and headed for the General Staff, feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebellious sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies on the Russian model in northern Germany. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile, the Supreme Allied Commander, General Foch, announced that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss with them the terms of a truce. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941). On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway wagons, 5,000 vehicles; immediately release all prisoners. Naval Forces were to surrender all submarines and almost the entire surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate a truce based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a provisional basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the armistice required practically unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
The conclusion of the world. A peace conference was held in 1919 in Paris; during the sessions, agreements on five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain peace treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly peace treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon peace treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Sevres peace treaty with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Lausanne Treaty on July 24, 1923, amendments were made to the Sevres Treaty. At the peace conference in Paris, 32 states were represented. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information on the geographical, historical and economic situation of those countries on which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, dissatisfied with the solution of the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the "big three" - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George - became the main architect of the post-war world. Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve the main goal - the creation of the League of Nations. He agreed with the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. The size of the German army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal military service was abolished; the German armed forces were to be recruited from volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was forbidden to have combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in peace treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. Between Clemenceau and Wilson unfolded a fierce discussion on the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland. France's plan ran counter to the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and advocated the self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign free military treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and the 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. Coal deposits, known as the Saar basin, also passed into the possession of France for 15 years; the Saarland itself came under the control of the Commission of the League of Nations. After a 15-year period, it was planned to hold a plebiscite on the issue of the state ownership of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to decide for themselves the issue of disputed territories. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost its colonial possessions. UK acquired German East Africa and western part German Cameroon and Togo, the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand - were transferred Southwest Africa, the northeastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoa Islands. France got most of the German Togo and the eastern part of Cameroon. Japan received the German-owned Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also assumed the division of the Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks, led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to revise their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne canceled the Treaty of Sevres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Turkey took back Armenia. Syria passed to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean were ceded to Italy; the Arab territory of the Hijaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence. Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement, in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers suggested that, instead of actually handing over the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to administer as Trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called "mandatory". Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed penalties for damages, the fight over the issue ended in victory for the French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; the question of what should be included in the list of destruction presented for payment was also subjected to lengthy discussion. At first, the exact amount did not figure, only in 1921 was its size determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); later this amount was reduced. The principle of self-determination of nations has become a key one for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of defining its boundaries proved to be difficult; of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. "Polish corridor", which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New independent states arose in the Baltic region: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, and Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Romania arose in its place; the borders between these states were disputed. The problem turned out to be difficult due to the mixed settlement of different peoples. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were hurt. Romania doubled its territory with Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary has greatly decreased and is now approx. 8 million people. At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other associates, the League of Nations was to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted, and after lengthy debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations Agreement represented that part of the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was also asked to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign it on the grounds that the agreement was not in line with Wilson's Fourteen Points. In the end, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, ecstatic with victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
LITERATURE
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975 Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, the USSR and international conflicts in the first half of the 20th century. M., 1989 On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the start of the First World War. M., 1990 Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914-1915. M., 1990 Kudrina Yu.V. Returning to the origins of the First World War. Pathways to safety. M., 1994 The First World War: debatable problems of history. M., 1994 World War I: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994 Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. World War I and prospects community development Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995 World War I: Prologue of the 20th century. M., 1998
Wikipedia
1914 - 1918
(Thousand nine hundred and fourteenth - one thousand nine hundred and eighteenth)
1) SHORT VERSION about World War 1
2) Detailed version of the first world war
SHORT VERSION
About the first world war in brief 1914 - 1918
Pervaya mirovaya vo yna 1914 - 1918
The beginning of the first world war
Stages of the First World War
Causes of World War I
Results of the First World War
The First World War, in short, is one of the largest and most difficult military conflicts of the 20th century.
- Causes of military conflict
- Main contributors
- Reason for war
- The beginning of the war 1914
- The course of the war
- The results of the war (1918)
Causes of military conflict
- In order to understand the causes of the First World War, it is necessary to briefly consider the balance of power in Europe. Three major world powers - the Russian Empire, Great Britain and England by the 19th century had already divided spheres of influence among themselves. Until a certain point, Germany did not aspire to a dominant position in Europe; it was more concerned with its economic growth.
But everything changed at the end of the 19th century. Having strengthened economically and militarily, Germany began to urgently need a new living space for a growing population and markets for its goods. Colonies were needed, which Germany did not have. To achieve this, it was necessary to start a new redistribution of the world by defeating the allied bloc of three powers - England, Russia and France.
By the end of the 19th century, Germany's aggressive plans became completely clear to her neighbors. In response to the German threat, the Entente alliance was created, consisting of Russia, France and England that joined them.
In addition to Germany's desire to win back living space and the colonies, there were other causes of the First World War. This question is so complex that there is still no single point of view on this matter. Each of the main countries participating in the conflict puts forward its own reasons.
The First World War, in short, began because of the irreconcilable contradictions between the countries of the Entente and the Central Union, primarily between Great Britain and Germany. Other states also had their claims to each other.
Another reason for the war is the choice of the path of development of society. And here again two points of view clashed - Western European and Central-South European.
Could the war have been avoided? All sources unanimously say that it is possible if the leadership of the countries participating in the conflict would really want it. Germany was most interested in the war, for which she was fully prepared, and made every effort to start it.
The main participants in the hostilities of 1914-1918
The war was fought between the two largest political blocs at the time - the Entente and the Central Bloc (formerly the Triple Alliance). The Entente included the Russian Empire, England and France. The central bloc consisted of the following countries: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy. The latter later joined the Entente, and the Triple Alliance included Bulgaria and Turkey.
In total, 38 countries participated in the First World War, in short.
Reason for war
The beginning of the military conflict was associated with the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. The killer was a member of the Yugoslav revolutionary youth organization.
The beginning of the war of 1914 - 1918
This event was enough for Austria-Hungary to start a war with Serbia. In early July, the Austrian authorities announced that Serbia was behind the murder of the Archduke and put forward an ultimatum that could not be fulfilled. Serbia, however, agrees to all of its terms except one. Germany, for which the war was urgently needed, stubbornly pushed Austria-Hungary to declare war. At this time, all three countries are mobilizing.
July 28 (1914) Austria-Hungary announces that Serbia has not fulfilled the conditions of the ultimatum, begins shelling the capital and sends troops into its territory. Nicholas II calls in a telegram to Wilhelm I for a peaceful resolution of the situation with the help of the Hague Conference. The German authorities are silent in response.
July 31 (1914) already Germany announces an ultimatum to Russia and demands to stop mobilization, and on August 1 (1914) comes the official declaration of war.
It must be said that none of the participants in these events imagined that the war, which was planned to end within a few months, would drag on for more than 4 years from 1914 to 1918.
World War I - The course of the war
- It is easier and more convenient to divide the course of the war into five periods, according to the years during which it was going on.
1914 - hostilities unfolded on the Western (France) and Eastern (Prussia, Russia) fronts, the Balkans and colonies (Oceania, Africa and China). Germany quickly captured Belgium and Luxembourg, and launched an offensive against France. Russia led a successful offensive in Prussia. In general, in 1914, none of the countries managed to fully realize their plans.
1915 - Fierce fighting took place on the Western Front, where France and Germany were desperate to turn the tide in their favor. On the Eastern Front for the Russian troops, the situation has changed for the worse. Due to supply problems, the army began to retreat, losing Galicia and Poland.
1916 - during this period, the most bloody battle took place on the Western Front - Verdun, during which more than a million people died. Russia, seeking to help the allies and pull the forces of the German army towards itself, made a successful attempt at a counteroffensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.
1917 - the success of the Entente troops. The USA joins them. As a result of revolutionary events, Russia is actually withdrawing from the war.
1918 - the conclusion by Russia on extremely unfavorable and difficult conditions of peace with Germany. The rest of Germany's allies conclude peace with the Entente countries. Germany remains alone and in November 1918 agrees to surrender.
The results of the war 1918
Before World War II, this military conflict was the most widespread, affecting almost the entire Earth. The shocking number of victims (taking into account the loss of those killed among the military and civilians, as well as the wounded) is about 80 million people. Within 5 years (from the beginning of the war until 1918), such empires as the Ottoman, Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian collapsed.
World War I in
DETAILED VERSION
CONTENT OF THE DETAILED ARTICLE:
- Causes of the war
- Reason for war
- Participating countries
- Russia before the war
- The balance of forces and means
- Events of 1914
- Events of 1915
- Events of 1916
- Events of 1917
- Events of 1918
- Russia's exit from the war
- Results of the worldwars
Map of the First World War 1914-1918
Causes of the war
The main reason for the start of the First World War was the desire of the developed countries of Europe, such as England, France, Austria-Hungary, to remake the world order. The collapsed world colonial system, which allowed these countries to enrich themselves by plundering colonies, forced them to look for other resources.
We had to think about new markets and expand our spheres of influence. To do this, it is necessary to weaken the economic and military development of competitors. It was supposed, in the course of hostilities, to solve their own problems. After all, the influence of nationalists has increased in every country.
Relationships escalated:
World War I is inevitable...
Between England and Germany. England could not allow an increase in the military power of Germany, her intervention in what was happening in the Balkans. And Germany wanted to weaken the naval superiority of England.
Between Germany and France. The first was ready to take back Lorraine and Alsace, lost in the war, and conquer a coal deposit in the Sar region.
Between Germany and Russia. The Germans simply dreamed of taking away Polish, Ukrainian and Baltic lands from Russia.
Between Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. These two countries wanted to influence the course of events in the Balkans. Russia sought to become the sole mistress in the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
Under such conditions, war was inevitable.
Cause for war
On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, who was supposed to take the throne, was assassinated. The murder received a huge response. And on June 29, that is, on the second day, the French politician Jean Jaurès was killed. He was an active opponent of the impending war.
Participating countries
Two groups took part in the war.
1. Atlanta, it included the military armies of Russia, Great Britain, France. These countries were officially part of the union. And the allied forces of America, Italy, Canada, Romania also took part.
2. The triple alliance of Germany, Turkey, Austria-Hungary. Later - Bulgaria.
Russia before the war
- Before the war of 1914, military reform was carried out in Russia. Increased spending on the maintenance of the army and navy. The numerical strength was equal to two million people. A rather perfect Charter of the Armed Forces was adopted, motivating soldiers and officers to show initiative and courage.
- The country's economy has achieved impressive results. The industry was on the rise, capital investments in the technical modernization of enterprises were growing. Trusts, syndicates, concerns began to appear.
- AT agriculture In 1906, the Stolypin agrarian reform began. Its goal was to create strong village proprietors. The transformation of agricultural enterprises began, the growth of production increased markedly.
- Income per capita grew rapidly (17% from 1908 to 1913).
- The changes have led to this. That the constitutional form of the monarchy was established in the country. A multiparty system was established (Octobrists, Cadets, liberals, democrats, etc.). The State Duma, almost unanimously, voted in favor of issuing loans to a military company. It was supposed to wage war until victory. The Bolsheviks were against the issuance of loans. The general mobilization of the population began
The balance of forces and means
Despite the positive changes in the army, the main drawback was the lack of technical equipment. Russian generals underestimated important role artillery for the course of hostilities. As before, a bet was made on cavalry and infantry. As a result, more than 70% of human lives, for the entire duration of the war, were destroyed by enemy artillery.
Russia was never able to complete the preparations for the First World War at the proper level, unlike Germany.
World War I allocated seats different countries combat equipment participants
In terms of the number of heavy guns, Germany ranked first - 3200, Austria-Hungary second - 1000, Russia third, which had only 198 guns.
. In terms of the number of infantry, Russia occupied the first place - 5.3 million people. Second Germany and France - 3.8 million people each. Austria-Hungary had about 2.3 million.
In Germany, industrial enterprises could supply 250,000 shells to the army daily. The Germans were well aware that at the front, much would depend on artillery.
Due to poor technical equipment Russian troops, the war for her was a very difficult test.
Events of 1914
Russia took part in the First World War on August 01, 1914. Nikolay 2 became the commander-in-chief.
On August 4, Germany invaded Belgium without declaring war. Superbly equipped troops boldly moved across foreign land. But the French managed to quickly transfer their divisions to the place of the breakthrough. From the first days, the Germans were drawn into fighting on two fronts. In the eastern direction there were battles with the Russians. And on the western front with the French. The German command urgently developed the Schlieffen Plan. It was an ambitious plan for a lightning victory. It was planned to defeat France in 40 days, and then send all the forces to Russia.
On August 7 (1914), the French already moved into Germany, capturing cities. But under the onslaught of the enemy, they had to return to their positions, even leaving a small part of their territories.
German troops quickly advanced deep into France. They needed to bypass Paris and surround the French army. But it was a difficult task. The soldiers were already tired of many kilometers of fighting, communications fell behind, and the flanks were exposed. It was decided, instead of capturing the French in the ring, hit them in the rear. Carrying out the maneuver, they left the right flank of the army without proper protection, which the French command immediately took advantage of. This led to the defeat of the Germans. September 5 (1914) near the small river Marne, there was a terrible battle. More than two million people took part in it.
This battle was very significant in morally. For the French, this was the first victory, which raised the spirits and morale of the soldiers. And for the Germans, on the contrary, it became the beginning of disappointment and depression.
November 11 (1914) German troops threw British, students and workers at machine guns. This was the beginning of the fact that people and soldiers began to be used as "cannon fodder."
The Russian army, understaffed completely, launched an offensive in Prussia. Initially, the successful actions of the Russians forced the Germans to retreat. They had to transfer part of the army from the French front. The grand plan failed. Russia was able to save France at the cost of her two destroyed armies.
In August, Russia launched an offensive in Galicia against Austria. It was very successful and Austria withdrew from the war with about 400,000 casualties. The Russians lost about 150,000.
Summary of 1914. It was dynamic military action. The armies maneuvered, there was no solid front, even the defensive structures were erected temporary. Only at the end of autumn, tired of the offensive, the troops went on the defensive. The widespread construction of trenches and barriers began.
For Russia, the company has developed quite successfully. The Austrians were attacked and even managed to seize territories. The Germans were unable to complete their plans for Russia.
A protracted war on positions began.
Events of 1915
Calm on the western front reigned for more than four months. Germany was preparing forces against Russia.
On April 22 (1915), the Germans used chemical weapons (chlorine) for the first time in the world when counterattacking British troops. 5000 people died. The Germans took advantage of the panic and broke through the front. After this attack, gas masks were developed in all armies.
And on May 3, the Entente countries launched an offensive, before which. Artillery preparation was carried out for 6 days. More than two million shells were fired.
In 1915, the German command decided to send all its forces to the eastern front, where there was a war with Russia. The Germans came to the conclusion that she was the most unfit army. They created a plan for the destruction of the Russian armies. It was thwarted, but at the cost of very heavy losses. About 800,000 people were killed, about 900,000 surrendered. Poland was lost, most of western Ukraine, the Baltic states. Russian troops took up defense along the entire front.
In the spring, the Gorlitsky breakthrough was made by the Germans and Austrians. A huge number of troops were concentrated in Galicia.
On April 19 (1915) the offensive began. The Russians were sorely short of shells for light guns. But there were no heavy ones at all. Inept command, a lack of soldiers led to this. What had to retreat
The Germans, having achieved success, decided to continue the offensive.
A crisis in the supply of provisions, weapons, and ammunition began in the Russian army. As a result, Galicia was also lost. Terrible command errors and poor technical equipment army. The superiority in heavy artillery among the Germans was 40 times greater.
On the front with France there were inactive hostilities. No one took the initiative into their own hands. Forces were gathered, the economy was mobilized, preparations were underway for the further conduct of the war. And although Nicholas 2 asked for help from the allies several times, he was refused.
But the Germans did not succeed in withdrawing Russia from the war, although a lot of effort was expended. It was obvious that the war would last for a long time, because in a year and a half of hostilities no one received a significant advantage.
At the end of the year, the front was an almost straight line that connected the Baltic and Black Seas. The Russian economy was weakening more and more, along with it, the morale of the soldiers was weakening.
Events of 1916
In 1916, the Germans launched a massive offensive against France. Paris was their destination. The city of Verdun was the first to stand on the way. The fighting near this heroic city lasted until the very end of the year. More than two million people died. Only because the Russian troops stepped up their actions on the southern front of the Germans, France managed to hold its positions.
In the battles near Verdun, technical innovations were first used, such as a flamethrower and a fighter aircraft with a machine gun on board.
In May 1916, a long Russian offensive began, under the command of General Brusilov. It was possible to break through the enemy defenses and occupy the territory 120 kilometers inland. The German army suffered terrible losses, more than one and a half million dead. And again the Germans managed to stop our offensive only by transferring the army from near Verdun.
As a result, in 1916, Atlanta had the advantage and the initiative.
Events of 1917
In 1917, the revolutionary situation escalated in Russia and Germany. The economic condition of the countries has deteriorated catastrophically. Growing food prices, along with them grew indignation of the people. A large number of those killed on the fronts and the instability of the economy allowed the revolutionaries of both countries to become more active.
The Atlantean countries began to actively help the United States, because the situation in the armies was critical. The dissatisfaction grew every day. On the Eastern Front, active agitation was carried out by the Bolsheviks. The army was finally losing the rest of its combat capability. There was a very severe winter in the Caucasus, and the armies did not fight. Frost and disease claimed the lives of the fighters. General Yudenich decided to leave only guards on the battle lines, and sent all his forces to the valley. In villages for accommodation in apartments.
The Americans entered the First World War, and Germany had to fight again on 2 fronts. It was difficult, and she went on the defensive.
In the spring of 1017, the Germans launched offensive operations on the Western Front. Under pressure from the allies, the Provisional Government sent the Russian army on the offensive, thereby again saving them from big problems. The troops themselves suffered huge losses. These were key events 1917
Events of 1918
Finally, Germany did not have to wage war on 2 fronts. And in the spring she began active operations on the Western Front. But it became clear that the army was exhausted and it was simply necessary to take a break for rest.
In winter, the Germans began to prepare for offensives. An instruction was issued on the rules of the offensive in trench warfare. The armies, which were entrusted with the main offensive functions, were assigned to the rear. There, soldiers and officers were trained in new tactics of offensive combat. It was a sudden attack special units. It should be preceded by a short but very effective artillery preparation.
In March, Germany demonstrated in action the offensive under the new instructions. Indeed, this tactic worked. The western front was broken through, and the Germans advanced 50 kilometers behind enemy lines. All Germany was glad, it seemed that the end of the war was coming soon. Victory was already on the horizon
The decisive offensive was scheduled for July 15, 1918. The euphoria of the Germans was so great that even the officers voiced secret information in inappropriate places, and they failed to take Paris. The Entente countries had reserves and could quickly transfer them to the places of the breakthrough. The Germans could not make up for the heavy losses. All resources were exhausted and depleted.
On August 8, 7 divisions of Germany were defeated. The soldiers began to surrender in whole units.
In the fall of 1918, the Atlanta countries began their offensive. The Germans were expelled from France and Belgium. And already in October, Germany was completely left alone, because the allied countries made peace with the enemy. In Germany itself, Wilhelm 2 was overthrown. Thus the world war came to an end in 1918.
Russia's exit from the war
Russian soldiers, tired and exhausted, did not want to fight anymore. There were not enough provisions, uniforms, there was a poor technical equipment of the army. But still, even though with great difficulty the army moved forward. The Germans transferred fresh troops, and the allied countries only watched the confrontation.
On July 6, the Germans launched a counteroffensive. It was the decisive blow. 150 thousand soldiers died. The fighting capacity of the army was completely destroyed. Russia could no longer continue this bloody war.
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, who seized power, put forward a demand to withdraw from the First World War. At the congress of the Bolsheviks, a decree "On Peace" was signed.
Russia withdrew from the war at a time when the Germans were completely weakened. It remained quite a bit to strain all the countries of the Entente, and victory was guaranteed. For the allies, the exit was completely unexpected. The Bolsheviks knew that for their victory it was necessary to end the war. They offered it to all countries. But the allies did not even respond to such a proposal. Then the Russians, unilaterally, decided on a peace treaty. The fighting was suspended for 28 days. Long negotiations began.
More experienced diplomats and lawyers of Germany in their demands put forward the independence of the country, and the ability not to withdraw troops from the border with the Russian Empire. Trotsky, who represented Russia, said that he would not sign any peace documents under such conditions. He just left Brest for Moscow.
Negotiations broke down and the Germans launched an offensive. Then Lenin decided on all the German conditions.
The Brest-Litovsk Treaty was very tough. Russia ceded its territories and had to pay indemnities.
On March 3, 1918, the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, according to which Russia ceded to the opponents about 1 million square meters. m. territories. Russia came out of the war on terrible conditions. But rest and preparation for the next battles and the imperialist forces were extremely important to her. These were the results of Russia's withdrawal from the First World War.
Military results of the war that lasted until 1918
- Starting the war, the generals of staffs relied on the experience of previous military companies.
- Victory was to be achieved by massive attacks and the destruction of a large number of the enemy.
- After this military campaign, it was concluded that modern wars will involve the entire civilian population in the process, too.
- The economy should be directed to military needs.
- And the conflict can only end in complete victory.The World War was the impetus for the development of new weapons.
- Tanks appeared, chemical weapons and flamethrowers were used for the first time. Aircraft and submarines took an active part in the battles.
- The firepower of the armies was supported by machine guns and mortars, as well as anti-aircraft guns. New independent types of troops appeared: air defense, tank and engineering troops.
The First World War also determined to the economic results of the war of 1914-1918
- The United States emerged from the war as a strong power. The national economy of the country has grown war time almost 40%. Military supplies, which were carried out for both sides of the conflict, made it possible to enrich all kinds of corporations in the country. In America, during this period, huge reserves of gold were concentrated. This contributed to the fact that now the Americans played the role of world creditor. The financial center moved to New York.
- In Europe, the population has decreased by 36 million people. The territories of the countries participating in the war were destroyed and plundered. Their national wealth has been significantly reduced. At the same time, in Japan and the United States, it only grew. The war has become a good source of income for these countries. Their profit was more than 35 billion dollars.
- France regained Lorraine and a 15-year lease on a coal deposit in the Saarland. England and France became financially dependent states from the USA.
- England has lost most of its fleet.
- Germany, where the war claimed millions of lives, was in complete economic ruin. In addition, she was obliged to compensate the countries that won the conflict for more than 130 million marks. Was almost completely destroyed navy. And according to the peace treaty, she could not have her own army, exceeding 100,000 people.
- A protracted and long war showed everything weak spots in the economies of countries. For the first time there was such a thing as inflation. After it, planning, the development of military complexes, defense enterprises began to be applied.
- But in subsequent years, loans from America and England, the introduction of scientific methods into production, the education of engineers and the high qualification of workers, allowed backward Germany to come out on top in the European market. German firms recovered their positions very quickly. In the 1920s, the economy began to rise and stabilize. The United States has grown at a particularly fast pace.
Map of the First World War until 1918 No. 1
Map of the First World War until 1918 No. 2
Map of the First World War until 1918 No. 3
Content:
Any war, no matter what its nature and scale, always brings tragedy with it. It is the pain of loss that does not subside with time. This is the destruction of houses, buildings and structures that are monuments of centuries-old culture. During the war, families break up, customs and foundations are broken. All the more tragic is a war involving many states, and which, in this regard, is defined as a world war. One of the saddest pages in the history of mankind was the First World War.
Main reasons
Europe on the eve of the 20th century was formed as a conglomerate of Great Britain, Russia and France. Germany remained on the sidelines. But only as long as its industry stood on strong feet, strengthened military power. So far, she did not aspire to the role of the main force in Europe, but she began to lack markets for the sale of her products. There was a lack of space. Access to international trade routes was limited.
Over time, the highest echelons of power in Germany realized that the country lacked colonies for its development. Russia was a vast state with vast expanses. France and England did not develop without the help of the colonies. Thus Germany was the first to ripen for the necessity of repartitioning the world. But how to fight against the bloc, which included the most strong countries: England, France and Russia?
It is clear that one cannot do it alone. And the country enters into a bloc with Austria-Hungary, Italy. Soon this block was named Central. In 1904, England and France enter into a military-political alliance and call it the Entente, which means "cordial agreement." Before that, France and Russia signed an agreement in which the countries pledged to help each other in case of military conflicts.
Therefore, the alliance between Great Britain and Russia was a matter of the near future. Soon this happened. In 1907, these countries entered into an agreement in which they defined spheres of influence in Asian territories. With this, the tension that separated the British and Russians was removed. Russia joined the Entente. Some time later, already during the hostilities, Germany's former ally Italy also gained membership in the Entente.
Thus, two powerful military blocs were formed, the confrontation of which could not but result in a military conflict. The most interesting thing is that the desire to acquire colonies and markets that the Germans dreamed of is far from the main reasons for the subsequent outbreak of world war. There were mutual claims of other countries to each other. But all of them were not so important as to unleash a global fire of war because of them.
Historians are still scratching their heads over the main reason that prompted all of Europe to take up arms. Each state names its own reasons. One gets the feeling that this most important reason was not at all. Has the global slaughter of people become the reason for the ambitious mood of some politicians?
There are a number of scholars who believe that the contradictions between Germany and England gradually escalated until a military conflict arose. The rest of the countries were simply forced to fulfill their allied duty. There is also another reason. This is the definition of the path of socio-economic development of society. On the one hand, the Western European model dominated, on the other, the Central-South European one.
History, as you know, does not like the subjunctive mood. And yet, more and more often the question arises - was it possible to avoid that terrible war? Yes, you certainly may. But only in the event that the leaders of European states, primarily the German one, would like it.
Germany felt its power and military strength. She could not wait to walk around Europe with a victorious step and stand at the head of the continent. No one then could have imagined that the war would drag on for more than 4 years, and what consequences it would lead to. Everyone saw the war fast, lightning-fast and victorious on each side.
The fact that such a position was illiterate and irresponsible in all respects is evidenced by the fact that 38 countries were involved in the military conflict, covering one and a half billion people. Wars with such a large number of participants cannot end quickly.
So, Germany was preparing for war, waiting. I needed a reason. And he did not keep himself waiting.
The war started with one shot
Gavrilo Princip was an unknown student from Serbia. But he was in the youth revolutionary organization. On June 28, 1914, the student immortalized his name with black glory. He shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. Among some historians, no, no, yes, a note of annoyance will slip through, they say, if the fatal shot had not happened, the war would not have arisen. They are wrong. There would still be a reason. Yes, and organizing it was not difficult.
Less than a month later, on July 23, the Austrian-Hungarian government issued an ultimatum to Serbia. The document contained requirements that could not be met. Serbia undertook to fulfill many points of the ultimatum. But Serbia refused to open the border for law enforcement agencies of Austria-Hungary to investigate the crime. Although there was no outright refusal, it was proposed that negotiations be held on this item.
Austria-Hungary rejected this proposal and declared war on Serbia. In less than a day, bombs rained down on Belgorod. Following on the territory of Serbia entered the Austro-Hungarian troops. Nicholas II telegraphs Wilhelm I with a request to peacefully resolve the conflict. Recommends that the dispute be brought to the Hague Conference. Germany responded with silence. On July 28, 1914, the First World War began.
Huge plans
It is clear that Germany stood behind Austria-Hungary. And her arrows were directed not towards Serbia, but towards France. After the capture of Paris, the Germans intended to invade Russia. The goal was to subjugate part of the French colonies in Africa, some provinces of Poland and the Baltic states, belonging to Russia.
Germany intended to further expand its possessions at the expense of Turkey, the countries of the Middle and Near East. Of course, the redistribution of the world was started by the leaders of the German-Austrian bloc. They are considered the main culprits of the started conflict, which escalated into the First World War. It is amazing how simple the leaders of the German General Staff, who were developing the blitzkrieg operation, imagined the victory march.
Given the impossibility of conducting a quick campaign, fighting on two fronts: with France in the west and with Russia in the east, they decided to deal with the French first. Assuming that Germany would mobilize in ten days, and Russia would need at least a month for this, they intended to deal with France in 20 days, in order to then attack Russia.
So the military leaders calculated General Staff that in parts they will deal with their main opponents and in the same summer of 1914 they will celebrate the victory. For some reason, they decided that Great Britain, frightened by Germany's victorious march across Europe, would not get involved in the war. As for England, the calculation was simple. The country did not have strong ground forces, although it had a powerful navy.
Russia did not need additional territories. Well, the turmoil started by Germany, as it seemed then, was decided to be used to strengthen its influence on the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, subjugate Constantinople, unite the lands of Poland and become a sovereign mistress in the Balkans. By the way, these plans were part of the general plan of the Entente states.
Austria-Hungary did not want to stand aside. Her thoughts extended exclusively to the Balkan countries. Each country got involved in the war, not only fulfilling its allied duty, but also trying to grab its own part of the victory pie.
After a break, caused by waiting for an answer to the telegram, which never came, Nicholas II announced general mobilization. Germany issued an ultimatum demanding that the mobilization be cancelled. Here Russia has already kept silent and continued to carry out the decree of the emperor. On July 19, Germany announced the beginning of the war against Russia.
And yet on two fronts
In planning for victories and celebrating forthcoming conquests, countries were ill-prepared for war in technical terms. At this time, new, more advanced types of weapons appeared. Naturally, they could not help but influence the tactics of warfare. But this was not taken into account by the military leaders, who were accustomed to using the old, outdated methods.
An important point was the involvement of more soldiers during operations, specialists who can work on new technology. Therefore, the schemes of battles and diagrams of victories drawn at the headquarters were crossed out by the course of the war from the first days.
However, they were mobilized powerful armies. The Entente troops numbered up to six million soldiers and officers, the Triple Alliance gathered three and a half million people under its banner. For the Russians, this was a big test. At this time, Russia continued military operations against the Turkish troops in the Transcaucasus.
On the Western Front, which the Germans initially considered the main one, they had to fight the French and the British. In the east, the Russian armies entered the battle. The United States refrained from military action. Only in 1917, American soldiers landed in Europe and took the side of the Entente.
The Supreme Commander in Russia became Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich. As a result of mobilization, the Russian army grew from one and a half million people to five and a half million. 114 divisions were formed. 94 divisions came out against the Germans, Austrians and Hungarians. Germany fielded 20 of its own and 46 allied divisions against the Russians.
So the Germans began to fight against France. And they stopped almost immediately. The front, which at first arched towards the French, soon leveled off. They were assisted by the British units that arrived on the continent. The battles went on with varying success. This came as a surprise to the Germans. And Germany decides to withdraw Russia from the theater of operations.
First, fighting on two fronts was unproductive. Secondly, it was not possible to dig trenches along the entire length of the Eastern Front because of the vast distances. Well, the cessation of hostilities promised Germany the release of armies to use them against England and France.
East Prussian operation
At the request of the command of the French armed forces, two armies were hastily formed. The first was commanded by General Pavel Rennenkampf, the second - by General Alexander Samsonov. Armies were built in haste. After the mobilization was announced, almost all the military personnel who were in the reserve arrived at the recruiting stations. There was no time to sort things out, officer positions were filled quickly, non-commissioned officers had to be enrolled in the rank and file.
As historians note, at that moment both armies were the color of the Russian army. They were led by military generals, glorified in battles in the east of Russia, as well as in China. The beginning of the East Prussian operation was successful. On August 7, 1914, the 1st Army, near Gumbinen, utterly defeated the German 8th Army. The victory turned the heads of the commanders of the North-Western Front, and they ordered Rennenkampf to advance on Königsberg, then go to Berlin.
The commander of the 1st Army, following the order, was forced to remove several corps from the French direction, including three of them from the most dangerous sector. The 2nd Army of General Samsonov was under attack. Further events were disastrous for both armies. Both of them began to develop offensives, being far from each other. The warriors were tired and hungry. There was not enough bread. Communication between the armies was carried out by radiotelegraph.
The messages were sent in plain text, so the Germans knew about all the movements military units. And then there were also messages from higher commanders that brought disorder into the deployment of armies. The Germans managed to block the army of Alexander Samsonov with the help of 13 divisions, deprive it of its advantageous strategic position. On August 10, the German army of General Hindenburg begins to surround the Russians and by August 16 drives it into swampy places.
Selected guards corps were destroyed. Communication with the army of Paul Rennenkampf was interrupted. At an extremely tense moment, the general with staff officers leaves for dangerous object. Realizing the hopelessness of the situation, acutely experiencing the death of his guardsmen, the illustrious general shoots himself.
Appointed instead of Samsonov as commander, General Klyuev gives the order to surrender. But not all officers followed this order. Officers who did not obey Klyuev led about 10,000 soldiers out of the swampy cauldron. It was a crushing defeat for the Russian army.
General P. Rennenkampf was blamed for the disaster of the 2nd Army. He was credited with treason, cowardice. The general was forced to leave the army. On the night of April 1, 1918, the Bolsheviks shot Pavel Rennenkapf, accusing him of betraying General Alexander Samsonov. That's really, as they say, from a sick head to a healthy one. Back in tsarist times, the general was even credited with the fact that he bore a German surname, which means he had to be a traitor.
In this operation, the Russian army lost 170,000 fighters, the Germans were missing 37,000 people. That's just the victory of the German troops in this operation was strategically equal to zero. But the destruction of the army settled in the souls of the Russians devastation, panic. The mood of patriotism has disappeared.
Yes, the East Prussian operation was a disaster for the Russian army. Only she confused the cards for the Germans. The loss of the best sons of Russia became a salvation for the French armed forces. The Germans failed to capture Paris. Subsequently, Marshal Foch of France noted that thanks to Russia, France was not wiped off the face of the earth.
The death of the Russian army forced the Germans to switch all their forces and all their attention towards the east. This, ultimately, predetermined the victory of the Entente.
Galician operation
In contrast to the northwestern theater of operations in the southwestern direction, the affairs of the Russian troops were much more successful. In the operation, later called the Galician, which began on August 5 and ended on September 8, the troops of Austria-Hungary fought against the Russian armies. Approximately two million soldiers from both sides took part in the battles. 5,000 guns fired at the enemy.
The front line stretched for four hundred kilometers. The army of General Alexei Brusilov launched an attack on the enemy on August 8. Two days later, the rest of the armies entered the battle. It took the Russian army a little more than a week to break through the enemy defenses and go deep into enemy territory up to three hundred kilometers.
The cities of Galich, Lviv, as well as the vast territory of the whole of Galicia, were captured. The Austro-Hungarian troops lost half their strength, approximately 400,000 fighters. The enemy army lost its combat capability until the very end of the war. The losses of Russian formations amounted to 230,000 people.
The Galician operation affected further military operations. It was this operation that broke all the plans of the German General Staff for a lightning-fast military campaign. German hopes faded armed forces allies, in particular Austria-Hungary. The German command had to urgently redeploy military units. And in this case, divisions had to be withdrawn from the Western Front.
It is also important that it was at this time that Italy left its ally Germany and took the side of the Entente.
Warsaw-Ivangorod and Lodz operations
October 1914 was also marked by the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation. On the eve of October, the Russian command decided to transfer the troops stationed in Galicia to Poland in order to subsequently deliver a direct blow to Berlin. The Germans, to support the Austrians, transferred the 8th Army of General von Hindenburg to help her. The armies were given the task of entering the rear of the Northwestern Front. But first, it was necessary to attack the troops of both fronts - the North-Western and South-Western.
The Russian command sent three armies and two corps from Galicia to the Ivangorod-Warsaw line. The fighting was accompanied by a large number of dead and wounded. The Russians fought bravely. Heroism took on a massive character. It was here that for the first time the name of the pilot Nesterov, who committed a heroic deed in the sky, became widely known. For the first time in the history of aviation, he went to ram an enemy aircraft.
On October 26, the advance of the Austro-German forces was stopped. They were pushed back to their original positions. The troops of Austria-Hungary during the period of the operation lost up to 100,000 people killed, the Russians - 50,000 fighters.
Three days after the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, hostilities moved to the Lodz region. The Germans set out to encircle and destroy the 2nd and 5th armies, which are part of the Northwestern Front. The German command transferred nine divisions from the Western Front. The fights were very stubborn. But for the Germans, they were unsuccessful.
The year 1914 became a strength test for the warring armies. A lot of blood was shed. The Russians lost up to two million soldiers in battles, the German-Austrian troops thinned out by 950,000 soldiers. None of the parties received a tangible advantage. Although Russia, not being ready for military action, saved Paris, forced the Germans to fight on two fronts at once.
Everyone suddenly realized that the war would be protracted, and a lot more blood would be shed. The German command began to develop an offensive plan in 1915 along the entire line of the Eastern Front. But again, a hatred mood reigned in the German General Staff. It was decided to quickly deal with Russia first, and then one by one to defeat France, then England. By the end of 1914, there was a lull on the fronts.
Calm before the storm
Throughout 1915, the belligerents were in a state of passive support of their troops in their positions. There was a preparation and redeployment of troops, the delivery of equipment, weapons. This was especially true for Russia, since by the beginning of the war the factories producing weapons and ammunition were not fully prepared. The reform in the army at that time was not yet completed. The year 1915 gave a favorable respite for this. But it was not always quiet on the fronts.
Having concentrated all forces on the Eastern Front, the Germans initially achieve success. The Russian army is forced to leave positions. This takes place in 1915. The army retreats with heavy losses. The Germans did not take into account one thing. The factor of vast territories begins to act against them.
Out on Russian land after thousands of kilometers of foot crossings with weapons and ammunition, the German soldiers were left without strength. Having conquered part of the Russian territory, they did not become winners. However, it was not difficult to defeat the Russians at this moment. The army was almost without weapons and ammunition. Sometimes three ammunition made up the entire arsenal of means of one gun. But even in an almost unarmed state, Russian troops inflicted significant damage on the Germans. The highest spirit of patriotism was also not taken into account by the conquerors.
Having not achieved noticeable results in the battles with the Russians, Germany returned to the Western Front. The Germans and the French met on the battlefield near Verdun. It was more like exterminating each other. In that battle, 600 thousand soldiers fell. The French survived. Germany was unable to turn the tide of battle in its favor. But that was already in 1916. Germany became more and more bogged down in the war, dragging after itself more and more countries.
And 1916 began with the victories of the Russian armies. Turkey, which was at that time in alliance with Germany, suffered a series of defeats from the Russian troops. Having advanced deep into Turkey up to 300 kilometers, the armies of the Caucasian Front occupied the cities of Erzerum and Trebizond as a result of a number of victorious operations.
After the lull, the victorious march was continued by the army under the command of Alexei Brusilov.
To ease the tension on the Western Front, the Entente allies turned to Russia with a request to start hostilities. Otherwise, the French army could be destroyed. Russian military leaders considered this an adventure that could turn into a collapse. But the order came to attack the Germans.
The offensive operation was led by General Alexei Brusilov. According to the tactics developed by the general, the offensive was launched on a broad front. In this state, the enemy could not determine the direction of the main attack. For two days, on May 22 and 23, 1916, artillery salvos thundered over the German trenches. Artillery preparation gave way to a lull. As soon as the German soldiers got out of the trenches to take up positions, the shelling began again.
It took only three hours to crush the enemy's first line of defense. Several tens of thousands of soldiers and officers of the enemy were captured. The Brusilovites advanced for 17 days. But the command did not allow Brusilov to develop this offensive. The order was given to stop the offensive and go on the defensive.
It's been 7 days. And Brusilov was again given the command to go on the attack. But time has been lost. The Germans managed to pull up reserves and well prepare fortification redoubts. Brusilov's army had a hard time. Although the offensive continued, but slowly, and with losses that could not be called justified. With the onset of November, Brusilov's army completed its breakthrough.
The results of the Brusilov breakthrough are impressive. 1.5 million enemy soldiers and officers were killed, another 500 were taken prisoner. Russian troops entered Bukovina, occupied part of the territory of East Prussia. The French army was saved. The Brusilovsky breakthrough was the most notable military operation of the First World War. But Germany continued to fight.
A new commander-in-chief was appointed. The Austrians transferred 6 divisions from the south, where they opposed the Italian troops, to the Eastern Front. For the successful advance of Brusilov's army, support was needed from other fronts. She didn't follow.
Historians give this operation very great importance. They believe that it was a crushing blow to the German troops, after which the country never recovered. Its result was the practical withdrawal of Austria from the war. But General Brusilov, summing up his feat, noted that his army worked for others, and not for Russia. By this, he seemed to say that the Russian soldiers saved the allies, but did not reach the main turning point of the war. Even though there was a fracture.
The year 1916 became favorable for the troops of the Entente, in particular, for Russia. At the end of the year, the armed forces numbered 6.5 million soldiers and officers, of which 275 divisions were formed. In the theater of operations stretching from the Black to the Baltic Seas, 135 divisions participated in military operations from Russia.
But the losses of Russian military personnel were huge. During the entire period of the First World War, Russia lost seven million of its best sons and daughters. The tragedy of the Russian troops was especially clearly manifested in 1917. Having shed a sea of blood on the battlefields, and emerging victorious in many decisive battles, the country did not take advantage of the fruits of its victories.
The reason was that the Russian army was demoralized by the revolutionary forces. On the fronts, fraternization with opponents began everywhere. And the defeat began. The Germans entered Riga, captured the Moondzun archipelago, located in the Baltic.
Operations in Belorussia and Galicia ended in defeat. The country was swept by a wave of defeatism, the demands for an exit from the war sounded louder and louder. The Bolsheviks used this brilliantly. Having proclaimed the Decree on Peace, they attracted to their side a significant part of the military who were tired of the war, from the incompetent leadership of military operations by the supreme command.
The country of the Soviets came out of the First World War without hesitation, concluding the Brest Peace with Germany in the March days of 1918. On the Western Front, military operations ended with the signing of the Compiegne Armistice Treaty. This happened in November 1918. The final results of the war were formalized in 1919 at Versailles, where a peace treaty was signed. Soviet Russia was not among the parties to this agreement.
Five periods of opposition
It is customary to divide the First World War into five periods. They are correlated with the years of confrontation. The first period falls on 1914. At this time, hostilities took place on two fronts. On the Western Front, Germany was at war with France. In the East - Russia collided with Prussia. But before the Germans turned their weapons against the French, they easily occupied Luxembourg and Belgium. Only after that they began to speak out against France.
Lightning war did not work. Firstly, France turned out to be a hard nut to crack, which Germany never managed to crack. On the other hand, Russia put up a worthy resistance. The plans of the German General Staff were not given to be realized.
In 1915 fighting between France and Germany alternated with long periods of calm. The Russians had a hard time. Poor supply was the main reason for the retreat of the Russian troops. They were forced to leave Poland and Galicia. This year has become tragic for the warring parties. A lot of fighters died on both sides. This stage in the war is the second.
The third stage is marked by two big events. One of them became the most bloody. This is the battle of the Germans and the French at Verdun. Over a million soldiers and officers were killed during the battle. Second important event was the Brusilovsky breakthrough. He entered the textbooks of the military educational institutions many countries, as one of the most ingenious battles in the history of wars.
The fourth stage of the war came in 1917. The bloodless German army was no longer capable not only of conquering other countries, but also of putting up serious resistance. Therefore, the Entente dominated the battlefields. The coalition troops are being reinforced by US military units, which have also joined the military bloc of the Entente. But Russia leaves this union in connection with the revolutions, first the February, then the October.
The final, fifth period of the First World War was marked by the conclusion of peace between Germany and Russia on very difficult and extremely unfavorable conditions for the latter. The Allies leave Germany, having made peace with the Entente countries. Revolutionary moods are maturing in Germany, defeatist moods are roaming in the army. As a result, Germany was forced to surrender.
Significance of World War I
The First World War was the largest, bloodiest for many countries that took part in it in the first quarter of the 20th century. The Second World War was still far away. And Europe tried to heal the wounds. They were significant. Approximately 80 million people, including military personnel and civilians, were killed or seriously injured.
In a very short period of time in five years, four empires ceased to exist. These are Russian, Ottoman, German, Austro-Hungarian. Plus, in Russia there was October Revolution which firmly and for a long time divided the world into two irreconcilable camps: communist and capitalist.
There have been tangible changes in the economies of countries that are in colonial dependence. Many ties in trade between countries were destroyed. With a reduction in the receipt of goods industrial production from the metropolises, the colonially dependent countries were forced to establish their own production. All this accelerated the process of development of national capitalism.
The war caused enormous damage to the agricultural production of the colonial countries. At the end of World War I, there was a surge of anti-war protests in the countries that participated in it. In some countries it has developed into revolutionary movement. Subsequently, following the example of the world's first country of socialism, parties of a communist orientation began to be created everywhere.
Following Russia, revolutions took place in Hungary and Germany. The revolution in Russia overshadowed the events of the First World War. Many heroes are forgotten, the events of those days are erased from memory. In Soviet times, there was an opinion that this war was senseless. To some extent, this may be true. But the sacrifices were not in vain. Thanks to the skillful military actions of the generals Alexei Brusilov? Pavel Rennenkampf, Alexander Samsonov, other military leaders, as well as the armies led by them, Russia defended its territories. Mistakes of military operations were adopted by the new military leaders and subsequently studied. The experience of this war helped to survive and win during the Great Patriotic War.
By the way, the leaders of Russia at the present time are calling for the use of the definition “Patriotic” in relation to the First World War. There are more and more insistent calls to announce the names of all the heroes of that war, to perpetuate them in history books, in new monuments. During the First World War, Russia once again showed that it knows how to fight and defeat any enemy.
Faced with a very serious enemy, Russian army fell under the onslaught of the internal enemy. And again there were human losses. It is believed that the First World War gave rise to revolutions in Russia and in other countries. The statement is controversial, as well as the fact that another result was Civil War which also claimed the lives of people.
It is important to understand something else. Russia survived a terrible hurricane of wars that devastated it. Survived, revived. Of course, today it is impossible to imagine how strong the state would be if there were no multimillion-dollar losses, if not for the destruction of cities and villages, and for the devastation of the most grain-growing fields in the world.
It is unlikely that anyone in the world understands this better than the Russians. And that is why they do not want war here, in whatever form it may be presented. But if a war happens, the Russians are ready to once again show all their strength, courage and heroism.
Notable was the creation in Moscow of the Society for the Remembrance of the First World War. The collection of data on that period is already underway, the documents are being examined. The Society is an international public organization. This status will help to receive materials from other countries.
Today no one remembers when it was World War I who fought with whom and because of what the conflict itself began. But millions of soldiers' graves all over Europe and modern Russia do not allow to forget about this bloody page of history, including our state.
Causes and inevitability of war.
The beginning of the last century was rather tense - revolutionary sentiments in Russian Empire with regular demonstrations and terrorist attacks, local military conflicts in the southern part of Europe, the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the exaltation of Germany.
All this did not happen in one day, the situation developed and escalated over decades and no one knew how to “blow off steam” and at least delay the start of hostilities.
By and large, each country had unsatisfied ambitions and claims against its neighbors, which, in the old fashioned way, they wanted to solve with the help of force of arms. It's just that they didn't take into account the fact that technical progress gave real "infernal machines" into human hands, the use of which led to a bloody massacre. It was with these words that veterans described many battles of that period.
The balance of power in Europe.
But in a war there are always two conflicting sides that are trying to get their way. During WWI, these were Entente and Central Powers.
In unleashing a conflict, it is customary to place all the blame on the losing side, so let's start with it. The list of Central Powers at various stages of the war included:
- Germany.
- Austria-Hungary.
- Turkey.
- Bulgaria.
There were only three states in the Entente:
- Russian empire.
- France.
- England.
Both alliances were formed at the end of the nineteenth century, and for some time they balanced the political and military forces in Europe.
The realization of the inevitable major war on several fronts at the same time often stopped them from making hasty decisions, but the situation could not continue like this for a long time.
What started World War I?
The first state to announce the start of hostilities was Austro-Hungarian Empire. As enemy spoke Serbia, which sought to unite under its command all the Slavs in the southern region. Apparently, this policy was not particularly liked by the restless neighbor, who did not want to get a powerful confederation at his side that could jeopardize the very existence of Austria-Hungary.
Reason for declaring war was the murder of the heir to the imperial throne, who was shot dead by Serbian nationalists. Theoretically, this would have ended - this is not the first time that two countries in Europe have declared war on each other and, with varying degrees of success, carried out offensive or defensive operations. But the fact is that Austria-Hungary was only a protege of Germany, which had long wanted to reshape the world order in its favor.
The reason was failed colonial policy of the country who got involved in this fight too late. One of the advantages of having a huge number of dependent states was the market, which was practically unlimited. Industrialized Germany desperately needed such a bonus, but could not get it. It was impossible to resolve the issue peacefully, the neighbors safely received their profits and did not burn with the desire to share with someone.
But the defeat in hostilities and the signing of surrender could somewhat change the situation.
Allied Member States.
From the above lists, it can be concluded that no more than 7 countries, but why then is the war called the World War? The fact is that each of the blocks had allies who entered the war or left it at certain stages:
- Italy.
- Romania.
- Portugal.
- Greece.
- Australia.
- Belgium.
- Japanese empire.
- Montenegro.
These countries did not make a decisive contribution to the overall victory, but we must not forget their active participation in the war on the side of the Entente.
In 1917, the United States joined this list, after another attack by a German submarine on a passenger ship.
The results of the war for the main participants.
Russia was able to fulfill the minimum plan for this war - ensure the protection of the Slavs in southern Europe. But the main objective was much more ambitious: control over the Black Sea straits could make our country a truly great maritime power.
But the then leadership did not succeed in dividing the Ottoman Empire and getting some of its most “tasty” fragments. And given the social tension in the country and the subsequent revolution, slightly different problems arose. The Austro-Hungarian Empire also ceased to exist - the worst economic and political consequences for the initiator.
France and England were able to gain a foothold in leading positions in Europe, thanks to impressive indemnities from Germany. But Germany was waiting for hyperinflation, the abandonment of the army, a severe crisis with the fall of several regimes. This led to the desire for revenge and the NSDAP at the head of state. But the United States was able to capitalize on this conflict, incurring minimal losses.
Do not forget about what the First World War is, who fought with whom and what horrors it brought to society. The growth of tension and the conflict of interests may once again lead to such irreparable consequences.
Video about the First World War