Historical and retrospective analysis of enterprise formation. Retrospective analysis of education management in Ukraine
Chapter 1. History of the study of the issue.
1.1. Sources.;.
1.2. Historiography.
Chapter 2. Cartographic Results geographical research territory of the Central Ciscaucasia in the XVIII - XIX centuries.
2.1. Central Ciscaucasia on the first Russian and foreign maps.
2.2. Cartographic materials on the territory of the Central Ciscaucasia in late XVIII- XIX centuries.
2.3. Formation and development of the planning structure of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia at the end of the 18th - early XIX centuries and their reflection in cartographic materials.
Chapter 3. Territorial development of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia in the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries.
3.1. General plans of cities from 1850 to 1900.
3.2. Urban growth from 1900 to 1950
3.3. Urban development in the second half of the 20th century.
Recommended list of dissertations in the specialty "History of science and technology", 07.00.10 VAK code
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Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) on the topic "Retrospective analysis of cartographic sources in the study of the territorial development of cities in the Central Ciscaucasia"
The relevance of the research topic is due to the poor knowledge of cartographic sources, on the basis of which the general plans of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia were created. Political and economic processes recent years led to a sharp jump in multi-storey construction, the fall of urban planning discipline, the emergence of peak situations with urban transport, engineering networks, service systems and other types of life support. Active new construction in modern large, medium and small cities has in most cases led to the destruction of historical structures, the destruction of low-rise historical buildings, and valuable architectural monuments. This, in turn, led to the loss of integrity, harmony of the architectural and spatial environment of historical zones, created the problem of studying, preserving, regenerating the historical environment.
The most important problem for the historical settlements and cities of the Central Ciscaucasia is their comprehensive reconstruction based on projects of protected zones, with a phased approach to regeneration, resuscitation of the historical environment, restoration and restoration of architectural monuments. In the process of complex reconstruction, it is necessary to analyze the genesis and formation of the structure of a historical settlement in inseparable unity with the landscape, which globally influences the creation of the communication framework of the settlement.
Now Stavropol and other cities of the Central Ciscaucasia are at a stage when their quantitative development has already led to the need for a qualitative transformation of general plans, the search for new compositions, the definition of a city growth strategy, the linkage and solution of many problems, often contradictory. There is a need, based on historical experience, to find the best way to develop the general plans of cities.
The trend towards an increase in the pace of urban development both in many cities of Russia as a whole and in the cities of the study region has led to uneven development of planning areas and inefficient use of urban land. The dynamism of modern urban planning processes taking place in the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia requires their description and research with a view to possible forecasting and regulation.
Cartographic sources of the past make it possible to form ideas about the initial stages of the development of cities in the region. Their analysis provides a historical basis for the formation of master plans, taking into account the features of the relief, economic and socio-political significance.
The object of the study is the history of mapping and development of cities in the Central Ciscaucasia.
The subject of the study is a reflection of the features of the formation of the urban environment and planning structure in historical maps graphic sources.
The aim of the work is a comprehensive historical and scientific study of the territorial development of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia on the basis of cartographic materials.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:
Conduct an analysis of cartographic sources (topographic surveys, schemes, plans, maps) of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia, starting from the 18th century.
Reveal the features of the emergence and development of cities in the Central Ciscaucasia in the XVIII - XIX centuries.
Determine the importance of the fortresses of the Azov-Mozdok defensive line as city-forming elements.
Consider the influence of the main state trends of the 18th - 19th centuries on the formation of the planning structure of cities.
To characterize the territorial development of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia in the 20th century.
theoretical and methodological basis studies are the work of V.G. Gnilovsky1, who proposed geographical and toponymic methods in the study of historical maps and plans; MM. Tikhomirova, who described the possibilities of using maps of general land surveying to study the dynamics of landscapes; L.G. Beskrovny, JLA Goldenberg2, B.A. Rybakova3, K.A. Salishchev4, who prioritizes visual analysis of maps; B.C. Kusova, B.C. Zhekulina5, A.B. Postnikov6 devoted to the subject and methods of historical geography; A.M. Berlyant7, who considers the description by maps as a way of qualitatively characterizing the depicted phenomena; V.P. Maksakovskii8, whose classification includes such general geographic methods as descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographic, quantitative, geoinformational; N.V. Piotukh9, I.K. Lurie10, who substantiated the geoinformation technique in a retrospective analysis of sources.
The dissertation student used historical-geographical, comparative-geographical, comparative-toponymic methods and geoinformation technologies, as well as system method research, the basis of which is the unity in the socio-historical development of the individual, special and general, a system-functional approach that allows us to consider the sphere of urban life as a process. One of the aspects of the system-functional approach is the study of the urban environment, or urban space, its main functional elements.
The scientific novelty of the dissertation research is as follows:
A number of previously unknown cartographic sources are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.
Based on the analysis of historical plans, the stages of formation of the planning structure of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia are considered, which make it possible to determine the boundaries of the zones of protection of objects of historical and cultural heritage.
The modern urban planning situation that has developed in the cities of the region during the transitional period for our country, which began in 1991, has been studied.
The reasons contributing to the emergence and formation of the process of differentiated development of the territories of the planning districts of Stavropol and the cities of the Caucasian Mineral Waters region and the inefficient use of urban lands in 1991-2007 are identified.
The practical significance of the study is as follows:
On the basis of extensive cartographic material, it is possible to improve the quality of reconstruction of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia, individual city-forming objects and complexes, to simplify research phase during the reconstruction;
The features of the evolution of the planning structures of cities and the nature of development, identified in the work, can contribute to further research in the field of the history of urban planning of Stavropol, cities
Caucasian Mineralnye Vody and others, as well as the development of architectural and planning structures of cities beyond the period under review;
The material accumulated as a result of the study can become a solid basis for a cartographic base for creating interactive maps, modeling the processes of territorial development of cities in the region, will allow us to discover and use information that is not contained in other types of sources.
Approbation of work. Particular provisions of the dissertation were reflected in the reports at scientific conferences: "Issues of physical geography and local history" - the 52nd scientific and methodological conference "University science - the region" (Stavropol, 2007), "Outpost in the North Caucasus" - urban scientific and practical conference of the Stavropol regional branch of VOOPIIK (Stavropol, 2007), "Issues of physical geography and local history" - the 53rd scientific and methodological conference "University science - to the region" (Stavropol, 2008), Regional scientific conference "History of science and technology in the North Caucasus region: formation and development prospects" (Stavropol, 2008), "Issues of physical geography and local history" - the 54th scientific and methodological conference "University science for the region" (Stavropol, 2009), "Cities of Russia: problems of construction, engineering support, improvement and Ecology" - XI International Scientific and Practical Conference (Penza, 2009), "Issues of Physical Geography and Local Lore" - 55th Scientific academic conference "University Science for the Region" (Stavropol, 2010).
The structure and volume of the dissertation are determined by the tasks set and the research methodology, built on the principle of a comprehensive retrospective analysis and consideration of each stage of the evolution of the planning structure and the nature of urban development. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of sources and references, an application (maps, plans, diagrams).
Dissertation conclusion on the topic "History of science and technology", Romanenko, Evgeny Vladimirovich
CONCLUSION
A retrospective analysis of cartographic sources for the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia allows us to conclude:
1. Mapping of the territory of the studied region was carried out long before the appearance of cities here.
2. Until the 16th century, most of the cartographic sources were of foreign origin. This is due to the fact that Russian drawings have not survived, but many facts indicate that foreign cartographers used Russian maps.
3. Since the territory of the Central Ciscaucasia was a zone of strategic interest of the Russian state, Turkey, Iran and Great Britain, a large number of cartographic sources are various military maps and topographic surveys made by the military department as a result of reconnaissance of the area.
4. Cartographic sources make it possible to trace the basic principles of the formation of the structure of a particular settlement, to identify the historical core - a special historically significant territory.
5. According to the historical maps and plans of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia, one can trace the trends and direction of the territorial growth of the urban structure.
6. The cartographic material accumulated as a result of the study can become a solid basis for creating an extensive cartographic base for creating interactive maps for modeling the processes of territorial development of cities in the region.
The importance of involving cartographic sources in the process of studying phenomena is not limited to practical application.
Recently, the development and understanding of the map as a graphic image that contributes to the spatial understanding of objects, ideas, conditions, processes and events has been developed.
The scientific description of cartographic sources and their more active inclusion in local history research is presented to the author promising direction in the process of studying the historical past and modern life of the region of the Central Ciscaucasia.
The analysis of the emergence of various planning areas (planning formations) in the structure of the cities of the Central Ciscaucasia, carried out in the dissertation, as its territorial and planning development, changes in the functional saturation of the territories of planning areas and socio-spatial structures of cities, made it possible to describe the dynamics of interaction between the territories of planning areas in the course of changing social and economic conditions throughout the history of urban development in the region, and to reveal that the uneven development of various urban areas, accompanied by inefficient use of a significant share of urban land, aggravated during periods of complex socio-economic changes in the history of our country.
In the course of the analysis of the development of functional groups of urban areas, the main factors of urban development of planning areas and priority functional groups of urban areas (that is, in the development of which functional groups of urban areas the largest amount of funds was invested) were identified at various stages of urban evolution.
Modern master plans of cities provide and should provide for a development concept for a sufficiently long period of time. They should provide space for the expansion of bedrooms, industrial areas, markets, office buildings, etc. Modern urban development does not have such a clear character. Modern buildings are beautiful in their own way, but sometimes they do not harmonize with the historical part of the city where they are located.
Designing and drawing up a plan for the development of the city is not possible without taking into account a number of parameters: terrain, proximity to water bodies, communication routes, etc. Therefore, the experience, the developments that have been done in the past, according to the author of this study, modern designers have no right to reject, but must take into account, adapt to the realities of not only today, but also tomorrow.
Cartographic materials make it possible to identify the most significant prerequisites for the formation of a system of settlement and development of cities that operated in different periods, to establish the features of the evolution of planning structures of cities at each stage of their development, to determine the nature of urban development at various stages of evolution.
The planning structure of the historical center of the city is the most stable system in maintaining the configuration of planning boundaries and directions for the development of the settlement; reflects the urban aesthetics, functional and economic structure and natural and landscape features of the territory, and is also part of the historical and cultural heritage.
According to the stages of urban development, fixed in the city plan in the form of historical boundaries certain period, it is possible to determine the features of the planning organization of the territory of an urban settlement. A retrospective analysis of the city plans showed that, despite the rapid growth of the territory in the initial period, the planning structure of the cities of the region was formed on the basis of general patterns. Historical and cultural potential central parts cities (the number of objects of cultural heritage) allows us to call them historical by right, and not just because of their official status.
As a result of identifying and studying various sources on the territory of the Central Ciscaucasia, the following types of cartographic works can be distinguished:
Topographic maps of the territory Russian Empire(including those issued by the General Staff of the Russian Army at the end of the 18th - 20th centuries); USSR, Russian Federation;
Administrative maps, both of individual counties, individual districts, and of the whole Stavropol province (Stavropol Territory), Terek region;
Military maps, plans of fortresses, schemes of fortified lines;
Boundary (maps for private land holdings and disputed lands);
Road (maps of railways, waterways and highways);
Tourist, both historical and modern;
Church (or diocesan) with an indication of the boundaries of diocesan possessions;
Plans (topographic surveys) and master plans of cities and individual villages;
Separate issues of maps in highly specialized areas (engineering, geological and hydrogeological, etc.);
Foreign maps compiled by travelers, research scientists, various agents of foreign intelligence services;
Original cartographic sources are playing cards and postcards from the collections of the Russian National Library.
Thus, the study and analysis of various cartographic materials makes it possible to more fully trace the process of development of the territory of the region of the Central Ciscaucasia. Cartographic sources carry rich information on the history of the emergence and development of settlements, industrial enterprises, road construction, etc.
In the course of a retrospective analysis of historical plans, the main historical stages in the formation and development of the planning structure of the cities of the region were determined, which were divided into periods in accordance with the natural sequence in the urbanization of the natural landscape.
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THE PLACE OF PEDAGOGY IN THE SYSTEM OF HUMAN SCIENCES
Mankind has long tried to generalize and use the successful experience of preparing the younger generation for independent living and labor. Over time, these efforts were embodied in the emergence of pedagogical and psychological sciences. Psychology studies and explains the inner, spiritual world a person, conditions, factors and features of regulatory influences on him; Pedagogy develops models, systems, methods and content-technological support of purposeful training, education, education, personal development. The German philosopher I. Kant (1747–1804) once wrote: “If there is a science that a person really needs, then this is the one ... from which you can learn what you need to be in order to be a person”. Experience convinces us that success in personal life and professional activity a person, among other reasons, depends on whether he knows the essence of the pedagogical reality surrounding him, psychological, age, gender characteristics of the personality; whether he understands the influence of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and factors on a person’s life, his personal and Professional Development; can he take them into account Everyday life and labor activity in solving problematic, conflict situations. The psychological and pedagogical culture of a personality is a set of those psychological and pedagogical knowledge and means by which a person consciously, purposefully and freely creates and realizes himself, organizes his interaction with others in the process of improving activity and communication. In the structure of psychological and pedagogical culture, two components are distinguished - psychological and pedagogical, which are implemented at two levels: the general one, which provides a person with a decent life in society, and the professional one, which contributes to achieving success in the chosen work activity.
"Pedagogy" is a word of Greek origin (peyda - child, gogos - news), literally it is translated as "child-bearing", "child-rearing" or the art of education. AT Ancient Greece"Pedagogos" was a slave who was engaged in the education and upbringing of the child of his master. In Russia this word appeared along with the pedagogical, historical and philosophical heritage of ancient civilization and the pedagogical values of Byzantium and other countries. It is known that ancient Russian literature had its own canonical genre "educational literature", which included instructional texts. In Russia, as in other countries, it has been created for centuries original educational culture developing pedagogical self-awareness and the need to develop certain rules and instructions and pass them on to children. So at the very early stage of the emergence of society, there was a need to pass on experience from generation to generation. Therefore, the practice of education was originally defined as the transfer of people's life experience from the older generation to the younger in order to prepare for independent living.
Initially, pedagogical thought took shape in the form of separate judgments and statements - a kind of pedagogical commandments. Their topic was the rules of conduct and relationships between parents and children, people. Thus, pedagogy is based on the idea of a purposeful process of transferring human experience and preparing the younger generation for life and work. The history of the development of Russian pedagogical self-awareness according to P.F. Kapterev, an outstanding Russian teacher of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, goes through three periods: church, state and public.
The origins of theoretical pedagogical thought are contained in the works of the great ancient philosophers - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
A powerful impetus to the development of pedagogy was given by the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries). In 1623, the Englishman Francis Bacon (1561-1626) singled out pedagogy from the system of philosophical sciences as an independent science. From the 17th century, pedagogical thought began to rely on the data of the advanced pedagogical experience. The German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571–1635) developed the meaningful concepts of education and the corresponding methodology, setting the criterion for pedagogical research.
A great contribution to the creation of the scientific foundations of pedagogy was made by the great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). He substantiated the need for education and upbringing in accordance with the nature of the child, developed a system of principles of education based on objective laws, created a class-lesson system of education, and laid the foundations for classical or traditional education.
Many progressive ideas have been introduced into pedagogical science and practice by the works of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) in Holland, J. Locke (1632-1704) - in England, J.J. Rousseau (1712–1778), K.A. Helvetia (1715-1771) and D. Diderot (1713-1784) - in France, I.G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827) - in Switzerland, I.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and A. Diesterweg (1790-1866) - in Germany, J. Korczak (1878-1942) - in Poland, D. Dewey (1859-1952) - in the USA, etc. The religious nature of education was gradually overcome, the content of classical education was expanded, and native language, history, geography, natural science. In the 19th century there are real (with a predominance of natural-mathematical subjects) and professional schools, including those for the training of teachers. Thus, pedagogy was formed as an academic discipline.
A notable milestone in the development of Russian pedagogy was the theoretical and practical work of Simeon of Polotsk (1629–1680), under whose supervision Peter I was brought up in childhood. crucial in education, the example of parents and teachers, believed that the development of feelings and reason should be carried out purposefully.
Domestic pedagogical thought fruitfully developed in the works of M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765), N.I. Novikov (1744–1818), N.I. Pirogov (1810–1881), K.D. Ushinsky (1824–1870), L.N. Tolstoy (1828–1910), P.F. Kapterev (1849–1922) and others.
During the period of socialist development In our country, the school became free, public (regardless of the nationality and social status of children), secular (freed from the influence of the church), and general secondary education became compulsory. The education system was built on the ideas of forming a comprehensively developed personality, continuity and continuity of education, combining education with labor and social work, education in a team and through a team, a clear organization and management of the pedagogical process, a combination of high demands with respect for the personal dignity of students, a personal example of a teacher etc. The foundations of such education were developed in the works of N.K. Krupskaya (1869–1939), S.T. Shatsky (1878–1934), P.P. –1939), V.A. Sukhomlinsky (1918–1970) and others. In the last decades of the 20th century. interesting pedagogical ideas for activating learning, problem-based and developmental learning, pedagogical cooperation, personality formation were developed by scientists-teachers Yu.K.Babansky, V.V.Davydov, I.Ya. Lerner, M.I. Makhmutov, M.A. Danilov, N.K. Goncharov, B.T. Likhachev, P.I. teachers-innovators Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.N. Ilyin and others.
HISTORICAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER SOCIOLOGICAL
EDUCATION IN RUSSIA:
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS
Sakovich S.M.
MGPU, Moscow
The article discusses the periods of development of domestic sociology based on the principle of continuity about the accumulated potential of sociological science, sufficient to participate in the social renewal of the country, the transformation of scientific knowledge into economics, politics and culture, adequate to global trends in the development of civilization.
Keywords Keywords: sociological research, innovative direction, sociological schools.
HISTORICAL TENDENCIES OF
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER
SOCIOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA:
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS
Sakovich S.M.
MCPU, Moscow
The author describes the periods of development of sociology science in Russia on the basis of the principle of continuity of the cumulative sociological knowledge, which could be transformed into the economics, politics and culture, being adequate to the global trends of the civilization development.
key words: sociological research, innovative area, sociological schools.
In the development of domestic sociology, it is customary to distinguish three periods - pre-Soviet, Soviet and post-Soviet. In fact, each new stage is considered as autonomous and begins with a negation of the achievements of the previous one. Domestic sociology developed on the basis of the principle of continuity. Recognition of continuity as a factor in the evolution of science should be supplemented by an understanding of the impact on domestic sociology of certain scientific schools, political and other events that took place both in the country and in the world.
Domestic sociology, as well as many other social and humanitarian sciences, starting with philosophy, was formed both on its own basis and under the influence of the “European socio-sociological spirit” . In this sense, the success of O. Comte's "positive philosophy" in Russia in the second half of the 19th century is not accidental. For the perception of actual social theory in Russia, the necessary internal conditions have been formed. In the second half of the 19th century, Russia was moving onto the rails of a new, industrial civilization, which led to the exacerbation of old and the emergence of new social problems. With the help of the old social philosophy these problems could not be solved. There was a need for new, more accurate knowledge, and the need for a rational explanation caused by the real situation social processes led to the development of domestic sociology in the tradition of positivism. In addition, a layer of intellectually rich, self-sufficient, critically thinking intelligentsia appeared in Russia, capable of not only accepting the sociology of O. Comte, but also developing it in relation to the Russian reality of the 19th century. The economic-materialistic school has also become widespread, i.e. Marxist. Without the sociological heritage of K. Marx, K. Kautsky, E. Bernstein, P. L. Lavrov, N.K. Mikhailovsky, G.V. Plekhanov, P.A. Sorokin and other authoritative researchers of socio-political and economic reality, it is difficult to develop and substantiate the modern sociology of labor and employment, wealth and poverty, market relations, the sociology of power, politics and management.
It is known that the events of 1917 became a kind of dividing line for the development of domestic sociological science. The fate of the sociologists of this period turned out to be difficult. And yet, the chain of succession was not interrupted even at this time. The first department of sociology in Russia was established in 1919 in the second Petrograd State University. Since 1920, it was headed by P.A. Sorokin. In the post-revolutionary period, one of the innovative areas of sociological research was the study of social problems of management, labor and production, carried out by several research teams. Chief among them were the Central Institute of Labor (CIT) in Moscow under the leadership of A.K. Gastev and the All-Ukrainian Institute of Labor in Kharkov under the leadership of F.R. Dunayevsky. The scientific works of N.A. Vitke, O.A. Yermansky, P.M. Kerzhentsev. In essence, the foundations of domestic applied sociology were laid in the activities of these institutions and researchers. Of great scientific and practical importance were studies of topical problems of labor and employment, conducted under the leadership of S.G. Strumilin. The subsequent development of Russian sociology is associated with the creation in 1958 of the Soviet Sociological Association, whose chairman was Yuri Pavlovich Frantsev. An important role in the creation of the Association was played by G.V. Osipov. The next step in this direction was the Decree of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR "On measures to improve the organization and coordination of specific social research" and the creation of the Scientific Council. In 1960, a department of sociology was opened at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences (G.V. Osipov). Sociological research laboratories were established at the philosophical faculties of Leningrad and Moscow universities (V.A. Yadov, Yu.V. Arutyunyan, R.I. Kosolapov, G.M. Andreeva). In 1968, the Institute for Concrete Social Research began its work.
The rapid growth of sociology began in the 60s of the last century in universities and academic institutions in Leningrad (St. Petersburg), Moscow, Sverdlovsk (Yekaterinburg), Novosibirsk, Gorky and other cities. Active participation in the revival of sociology was taken by G.V. Osipov, A.A. Zvorykin, T.I. Zaslavskaya, I.S. Kon, A.T. Kharchev, O.I. Shkaratan, V.N. Shubkin and other researchers. Sociological literature began to be published, periodic collections "Social Research" and "Information Bulletin of the SSA" were published. On the basis of research at the enterprises of the Urals and Leningrad, collective monographs “The rise of the cultural and technical level of the Soviet working class” (1961) were published; "Man and his work" (1967). In 1965, a generalizing work of sociologists was published - a collective monograph “Sociology in the USSR. T. 1, 2". In 1969, the collection "Issues of Organization of the Methodology of Concrete Sociological Research" was published. During this period, all domestic sociologists representing various schools and areas of sociological science received higher professional education.
The development of sociology gained particular momentum in the late 1980s. During these years, a network of scientific academic and applied institutes, centers, foundations, departments, faculties developed, and the training of professional sociologists was launched. To the list scientific specialties directions in sociological sciences were introduced, postgraduate and doctoral studies were opened. Sociological societies, associations, guilds were created: the Russian Society of Sociologists (1989), the Russian Sociological Society. M. M. Kovalevsky (1993), Commonwealth of Professional Sociologists (1993), Guild of Public Opinion and Market Researchers (1997), Russian Sociological Association (2003). One cannot help but recall the scientific communities that unite researchers - social scientists working in the subject field of sociology: the Russian Academy of Social Sciences (1993), the Association of Political Consulting Centers (1995), the Russian Association of Political Science (1991), the Association of Young Political Scientists (2002), etc. Scientific communities undoubtedly contribute to the formation of a social environment for creativity, act as a social mechanism for the accumulation of new knowledge, a guarantee of its high quality.
Many researchers took full advantage of the new opportunities opened up in the 1990s to expand subject area sociology, conducting sociological research on the most significant problems. The expansion of the institutional base of sociological research has made it possible to conduct independent research on any topic. The availability of Western sociological literature and methods opened up the possibility of taking into account the developments of both Russian and foreign specialists, and conducting joint comparative studies. New areas of sociological knowledge have been developed: sociology of management, political sociology, ethnosociology, sociology of youth, sociology of the family, sociology social sphere, sociology of the region, sociology of migration, sociology of conflict, sociology of marketing and a number of other sociological areas. Academic institutes (ISPI RAS and IS RAS) became the leading centers for the development of sociology.
University science developed dynamically. In the 80-90s of the last century, sociological schools were formed at Moscow State University (V.I. Dobrenkov), St. Petersburg State University (A.O. Boronoev, N.G. Skvortsov, A.I. Kuropyatnik), RSSU (V.I. Zhukov , V. N. Kovalev, G. I. Osadchaya, T. N. Yudina, O. A. Urzha, I. V. Sokolova, D. K. Tanatova), Moscow State Institute of International Relations (S. A. Kravchenko). Authoritative regional scientific schools appeared: in Novosibirsk (T.I. Zaslavskaya, R.V. Ryvkina, V.N. Shubin), in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Ufa (L.N. Kogan, N.A. Aitov, Z.I. Fainberg, G.E. Zborovsky, L.Ya. Rubina), in Altai (S.I. Grigoriev), in Rostov-on-Don (Yu.G. Volkov), in Nizhny Novgorod (S.S. Balabanov) , in Samara (E.F. Molevich), in Saratov (V.N. Yarskaya-Smirnova) and others. Recognition of the contribution of sociologists to the development of fundamental social science was the expansion of the representation of sociology as a scientific discipline in Russian Academy Sciences. As part of the department social sciences The RAS is actively working two academicians, seven corresponding members of the RAS: M.K. Gorshkov, V.N. Ivanov, A.V. Dmitriev, V.N. Kuznetsov, N.I. Lapin, Zh. T. Toshchenko, R. G. Yanovsky. The overcoming of perestroika problems by Russian sociology has received international recognition: after a 15-year break in governing bodies Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, V. A. Mansurov was elected to the ESA Nominating Committee, Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor, G. I. Osadchaya, to the governing bodies of the International Sociological Association - Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor, N. E. Pokrovsky. Over the years, a fund of monographic literature on sociology has been created, and real conditions have been formed for the publication of scientific works of sociologists.
At the same time, during the formation and development of sociology, quite a few controversial issues have accumulated both within sociological science itself and in relation to the assessment by government institutions of the significance of ongoing sociological research. The most acute problem was the quality of fundamental and applied research. This problem remains relevant today. An effective system of training highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel has not been developed. The material and technical base is weak. The influx of scientific youth into fundamental science has been reduced. There are still many open questions about the problems of conducting full-scale sociological research concerning the most complex social problems of the country. Along with this, it has become fashionable among politicians and officials to “frame” their speeches with sociological data, giving them an air of scientific character. There has been a pragmatic approach to sociological research: only those of them are funded, the results of which can be immediately put into practice. Fundamental social theory, long-term forecasts remain unclaimed.
At the moment, domestic sociology has accumulated the potential sufficient for significant participation in the social renewal of the country, the transformation of scientific knowledge into economics, politics and culture, adequate to the global trends in the development of civilization. To realize the accumulated potential, it is necessary to consolidate the sociological community, create conditions for the further dynamic development of sociological science, and strengthen its influence on social progress and the formation of civil society.
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The study of the historical aspect of the issue under consideration showed that in domestic psychology and pedagogy has repeatedly emphasized the need for constant conjugation educational material with the logic of emotional acceptance by children, the importance of emotional regulation of cognitive and other types of children's activities, the need to influence emotional sphere personality in the process of formation of knowledge, skills, intellectual and artistic abilities.
Thus, the method of emotional coloring images perceived by children, proposed by K. D. Ushinsky. The essence of this method was the perception by children of the best examples of Russian folk art, Russian nature when getting acquainted with the works fiction, painting.
Noting that the child “thinks in forms, colors, sounds, sensations in general”, the great Russian teacher saw the special significance of this method in the implementation of the content educational work, namely in the implementation of the tasks of moral, aesthetic education. The approaches proposed by K. D. Ushinsky were further developed in the works of V. V. Gorinevsky, E. I. Tikheeva, L. I. Chulitskaya, M. I. Morozova and others.
S. T. Shatsky in the theoretical substantiation of his educational system considers the possibility of influencing children's emotions through the use of the method of aesthetic organization of children's life. This method consisted in fixing the feelings of children on the beautiful, elegant through the aesthetic design of the environment (interior), as well as encouraging children to carry out various types of artistic activities.
V. A. Sukhomlinsky attached great importance children's emotions as a means of education and knowledge of the world around, which can be traced already in the name of the school he created, which he called the "School of Joy". Based on the values of folk pedagogy, V. A. Sukhomlinsky showed the practical significance of such forms of emotional influence on children as folk holidays (“Song Festival”, “Flower Festival”), a journey into nature, children's communication with art, creative work. Folk art, nature were considered by the teacher not only as a source of spiritual development of the individual, but also as a source of various emotions.
A. S. Makarenko noted the need for emotional richness educational process, and he had in mind not just the saturation of this process with a variety of experiences of children, but a thoughtful awakening of feelings associated with a specific object, event, activity. As part of his theory of the formation of a children's team, the Soviet teacher showed the expediency of using the method of "switching passions", which was based on the promising idea of "tomorrow's joy". In the use of this method, A. S. Makarenko saw the possibilities of the moral formation of a growing personality.
In the didactic system of L. V. Zankov, the idea of emotional impact on children is revealed in the context of the integral development of the personality: the development of the mind, will and emotions. Considering emotions as the basis of the spiritual needs of the child, especially the needs for cognition, L. V. Zapkov noted the need for mandatory inclusion of emotions in the learning process. Among the methods of emotional influence, he assigned an important place to visualization. According to L. V. Zankov, visual methods make it possible to reveal to children artistic images that embody lofty thoughts and feelings. Literature, music, visual arts stand out among the means of emotional influence.
In the works of psychologists and teachers associated with preschool children, various ways of influencing the emotional sphere are described. So, A. D. Kosheleva substantiates the need to influence the nature of children's experiences in situations of moral choice.
The deliberate creation of such situations awakens the humane ways of children's behavior, the content of the projected emotions: compassion, empathy; contributes to the development of emotional decentering. The procedural side of influencing the emotional sphere consists in setting a social and moral task, focusing on emotional experiences, and inducing value judgments.
L.P. Strelkova shows the need for the formation of the so-called empathic chains(empathy, empathy, internal assistance and external assistance) that unfold in empathogenic situations that encourage children to show emotional responsiveness. The content basis of such work is a fairy tale, and the methods are game dramatization.
The important role of visual and game methods as ways of sensual world knowledge, creation and support of an emotionally positive atmosphere was emphasized in the works of R. S. Bure, L. A. Venger, T. S. Komarova, M. I. Lisina, A. P. Usova , O. P. Radynova, etc. At the same time, the procedural aspects of building education in the aspect of directed influence on emotions, the complex of methods itself, which is built taking into account the specifics of the forms of emotional response, were not specially considered by the authors.
Methods of emotionally mediated development of children are among the specific and at the same time universal. To specific they are related because they are aimed at awakening emotions, updating the attitude of children to the objects of knowledge, the values of life, culture. universal these methods are because they can be used when mastering the content not only in a group of activities with a leading emotional component, but also in a group of activities with a leading intellectual-cognitive and activity-practical components.
This group of methods is built with a focus on progressively more complex forms of emotional response: brief emotional reactions, emotional differentiation, identification and isolation. Given the uniqueness of each form of emotional response, as well as the noted sequence of their manifestation throughout preschool childhood, this group of methods can be characterized:
- 1) method of emotional and sensory influence, which is based on the mechanism of short-term emotional reactions. It is the initial in the whole set of methods aimed at updating brief emotional reactions in the process of education and is used from the early preschool age;
- 2) contrast method, built on the mechanism of emotional differentiation (awakening of opposite emotions) in order to develop an emotional-value attitude to cognizable objects, social phenomena, etc. It is introduced into the practice of education, starting from middle preschool age;
- 3) empathy method, built on the mechanism of identification, awakening aesthetic, moral emotions. It is introduced into the practice of education, starting from the middle preschool age;
- 4) method of emotional-figurative influence based on the mechanism of emotional isolation. It aims to encourage children to transfer emotional experiences in a figurative embodiment, to the embodiment of the subjective content of the emotion experienced by the child. The method is actively used in senior preschool age; in middle preschool age, it is used mainly at the level of imitation.
The first stage (1985-1991). During the period of perestroika, small business was included in the general, government-supported process of the rapid development of the cooperative movement. Both the denationalization and the training of the broad masses of the population in the basics of entrepreneurship took place through the development of cooperation and small business. The central government tried to somehow limit the possibility of obtaining inflated income from the difference between fixed prices of the public sector and free prices of non-state enterprises, regulate the activities of the MP, use the levers of taxation, while demonstrating the obvious incapacity of the state apparatus.
Second stage (1992-1994) characterized by the advancement of the economic problems of small business. The significance of the role and place of small business in creating a competitive economic environment for a new economic system is stated. The contours of the concept of supporting small business are maturing, priorities in its development are being determined. Regulations are issued to regulate the relations of enterprises with other participants in the market economy. However, these resolutions remained only a declaration. And although at the beginning of this stage there was a process of mass founding of small enterprises, their share in the sphere of material production in the overall structure of domestic small business has declined sharply. In addition, there was an increase in the criminal and criminal nature of many processes in small business, which is associated with the lack of stable, established norms and rules of business ethics, the presence of "state racketeering" and criminal racketeering.
At the third stage (1995-1998) the focus of economic policy on creating a concept for the development of small business in our country is clearly visible. Specific measures of real assistance to small businesses throughout the country are being developed with the provision of independence to the regions in solving these problems. However, small-scale production with its unique entrepreneurial potential is still an outsider in the economic field of our country and does not adequately solve those problems in the economy that could be solved with the help of small business. This situation is explained by the peculiarities of the general state of the domestic economy, which is characterized by a severe crisis, investment hunger, and the collapse of economic ties.
Another feature of economic life is the processes of concentration and centralization of capital, which lead to the absorption of small enterprises, their merger. The level of activity of large enterprises has not yet been formed, when they become economic entities interested in and initiating the creation of small enterprises.
The problem of obtaining loans, which are vital for entrepreneurs, remains very acute. Moreover, the lack of finance for a novice entrepreneur often becomes the main problem in general.
A significant factor hindering the civilized development of domestic small business is the criminality and criminalization of the small business itself.
Small enterprises are actively diversifying their economic activities and strengthening their investment policy. One can observe shifts in the general culture of doing business. There is an increase in the activity of small enterprises in the regions where the conditions are clearly ripe for the effective use of the potential of small business in the interests of economic growth, and the restoration of economic and business activity of the population throughout the country.
However, it was still premature to talk about the true development of entrepreneurship in Russia. The position of the majority of manufacturers was monopolistic; a genuine competitive environment for the activities of small enterprises has not yet been formed, especially in the manufacturing sector.
If we evaluate the process of development and functioning of small business as a whole, we can say that it proceeded quite successfully. The events of August 1998 became a milestone for the development of domestic small business. Small and medium enterprises can be considered the main victims of the August crisis. According to official data, after August 1998, 25 to 35% of small enterprises actually ceased their activities.
Today, analyzing the causes of the crisis, experts come to the conclusion that during 1997 the causes accumulated, forming a "debt trap" that slammed shut in August 1998. Among these reasons are the unevenness and incompleteness of reforms, the lag in structural reforms and the formation of the institutional framework of a market economy. A negative role was also played by the deterioration of the global situation - a significant drop in export earnings, an increase in the cost of capital, caution and an outflow of foreign investors, and a risky borrowing policy. At the same time, political instability and the change of cabinets of ministers did not contribute to a clear analysis of the threats and the scale of potential losses. Based on all this, the country's involvement in the crisis could have been predicted.
The crisis that has been brewing for a long time and, in the end, has broken out has already been recognized as the most acute cataclysm, at least since the autumn of 1991. Its immediate consequences were significant financial losses incurred by many economic entities, temporary paralysis of the payment and settlement system, the virtual cessation of external lending to Russian companies and the state, a sharp acceleration in the decline in real production, a large-scale curtailment of activities in the most advanced market sectors of the Russian economy (banking, information and publishing , advertising, trade), a noticeable increase in unemployment, and among the most qualified, energetic and enterprising part of the population, a significant reduction in real incomes, a decrease in the standard of living of the population. The profit of enterprises and organizations in 1998 decreased by more than 40%.
During the default, the goal of many businessmen was not to make a profit, but at least to maintain their own business in the face of severe inflation and the impoverishment of most of the population. Nevertheless, entrepreneurs managed not only to “survive” during the crisis, but also to regain lost positions in a short time. In addition, they have accumulated significant experience in dealing with crisis situations.
In the course of Russian reforms and, especially, as a result of the August 1998 crisis, business representatives developed certain negative behavior patterns from the point of view of the development of the country's economy as a whole: distrust of large private banks; preference for keeping savings in cash and abroad; distrust of domestic government securities. The crisis of 1998 and the methods of overcoming it dispelled the hopes of some representatives of these strata to withdraw their activities from the sphere of the shadow economy and, accordingly, legalize their income and savings. However, in 1999-2000 there was an economic recovery that had a positive impact on the middle strata, who are associated with growing industries.
For the fourth stage (1999 - 2003) it becomes characteristic to provide favorable conditions for the development of small business on the basis of improving the quality and efficiency of state support measures at the federal level.
At the moment (2004) in Russia, entrepreneurship is not yet fully fulfilling its functions, since it was born in an unformed market society. Modern Russian entrepreneurs, as a rule, do not have the appropriate vocational training Moreover, they have to carry out their activities in conditions of an insufficiently stable economy, imperfection of the legislative and tax systems, corruption, and bureaucracy. Therefore, Russian business bears a number of negative features: the lack of an entrepreneurial culture, low law-abidingness, orientation towards quick enrichment, sometimes to the detriment of the company. Although, in my opinion, by creating favorable conditions for the development of small and medium-sized businesses in Russia, it is possible to obtain a stable base for the formation of the middle class, which later can include traditional middle class groups such as non-production intelligentsia, highly skilled workers, managers, engineers and technicians and others.
As world experience shows, small business is a powerful lever for solving a whole range of socio-economic problems: the formation of a middle class of owners; creation of a progressive structure of the economy and a competitive environment; ensuring employment of the population by creating new enterprises and jobs; saturation of the market with a variety of goods and services, etc.
Bibliographic link
Bogadelina I.A. RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA // Uspekhi modern natural science. - 2005. - No. 1. - P. 42-43;URL: http://natural-sciences.ru/ru/article/view?id=7803 (date of access: 01/15/2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"